外文翻译---浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能

浅谈环保节能状态下暖通空调的新技术中英文The new technology of HVAC energy saving and environmental protection under thestate of暖通空调是分户的中央空调,是能够创造一种舒适的室内环境。

而家居分体的空调只能解决冷暖问题，解决不了空气处理过程。

笔者结合环保节能背景谈谈暖通空调的新技术，对同行从业者具有一定的指导和参考价值。

HVAC is the household central air conditioning, is able to create a comfortable indoor environment. And home furnishing split air-conditioning can only solve the heating problems, solve the air handling process. According to the energy saving technology background about HVAC, have guidance and reference value in fellow practitioners.一、暖通空调新技术基本内容A new HVAC technology, basic content（一）空调系统类型( a ) type of air conditioning system1、按照使用目的，空调可分为：舒适空调---要求温度适宜，环境舒适，对温湿度的调节精度无严格要求、用于住房、办公室等环境等。

工艺空调---对温度有一定的调节精度要求，另外空气的洁净度也要有较高的要求。

用于电子生产车间、机房等。

1, in accordance with the purpose of use, air conditioning can be divided into: - Requirements of comfort air conditioning temperature, comfortable environment, no strict requirements, for housing, office environment of temperature and humidity regulation accuracy. Process air conditioning - have a regulatory requirement to the accuracy of the temperature, the air cleanness also have higher requirements. Used in electronic production workshop, machine.2、按照空气处理方式，可分为：集中式（中央）空调---空气处理设备集中在中央空调室里，处理过的空气通过风管送至各房间的空调系统。

浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能能源问题成为全球性问题，能源短缺将制约这我们可持续性发展。

暖通空调在给我们带来舒适条件的同时也带来了大量的能源损耗，因此我们需要实现暖通空调节能。

建筑环境对暖通空调的节能起着非常大的作用，改善建筑环境有利于实现暖通空调的节能，包括改善室内环境和室外环境，改善的内容具体体现在建筑的设计与布局，建筑的材料与围护结构，当地的气候条件，建筑周围的绿色环境。

标签：建筑环境；暖通空调；节能随着经济的不断发展与进步，能源问题逐渐成为全球性的问题，能源短缺将制约我国可持续性发展。

暖通空调的使用可以为人们提供舒适的工作生活环境，但与此同时，暖通空调的能耗损失是建筑环境的主要能源损耗，大量的能耗损耗既不利于降低使用成本又不利于实现绿色节能，因此实现暖通空调的绿色节能是我们亟待解决的问题。

本文我们将探索建筑环境与暖通空调节能的关系以及建筑环境对暖通空调节能的影响，并探讨从建筑生态环境的角度实现暖通空调的节能。

1、建筑生态环境建筑环境指对建筑本身产生影响的一切事物。

现代建筑环境不仅仅包括室内外的温度与湿度，还包括室内的采光、照明、室外的绿化、室内外环境相互的影响等。

建筑生态环境较建筑环境的概念不仅包含传统建筑环境的含义还强调人、建筑环境、生态的关系，强调以人为主体良好的建筑生态环境既保证了主体人在舒适现代化的建筑环境中居住，又能保证整个建筑环境具有良好的绿色环保理念。

建筑生态环境既包括室内生态建筑环境又包括室外生态建筑环境。

室内生态环境建筑生态环境包括室内的温度、湿度、采光、照明、设计、空间布局等，建筑室外环境包括周围自然环境水环境、声环境、光环境和人文环境。

良好的自然与人文环境给人以良好的居住体验。

室内与室外建筑生态环境的统一构成了建筑生态环境。

我们旨在构建良好的建筑生态环境，为主体人构建舒适、绿色节能的居住环境。

2、建筑环境对暖通空调节能的影响暖通空调是建筑的主要能源损耗，为了建造一个良好的建筑生态环境，我们需要实现暖通空调的节能。

浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能摘要：能源问题是当前社会关注的全球性问题，而对于能源短缺问题直接影响到社会的可持续发展。

暖通空调可以对建筑物室内居住舒适度的调节，但对于能源的使用存在过度消耗的情况，因此需要完成对暖通空调节能规划，建筑环境对暖通空调的节能起到非常大的作用，通过对建筑物室内环境的调节与改善，更好地实现暖通空调节能安排，在暖通空调节能设计中，进一步改善室内环境与室外环境，同时针对节能内容完成具体的体现，配合建筑物的材料和围护结构，融合气候条件，满足建筑周围绿色环境建设。

关键词：建筑环境；暖通空调；节能引言：随着经济的快速发展与进步，能源已经成为全球关注的重点问题，能源短缺的问题直接影响了社会的全面发展，因此在当前的具体工作开展和实施当中，应针对暖通空调进行科学化的安排，在提升室内居住环境的前提条件下，更好地对能源进行保护。

通过对能源的合理使用，满足绿色节能的相关需求，同时提高建筑环境的装饰效果，设计暖通空调在使用中的能源保护，从而完成对社会可持续发展的合理安排。

1建筑环境对暖通空调的影响1.1建筑内部对暖通空调的影响室内环境的舒适程度直接决定了人们对暖通空调的使用效果，通过对建筑物内部结构的合理化设计，进一步改善建筑物的室内环境，减少对各种暖通空调的使用次数，从而解决空调过度使用的问题。

第一，在建筑物的建设中，需要合理构筑建筑物内部格局从而完成对室内环境带来的有利影响。

在进行建筑物科学化布局的时，从全面的内容进行思考，结合各方面因素完成综合化分析，建筑物可以设计成南北通透的布局，尽可能防止东西朝向建筑物的出现，当室内的通风效果可以起到调节舒适度的作用，因此人们会减少使用暖通空调，从而做到对能源的科学化保护，防止造成能源消耗量增加。

第二，加强地板与门窗等围护结构的作用，结合环境内容营造适合居住的良好环境。

建筑物内部围护结构应做出合理化的设计，该技术的使用能够减少能源的消耗，增加室内的通风效果，更是满足保温性能要求，为室内居住环境改善奠定坚实的基础，进一步减少暖通空调的使用次数。

南京工程学院Nanjing Institute Of Technology毕业设计英文资料翻译The Translation Of The English Material Of Graduation Design学生姓名：学号： 000000000Name: Number: 000000000班级：K暖通091Class: K-Nuantong 091所在学院：康尼学院College:Kangni College专业：建筑环境与设备工程Profession: Building Environment and Equipment Engineering指导教师：Tutor:2013年02月25日英文：Thermal comfort in the future - Excellence andexpectationP. Ole Fanger and Jørn ToftumInternational Centre for Indoor Environment andEnergy Technical University of DenmarkAbstractThis paper predicts some trends foreseen in the new century as regards the indoor environment and thermal comfort. One trend discussed is the search for excellence, upgrading present standards that aim merely at an “acceptable” condition with a substantial number of dissatisfied. An important element in this connection is individual thermal control. A second trend is to acknowledge that elevated air temperature and humidity have a strong negative impact on perceived air quality and ventilation requirements. Future thermal comfort and IAQ standards should include these relationships as a basis for design. The PMV model has been validated in the field in buildings with HVAC systems that were situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and were studied during both summer and winter. In non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates occupants may sense the warmth as being less severe than the PMV predicts, due to low expectations. An extension of the PMV model that includes an expectancy factor is proposed for use in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. The extended PMV model agrees well with field studies in non-air-conditioned buildings of three continents.Keywords: PMV, Thermal sensation, Individual control, Air quality, AdaptationA Search for ExcellencePresent thermal comfort standards (CEN ISO 7730, ASHRAE 55) acknowledge that there are considerable individual differences between people’s thermal sensation and their discomfort caused by local effects, i.e. by air movement. In a collective indoor climate, the standards prescribe a compromise that allows for a significant number of people feeling too warm or too cool. They also allow for air velocities that will be felt as a draught by a substantial percentage of the occupants.In the future this will in many cases be considered as insufficient. There will be a demand for systems that allow all persons in a space to feel comfortable. The obvious way to achieve this is to move from the collective climate to the individually controlled local climate. In offices, individual thermal control of each workplace will be common. The system should allow for individual control of the general thermal sensation without causing any draught or other local discomfort.A search for excellence involves providing all persons in a space with the means to feel thermally comfortable without compromise. Thermal Comfort and IAQ Present standards treat thermal comfort and indoor air quality separately, indicating that they are independent of each other. Recent research documents that this is not true . The air temperature and humidity combined in the enthalpy have a strong impact on perceived air quality, and perceived air quality determines the required ventilation in ventilation standards. Research has shown that dry and cool air is perceived as being fresh and pleasant while the same composition of air at an elevated temperature and humidity is perceived as stale and stuffy. During inhalation it is the convective and evaporative cooling of the mucous membrane in the nose that is essential for the fresh and pleasant sensation. Warm and humid air is perceived as being stale and stuffy due to the lack of nasal cooling. This may be interpreted as a local warm discomfort in the nasal cavity. The PMV model is the basis for existing thermal comfort standards. It is quite flexible and allows for the determination of a wide range of air temperatures and humidities that result in thermal neutrality for the body as a whole. But the inhaled air would be perceived as being very different within this wide range of air temperatures and humidities. An example: light clothing and an elevated air velocity or cooled ceiling, an air temperature of 28ºC and a relative humidity of 60% may givePMV=0, but the air quality would be perceived as stale and stuffy. A simultaneous request for high perceived air quality would require an air temperature of 20-22ºC and a modest air humidity. Moderate air temperature and humidity decrease also SBS symptoms and the ventilation requirement, thus saving energy during the heating season. And even with air-conditioning it may be beneficial and save energy during the cooling season. PMV model and the adaptive modelThe PMV model is based on extensive American and European experiments involving over a thousand subjects exposed to well-controlled environments. The studies showed that the thermal sensation is closely related to the thermal load on the effector mechanisms of the human thermoregulatory system. The PMV model predicts the thermal sensation as a function of activity, clothing and the four classical thermal environmental parameters. The advantage of this is that it is a flexible tool that includes all the major variables influencing thermal sensation. It quantifies the absolute and relative impact of these six factors and can therefore be used in indoor environments with widely differing HVAC systems as well as for different activities and different clothing habits. The PMV model has been validated in climate chamber studies in Asia as well as in the field, most recently in ASHRAE’s worldwide research in buildings with HVAC systems that were situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and were studied during both summer and winter. The PMV is developed for steady-state conditions but it has been shown to apply with good approximation at the relatively slow fluctuations of the environmental parameters typically occurring indoors. Immediately after an upward step-wise change of temperature, the PMV model predicts well the thermal sensation, while it takes around 20 min at temperature down-steps .Field studies in warm climates in buildings without air-conditioning have shown, however, that the PMV model predicts a warmer thermal sensation than the occupants actually feel. For such non-air-conditioned buildings an adaptive model has been proposed. This model is a regression equation that relates the neutral temperature indoors to the monthly average temperature outdoors. The only variable is thus the average outdoor temperature, which at its highest may have an indirect impact on the human heat balance. An obvious weakness of the adaptive model is that it does not include human clothing or activity or the four classical thermal parameters that have a well-known impact on the human heat balance and therefore on the thermal sensation. Although the adaptive model predicts the thermal sensation quite well for non-air-conditioned buildings of the 1900’s located in warm parts of the world, the question remains as to how well it would suit buildings of new types in the future where the occupants have a different clothing behaviour and a different activity pattern.Why then does the PMV model seem to overestimate the sensation of warmth in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates? There is general agreement that physiological acclimatization does not play a role. One suggested explanation is that openable windows in naturally ventilated buildings should provide a higher level of personal control than in air-conditioned buildings. We do not believe that this is true in warm climates. Although an openable window sometimes may provide some control of air temperature and air movement, this applies only to the persons who work close to a window. What happens to persons in the office who work far away from the window? We believe that in warm climates air-conditioning with proper thermostatic control in each space provides a better perceived control than openable windows. Another factor suggested as an explanation to the difference is theexpectations of the occupants. We think this is the right factor to explain why the PMV overestimates the thermalsensation of occupants in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. These occupants are typically people who have been living in warm environments indoors and outdoors, maybe even through generations. They may believe that it is their “destiny” to live in environments where they feel warmer than neutral. This may be expressed by an expectancy factor, e. The factor e may vary between 1 and 0.5. It is 1 for air-conditioned buildings. For non-air-conditioned buildings, the expectancy factor is assumed to depend on the duration of the warm weather over the year and whether such buildings can be compared with many others in the region that are air-conditioned. If the weather is warm all year or most of the year and there are no or few other air-conditionedbuildings, e may be 0.5, while it may be 0.7 if there are many other buildings with air-conditioning. For non-air-conditioned buildings in regions where the weather is warm only during the summer and no or few buildings have air-conditioning, the expectancy factor may be 0.7 to 0.8, while it may be 0.8 to 0.9 where there are many air-conditioned buildings. In regions with only brief periods of warm weather during the summer, the expectancy factor may be 0.9 to 1. Table 1 proposes a first rough estimation of ranges for the expectancy factor corresponding to high, moderate and low degrees of expectation.Table 1. Expectancy factors for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.A second factor that contributes to the difference between the PMV and actual thermal sensation in non-air-conditioned buildings is the estimated activity. In many field studies in offices, the metabolic rate is estimated on the basis of a questionnaire identifying the percentage of time the person was sedentary, standing, or walking. This mechanistic approach does not acknowledge the fact that people, when feeling warm, unconsciously tend to slow down their activity. They adapt to the warm environment by decreasing their metabolic rate. The lower pace in warm environments should be acknowledged by inserting a reduced metabolic rate when calculating the PMV.To examine these hypotheses further, data were downloaded from the database of thermal comfort field experiments. Only quality class II data obtained in non-air-conditioned buildings during the summer period in warm climates were used in the analysis. Data from four cities (Bangkok, Brisbane, Athens, and Singapore) were included, representing a total of more than 3200 sets of observations . The data from these four cities with warm climates were also used for the development of the adaptive model.For each set of observations, recorded metabolic rates were reduced by 6.7% for every scale unit of PMV above neutral, i.e. a PMV of 1.5 corresponded to a reduction in the metabolic rate of 10%. Next, the PMV was recalculated with reduced metabolic rates using ASHRAE’s thermal comfort tool . The resulting PMV values were then adjusted for expectation by multiplication with expectancy factors estimated to be 0.9 for Brisbane, 0.7 for Athens and Singapore and 0.6 for Bangkok. As an average for each building included in the field studies, Figure 1 and Table 2 compare the observed thermal sensation with predictions using the new extended PMV model for warm climates.Comparison of observed mean thermal sensation with predictions made using the new extension of the PMV model for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates. The lines are based on linear regression analysis weighted according to the number of responses obtained in each building.Table 2. Non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.Comparison of observed thermal sensation votes and predictions made using the new extension of the PMV model.The new extension of the PMV model for non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates predicts the actual votes well. The extension combines the best of the PMV and the adaptive model. It acknowledges the importance of expectations already accounted for by the adaptive model, while maintaining the PMV model’s classical thermal parameters that have direct impact on the human heat balance. It should also be noted that the new PMV extension predicts a higher upper temperature limit when the expectancy factor is low. People with low expectations are ready to accept a warmer indoor environment. This agrees well with the observations behind the adaptive model.Further analysis would be useful to refine the extension of the PMV model, and additional studies in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates in different parts of the world would be useful to further clarify expectation and acceptability among occupants. It would also be useful to study the impact of warm office environments on work pace and metabolic rate.ConclusionsThe PMV model has been validated in the field in buildings with HVAC systems, situated in cold, temperate and warm climates and studied during both summer and winter. In non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates, occupants may perceive the warmth as being less severe than the PMV predicts, due to low expectations. An extension of the PMV model that includes an expectancy factor is proposed for use in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates.The extended PMV model agrees well with field studies in non-air-conditioned buildings in warm climates of three continents.Thermal comfort and air quality in a building should be considered simultaneously. A high perceived air quality requires moderate air temperature and humidity. AcknowledgementFinancial support for this study from the Danish Technical research Council is gratefully acknowledged. ReferencesAndersson, L.O., Frisk, P., Löfstedt, B., Wyon, D.P., (1975), Human responses to dry, humidified and intermittently humidified air in large office buildings. Swedish Building Research Document Series, D11/75.ASHRAE 55-1992: Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc.Baker, N. and Standeven, M. (1995), A Behavioural Approach to Thermal Comfort Assessment in Naturally Ventilated Buildings. Proceedings from CIBSE National Conference, pp 76-84.Brager G.S., de Dear R.J. (1998), Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a literature review. Energy and Buildings, 27, pp 83-96.Cena, K.M. (1998), Field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a hot-arid climate. (Eds. Cena, K. and de Dear, R.). Final report, ASHRAE 921-RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.de Dear, R., Fountain, M., Popovic, S., Watkins, S., Brager, G., Arens, E., Benton, C., (1993a), A field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a hot humid climate. Final report, ASHRAE 702 RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.de Dear, R., Ring, J.W., Fanger, P.O. (1993b), Thermal sensations resulting from sudden ambient temperature changes. Indoor Air, 3, pp 181-192.de Dear, R. J., Leow, K. G. and Foo, S.C. (1991), Thermal comfort in the humid tropics: Field experiments in air-conditioned and naturally ventilated buildings in Singapore. International Journal of Biometeorology, vol. 34, pp 259-265.de Dear, R.J. (1998), A global databaseof thermal comfort field experiments. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1b), pp 1141-1152.de Dear, R.J. and Auliciems, A. (1985), Validation of the Predicted Mean Vote model of thermal comfort in six Australian field studies. ASHRAE Transactions, 91(2), pp 452- 468.de Dear, R.J., Brager G.S. (1998), Developing an adaptive model of thermal comfort and preference. ASHRAE Transactions, 104(1a), pp 145-167.de Dear, R.J., Leow, K.G., and Ameen, A. (1991), Thermal comfort in the humid tropics - Part I: Climate chamber experiments on temperature preferences in Singapore. ASHRAE Transactions 97(1), pp 874-879.Donini, G., Molina, J., Martello, C., Ho Ching Lai, D., Ho Lai, K., Yu Chang, C., La Flamme, M., Nguyen, V.H., Haghihat, F. (1996), Field study of occupant comfort and office thermal environments in a cold climate. Final report, ASHRAE 821 RP, ASHRAE Inc., Atlanta.Fang, L., Clausen, G., Fanger, P.O. (1999), Impact of temperature and humidity on chemical and sensory emissions from building materials. Indoor Air, 9, pp 193-201.Fanger, P.O. (1970), Thermal comfort. Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen, Denmark.Fouintain, M.E. and Huizenga, C. (1997), A thermal sensation prediction tool for use by the profession. ASHRAE Transactions, 103(2), pp 130-136.Humphreys, M.A. (1978), Outdoor temperatures and comfort indoors. Building Research and Practice, 6(2), pp 92-105.Krogstad, A.L., Swanbeck, G., Barregård, L., et al. (1991), Besvär vid kontorsarbete med olika temperaturer i arbetslokalen - en prospektiv undersökning (A prospective study of indoor climate problems at differenttemperatures in offices), Volvo Truck Corp., Göteborg, Sweden.Tanabe, S., Kimura, K., Hara, T. (1987), Thermal comfort requirements during the summer season in Japan. ASHRAE Transactions, 93(1), pp 564-577.Toftum, J., Jørgensen, A.S., Fanger, P.O. (1998), Upper limits for air humidity for preventing warm respiratory discomfort. Energy and Buildings, 28(3), pp 15-23.中文：未来的热舒适性——优越性和期望值Fanger和Jørn Toftum国际室内环境中心和丹麦能源科技大学摘要本文预测了一些在新世纪中可以预见的热舒适性以及室内环境的发展趋势。

外文翻译ANALYSIS OF HVAC SYSTEM ENERGYCONSERVATIONIN BUILDINGSABSTRACTE conomic development and people's increasing demand for energy, but the nature of the energy is not inexhaustible. Environment and energy issues become increasingly acute, if no measures are taken, then the energy will limit the rapid economic development of the question.With the improvement of living standard, building energy consumption in the proportion of total energy consumption is increasing. In developed countries, building energy consumption accounts for 40% of total energy consumption of the community, while the country despite the low level of socio-economic development, but the building energy consumption has nearly 30% of total energy consumption, and still rising. Therefore, in western countries or in China, building energy consumption is affecting the socio-economic status of the overall development of the question. In building energy consumption, the energy consumption for HVAC systems has accounted for 30% of building energy consumption -50%, with the extensive application of HVAC, energy consumption for HVAC systems will further increase Great. HVAC systems are often coupled with high-quality electric energy, and our power and relatively tight in some areas, lack of energy supply and demand which is bound to lead to further intensification of contradictions. Therefore, energy-saving heating, higher professional requirements is inevitable across the board.KEYWORDS:energy-saving，HVAC1. Energy saving design measures should be takenRapid changes in science and technology today, area HVAC new technologies emerge, we can achieve a variety of ways of energy saving HVAC systems.1.1 Starting from the design, selecting, designing HVAC systems, so that the efficient state of the economy running.Design is a leading engineering, system design will directly affect its performance. The building load calculation is an important part of the design, a common problem is that the current design of short duration, many designers to save time, wrong use of the design manual for the design or preliminary design estimates of cold, heat load with the unit construction area of cold, heat load index, direct construction design stage as hot and cold load to determine the basis, often making the total load is too large, resulting in heating equipment, air conditioning is too large, higher initial investment, operating costs, increased energy consumption.1.2 using the new energy-saving air-conditioning and heating comfort and healthy mannerAffect human thermal comfort environment of many parameters, different environmental parameters can get the same effect of thermal comfort, but for different heat and moisture parameters of the environment of its energy consumption air conditioning system is not the same.1.3 Actual situation of a reasonable choice of cold and heat sources, seek to achieve diversification of cold and heat sourceWith the extensive application of HVAC systems on non-renewable energy consumption also rose sharply, while the broken part of the ecological environment are becoming increasingly intensified. How to choose a reasonable heating sources, has caused widespread concern of all parties.1.4 to enhance the use of hot and cold recycling of the work, to achieve maximum energyHVAC systems to improve energy efficiency is one of the ways to achieve energy-saving air-conditioning. Heat recovery system installed mainly through energy recovery, with the air from wind energy to deal with new, fresh air can reducethe energy required for processing, reducing the load, to save energy. In the choice of heat recovery, the should be integrated with the local climate Tiao Jian, Jing Ji situation, Gong Cheng actual situation of harmful exhaust gases of the situation in a variety of factors Deng integrated to determine the Xuanyong suitable heat recovery, so as to achieve Hua Jiao Shao's investment, recovery of more heat (cold) the amount of purpose.1.5 focus on development of renewable energy, and actively promoting new energyAs the air-conditioning systems used in high-grade, non-renewable energy resources and environmental problems caused by the increasingly prominent, have to develop some reasonable and effective renewable energy to ease the current tensions. To heat (cold) and solar and other renewable resources used in air conditioning and refrigeration, has certain advantages, but also clean and pollution-free. Ground Source Heat Pump is a use of shallow and deep earth energy, including soil, groundwater, surface water, seawater, sewage, etc. as a cold source in winter and summer heat is not only heating but also a new central air-conditioning system cooling.2. Saving design problemsAchieve energy-saving HVAC systems, now has a lot of mature conditions, but in practical applications there are some problems：2.1 The issue of public awareness of energy conservationThe past is not enough public understanding of energy, and on the air conditioning is also very one-sided view. For a comfort of air conditioning system or heating system, should the human body has a very good comfort. But the prevailing view now is: the colder the better air-conditioning, heating the more heat the better. This is obviously we seek the comfort of air conditioning is contrary to the view. In fact, this not only greatly increase the energy consumption of air conditioning heating, indoor and outdoor temperature and because of the increase, but also to the human body's adaptability to different environmental decline, lowering the body immunity. Therefore, we need to improve advocacy efforts to change public to the traditional understanding of air conditioning and heating, vigorous publicity andpromotion in accordance with building standards and the cold heat energy metering devices to collect tolls, raise public consciousness of energy.2.2 The design concept of the problemReasonable energy-saving design is a prerequisite. At present, some designers due to inadequate attention to design empirical value when applied blindly, resulting in the increase of the initial investment, energy consumption surprising, therefore recommended that the government functions and the energy-saving review body, to increase the monitoring of the HVAC air-conditioning energy saving efforts enhance staff awareness of energy conservation design, so that energy conservation is implemented.2.3 The promotion of new technologies issueNew technology in the HVAC system for energy conservation provides a new direction. Such as ground source heat pump systems, solar cooling and heating system, not only to achieve efficient use of renewable energy, and can bring significant economic benefits, is worth promoting. However, as with any new technology, these new technologies are often high in cost, and the geographical conditions of use have certain limitations, and technically there are still many areas for improvement to improve. Therefore, new energy-efficient technologies, we should be according to local conditions, sum up experience, and actively promote.3. ConclusionHVAC systems saving energy in the building occupies a very important position, should attract enough attention to the designer. Designers should be from a design point of view fully into account the high and strict compliance with energy standards energy saving ideas to run through all aspects of the construction sector. Energy-saving technologies and renewable energy recycling, the Government and other relevant departments should support and vigorously promoted. And the design, construction, supervision, quality supervision, municipal administration and other departments should cooperate closely and pay close attention to implementing a cold, heat metering devices to collect tolls, so people really get benefit from energy efficient building, energy-saving construction and non-heating energy efficientbuilding can not have the same charge standard. At the same time to raise public awareness of energy conservation, and vigorously promote the development of new energy-saving technologies to achieve sustainable development of society.References[1] "residential design standard" DBJ14-037-2006.[2] "Public Buildings Energy Efficiency Design Standards" DBJ14-036-2006.[3] "Technical Specification for radiant heating" JGJ142-2004.析暖通空调系统在建筑中的节能问题摘要经济的发展使人们对能源的需求不断增加,但是自然界的能源并不是取之不尽,用之不竭的。

英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years， from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings。

In 1970， 36％of residences in the U。

S。

were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling (Blue， et al。

, 1979）。

By 1997， this number had more than doubled to 77%， and that year also marked the first time that over half （50.9%) of residences in the U。

S。

had central air conditioners （Census Bureau， 1999）。

An estimated 83％ of all newhomes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners （Census Bureau， 1999）。

Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings。

From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978， and DOE， 1998）.Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building。

英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years, from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings. In 1970, 36% of residences in the U.S. were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling (Blue, et al., 1979). By 1997, this number had more than doubled to 77%, and that year also marked the first time that over half (50.9%) of residences in the U.S. had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). An estimated 83% of all newhomes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners (Census Bureau, 1999). Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings. From 1970 to 1995, the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73% (Jackson and Johnson, 1978, and DOE, 1998).Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment. In most applications, the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building. Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications, such as automobiles, trucks, aircraft, ships, and industrial facilities. However, the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings.Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store. Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commercial sector, there is a wide variety of equipment applied in these buildings. For larger buildings, the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system, air distribution system, and cooling tower. Proper design of these systems requires a qualified engineer. The residential building sector is dominatedby single family homes and low-rise apartments/condominiums. The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard “packages” that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor.The chapter starts with a general discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection, followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems。

外文资料译文不同的室外设计条件对空调设备制冷性能和设计冷负荷的影响Mehmet AzmiAktacira, Orhan Bu yukalacab,HusamettinBuluta, TuncayYılmaz Harran大学机械工程学院，Osmanbey大学，Sanlıurfa，土尔其Cukurova大学机械工程学院，阿达纳，土尔其收录于2007年3月14日，采录于2007年10月30日。

摘要室外设计条件是建筑物的能源效率重要的参数。

不正确选择户外设计条件的结果是产生可预见的舒适性降低和能源的消耗。

在这项研究中，对空调系统中的不同的户外设计条件的影响统进行调查。

为此，冷负荷和空调设备制冷量一样的建筑，在分别位于阿达纳，土耳其计算时，应采用不同的户外ASHRAE推荐的设计条件，目前，在土耳其使用的设计数据是每日最高干湿球温度的7月21日，这是大家普遍认同的作为设计日。

冷却盘管的能力，从不同的户外设计条件产生的冷却盘管的能力被考虑在这项研究中，进行互相比较。

空调系统的成本分析也要被确定。

很明显选择室外设计条件是一个很关键的一步，在计算建筑冷负荷和设计空调设备的制冷能力方面。

2007年Elsevier有限公司保留所有权利。

关键词：天气设计数据，暖通空调系统，冷负荷，成本分析1. 导言当地的气候条件是建筑物能源效率的重要参数。

因为建筑物中的能源消耗和建筑物系统的能效变化一样，取决于当地的气候条件。

在暖通空调系统应用中，气候条件好的设计会提高舒适度和增加建筑物的能效。

气象资料信息的室外设计条件是设计的宗旨，它显示了某一特定地点在它气候里的特点。

它影响着建筑物负荷和经济性设计。

不正确的选择室外条件会导致产生不好的精神和舒适性。

如果一些非常保守的，极端的情况采取了，会产生不经济的设计和超出规定规格。

如果负荷被低估了，设备和系统操作会受到影响。

为了克服这个问题，Yoshida 和 Terai 建造了自回归移动平均天气模型，通过应用一种确定技术恢复为原始天气数据。

建筑与环境设备工程外文翻译文件编码（GHTU-UITID-GGBKT-POIU-WUUI-8968）毕业论文（设计）外文翻译题目：浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗系部名称：专业班级：学生姓名：学号：指导教师：教师职称：讲师浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗摘要：研究建筑环境，了解暖通空调负荷产生的原因及影响因素，可以更加合理地提出解决问题的方法。

关键词：建筑环境暖通空调能耗浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调能耗能源为经济的发展提供了动力，但是由于各种原因，能源的发展往往滞后于经济的发展。

近几年，中国的国民生产总值的增长率维持在约10％，但是能源的增长率只有3％～4％。

这样的形势要求我们必须节能。

建筑能源消耗在社会总能耗中的比例较大，发达国家的建筑用能一般占到全国总能耗的30％～40％；中国采暖区的城镇人口虽然只占全国人口的13.6％，但是采暖用能却占全国总能耗的9.6％。

建筑节能是建筑发展的基本趋势，也是当代建筑科学技术的一个新的生长点。

现代建筑的必要组成部分暖通空调领域也已经收到这种趋势的影响，暖通空调系统中的节能正在引起暖通空调工作者的加合理地提出解决问题的方法。

暖通空调能耗的组成为了创造舒适的室内空调环境，必须消耗大量的能源。

暖通空调能耗是建筑能耗中的大户，居统计在发达国家中暖通空调能耗占建筑能耗的65％，以建筑能耗占总能耗的356％计算，暖通空调能耗占总能耗的比例竟高达22.75％，由此可见建筑节能工作的重点应该是暖通空调的节能。

从暖通空调的能耗组成可以看出：暖通空调系统的能耗主要决定于空调冷、热负荷的确定和空调系统的合理配置，空调系统的布置和空调设备的选择是以空调负荷为依据的。

所以暖通空调节能的关键是空调外界负荷和内部负荷的确定，而暖通空调节能工作也应该从这个方面着手，合理布置建筑物的位置，正确选择外墙、门、窗、屋顶的形状及材料等，尽量减少空调负荷。

室内环境的影响暖通空调的目标是为人们提供舒适的生活和生产室内热环境，主要包括：室内空气温度、空气湿度、气流速度以及人体与周围环境（包括四壁、地面、顶棚等）之间的辐射换热（简称环境热辐射）等。

An investigation of the existing situationand trends in buildingenergy efficiency management in ChinaAbstractAccording to the Chinese State Council’s‘‘Building Energy Efficiency Management Ordinance’’,a large-scale investigation of energy efficiency(EE)in buildings in contemporary China has been carried out in22provincial capitals and major cities in China.The aim of this project is to provide reliable information for drawing up the‘‘Decision on reinforcing building energy efficiency’’by the Ministry of Construction of China.The surveyed organizations include government departments,research institutions,property developers,design institutions, construction companies,construction consultancy services companies,facility management departments,financial institutions and those which relate to the business of building energy efficiency.In addition,representatives of the media and residents were also involved.A detailed analysis of the results of the investigation concerning aspects of the current situation and trends in building energy consumption,energy efficiency strategy and the implementation of energy efficiency measures has been conducted.The investigation supplies essential information to formulate the market entrance policy for new buildings and the refurbishment policy for existing buildings to encourage the development of energy efficient technology.Keywords:Energy efficiency(EE);Building;Survey;Policy;Legislation; Reform;China1．IntroductionFuture trends in China’s energy will have considerable consequences for both China and the global environment.Although China’s carbon emissions are low on a per capita basis,China has been already ranked the world’s second largest producer of carbon,behind only the USA. China’s buildings sector currently accounts for23%of China’s total energy use and this is projected to increase to one-third by2010.China has set a target for a50% reduction of energy consumption for buildings.Energy policy plays an important rolein China’s sustainable development.Improving energy efficiency in buildings is one of the most cost-effective measures for reducing CO2emission,which is recognisedas one of the main causes of global warming.The climate in China is very diverse.According to the national‘‘Standard of Climatic Regionalization for Architecture’’GB50178-93,China is divided into the following zones based on climate characteristics:very cold,cold,hot summer and cold winter,hot summer and warm winter,and moderate.Air conditioning and heating requirements for different zones are as follows:in the very cold zone,the major requirement is heating,and few residential buildings are equipped with air conditioning.In the cold zone,the primary requirement is heating,followed by air conditioning.In the hot summer and cold winter zone,both air conditioning and heating are needed.In the hot summer and warm winter zone,the major requirement is air conditioning and few residential buildings require heating.In some parts of the moderate zone,heating is needed;in other parts,both heating and air conditioning are needed.The availability of heating and air conditioning depends on several factors, including the degree of economic development in an area,the availability of energy supplies and the requirements for environmental protectionThe Chinese government has focused on energy efficiency in buildings since the 1980s,and numerous standards,building codes,incentive policies and administrative rules have been issued.For example,the‘‘Energy Design Code for Heated Residential Buildings JGJ26-86’’,‘‘Energy Design Code for Heated New Residential Buildings JGJ26-95’’and‘‘Technical Specification for Energy Conservation Renovation of Existing Heated Residential Buildings JGJ129-2000’’are for the Very Cold and Cold zones.The‘‘Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings in the Hot Summer and Cold Winter zone JGJ134-2001’’and ‘‘Design Standard for Energy Efficiency of Residential Buildings in the Hot Summer and Warm Winter zone JGJ75-2003’’are for non-central heating areas.According to the Chinese government timetable,standards for the energy efficient design for residential buildings in all climate zones should have taken effect by the end of2003 In order to enhance the energy efficiency strategies’implementation,on behalf of the State Council,The Ministry of Construction is drawing up the‘‘Decision on reinforcing building energy efficiency’’,which aims to establish a building energy efficiency legislation system,principally using a policy of economic incentives in order to stimulate the reform in building energy efficiency.To fulfill this task,a large-scale investigation has been carried out focusing on the awareness, understanding and degree of support for the reform of energyefficiency in buildings.2.MethodologyThe survey method has been applied in this investigation.The questionnaire survey is a common method,which has been used by many researchers worldwide.A detailed description of the survey method used in this work is as follows.2.1.Objects and subjects of the investigationThe survey into the‘‘existing situation and trends of building energy efficiency management in China’’was carried out from September2005to February2006and aimed to supply realistic information for providing a reliable warranty for drawing up building energy management regulations.Extensive discussionshave been conducted with experts in the country in order to design the survey questionnaire.About22,000copies of the survey questionnaire have been distributed to about22provincial capitals and the major cities throughout the country.The survey subjects are mainly government administrative departments,research institutions, property developers,design institutions,construction companies,construction consultancy service companies,facility management departments,finance organizations,the media and residents.The informationderived from the investigation becomes an important reference for the drawing up of the‘‘Decision on reinforcing building energy efficiency’’.The topics of the investigation are divided into one general part and eight specific parts.The general part is to investigate the existing situation of energy efficiency management,the development tendency and the cost of building energyefficiency.The specific parts include:Part1:New building market entrance permission;Part2:Promotion,limitation and restriction;Part3:Statistic of building energy consumption;Part4:Energy efficiency labelling and certification;Part5:Energy efficiency management and refurbishment for public buildings;Part6:Energy efficiency management and refurbishment for residential buildings;Part7:Application of renewable energy;Part8:Incentive policy for energy efficiency.The subjects come from11groups,they are:No.1:Government departments;No.2:Property developers;No.3:Design and construction companies;No.4:Energy service companies;No.5:Clients of public buildings;No.6:Property service companies;No.7:Heating suppliers;No.8:Manufacturers of construction materials and products;No.9:Financial institutions;No.10:Residents;No.11:The Media.The11subjects were required to answer the questions in the general part but did not necessarily have to answer all the questions in the specific parts.The11types of questionnaire were designed for the different subjects.3.Analysis of samplesThe22,000copies of the questionnaire have been distributed,and about13,125 valid copies have been returned,a response rate of59.7%.Among these valid completed questionnaires,10,236copies were from residents and2889copies from institutions.3.1.Resident subject samplesThe resident questionnaire includes four criteria:ownership of property, building type,building age and average family income.From the investigation we can see that the ownership of property accounts for67.8%;the multi-floor buildings account for61.8%;the buildings aged less than10years old account for62.9%; and households with monthly average family income less than5000Yuan account for61.8%.These figures match the real situation in China.In general,the valid completed questionnaires from resident subjects reflect the general situation in Chinese society.It represents the society’s mainstream.3.2.Institutions included in the sampleThe institutions included in the sample were classified according to three criteria,namely the administrative characteristics of their cities,their climate zone, and whether or not they were building owners.From the investigation we can see that the surveyed cities are mainly provincial capitals and Municipalities(a Municipality is a specific administrative city which is governed directly by the central government.There are four such cities:Beijing, Tainjin,Shanghai and Chongqing),which account for90%of the whole surveyed cities.The building energy consumption in provincial capitals is more remarkable than that in other cities,which reflect the country’s real situation.The surveyed cities are mostly located in the very cold,cold,hot summer andcold winter zones.and mild zones areat the moment.make up the lowest proportion of0.6%because the building energy efficiency service system is not yet fully mature.The proportion of design institutions, construction and consultancy companies is38%,which is the largest group.The second largest group,with14.3%,is made up of manufacturers of building materials and equipment.These two institutions are the practical executive bodies for the implementation of building energy efficiency.The proportion of clients of public building is9.0%,which is particularly selected to reflect public building energy management and renovation.The proportions of these institution subject samples reflect the real situation in China[4.Result analysisThe surveys were carried out within four groups:consumers,producers, services and consultancy supervisions.The consumers include residents and clients of public buildings.The producers include property developers and manufacturers. The services include design construction and construction consultancy companies, energy service companies,facility management services,energy resource services companies and finance institutions.The consultancy supervisions include government departments and the media.4.1Consumers of energy efficient products4.1.1The degree of acceptability of energy efficient productsThe investigationfrom the survey.From of energy efficient building products does not remain high and there exists a regional difference.The feedback from the resident survey shows that,the energy efficient products are more likely to be accepted in the very cold,cold and hot summer and cold winter zones than the hot summer and warm winter zone.In recent years,a heating metering and payment system reform has been conducted in the very cold and cold zones;therefore the residents in these zones are more interested in energy efficient products.In the hot summer and cold winter zone,the indoor climate is severe in winter and summer without both air conditioning and electric heating; therefore the residents are keen to use energy efficient products to improve their living conditions as well as to save money.The feedback from clients of public buildings shows that the energy efficient products are more favoured in the very cold,cold,and hot summer and cold winter zones.From the survey results we can conclude that the consumers’degree of acceptance of energy efficient building products isaffected by the following factors:1.The metering and payment system for heating in north China;2.The quantity of energy consumed;3.Climate characteristics.rge-scale public buildingsThe energy consumption in large-scale public buildings is10–15times that in residential buildings.For example,the floor area of large public buildings in Beijing only accounts for5.4%of the city’s total building floor area,however,its electricity energy consumption is almost equal to that of residential buildings.It is obvious that energy efficiency reform should focus on large-scale public and government office buildings.In order to investigate the public expectations of energy efficiency reform,the question‘‘Can energy efficiency reform save more or less than20%of energy consumption?’’has been included in the survey(see Fig.1).The result from government office buildings is that40.7%of respondents vote‘‘less’’and59.3%‘‘more’’.The result from the large-scale public buildings shows that32%of respondents vote‘‘less’’and68%‘‘more’’.This implies a positive opinion and high expectation that energy efficiency reform will save energy consumption in buildings for these two types of buildings.4.2.Energy efficient building developers4.2.1.Property developersAccording oftheir energy to buildings built in the1980s.These new Energy Efficient Buildings.The survey has been carried out with411property developers involved with the newly constructed buildings to investigate if this target has been met in the following three areas:1.The number of EE buildings as a proportion of the total number of newly constructed buildings;2.The costs of EE buildings;3.The sales of EE buildings in the market.The survey result reveals that only20.6%of the total buildings have met the requirement of this standard.The investigation shows the increment of cost of the EE buildings.From this figure,we can see that there is a difference in the cost increments for EE buildings constructed by the different property developers. Investigation shows the market situation for EE buildings.From this,we can see that there is no overwhelming advantage for EE buildings on the property market.This survey identifies some of the problems in developing EE buildings in China, which are:1.There is a great mismatch between design and construction and this affects the actual energy saving;2.There is no stable ratio of cost increment to energy saving and this causes problems for the budget estimations for EE buildings;3.There is no market guidance for energy efficient buildings and this causes low sensitivity to the EE buildings on the property market;4.Property developers underestimate the requirement of the EE buildings for property buyers.Meanwhile,we investigated the impact of Building Energy Efficiency Labelling on purchasing intentions and the attitude of property developers to the provision of building energy efficiency labelling.The survey results show that the more information that has been supplied to the buyers,the more attention they pay to a building’s EE status.see Fig.4.The intention to‘‘consider buying an energy efficient building’’increases by more than five times after the provision of the information than before.efficiency building labeling to stimulate the demand for energy efficient buildings on the property market.Fig.5.shows the attitude towards energy efficiency building labelling of the administrative departments,property developers and buyers.From this,we can see that81.6%of the buyers are very supportive of energy efficiency building information and labelling;however,in contrast about66%of property developers are notconcerned about energy efficiency information.It is very important for legislation on the energy efficiency labelling system to require the property developers to supply the energy efficiency building information to buyers in order to support energy efficiency and avoid overwhelming profit-making on the property market.4.2.2.Manufacturers of materials and equipmentThe investigation on the energy efficiency in building materials and products has been carried out with405manufacturers throughout the country and focused on the following two questions:１.What are the approaches to the introduction of energy efficiency technology development and transfer?２.Why do disputes about energy efficiency products occur in practice?Fig.6shows the approaches to energy efficiency product technology transfer. From this figure we can see that about15%of energy efficiency products are self-developed by the enterprises,22%are jointly developed with research institutions,35%are technology introduced from overseas,15%are imported directly from overseas and13%are from other channels.There is much dispute about the quality of energy efficiency products.Table5 shows the causes of these disputes.From the table we can see that the quality of the energy efficiency products produced independently by enterprises and jointlydeveloped with research institutions is responsible for many problems,43.4%and 65.1%,respectively.The last figure in particular is a cause for concern since it demonstrates the weakness of Research and Development(R&D)in China.Both R&D and technology transfer need to be strengthened.Although there are fewer quality problems with imported technologies and products from overseas,there are many problems with their installation and matching with original designs.About 43.3%of the technologies introduced from overseas are improperly used.About30%of imported energy efficiency products have problems due to improper installation and30%of them do not match with the design.4.3.Building energy efficiency service system4.3.1.The design,consultancy services and construction of buildingsThe survey has been carried out in1079design institutions,consultancy services and construction companies.The topics focused on were the following:1.The pass standard implementation;2.The pass rate of construction abiding by the energy efficient design;３.The pass rate of the actual energy efficiency of the buildings.Fig.7shows the pass rates for the above three criteria.From the figure,we can see that energy efficiency design standard implementation has the highest pass rate of90.3%and construction implementation has a high rate of77%,however,the pass rate for the actual energy efficiency of buildings(42.8%)is low.The results imply that the intention of designing and constructing energy efficient buildings has substantially increased due to the promulgation of the new building design codes.However, unfortunately this did not lead to a substantial increase in energy saving for the actual buildings.This is due to the lack of skilled construction and installation workers.4.3.2.The building heating suppliersThe survey has been carried out in71heating suppliers and focused on the following three criteria:1.How much does heating efficiency increase due to upgrading the heat source and pipe network?2.How popular are central heating3.How much would they accept to afford the cost of refurbishment of a heating system?Fig.8shows the increased heating efficiency due to the refurbishment of heating supply systems inBeijing andDalian.From the figure,we can see that there is little significant improvement in energy efficiency due to the refurbishment of heating supply systems.The investigation of71 heating supply companies reveals that central heating systems account for about 35–40%of the total heating systems.The heating systems of newly built residential buildings have been designed and installed with thermostats to control the indoor air temperature.This increases costs by about20RMB/m2compared with the old system. The average cost of refurbishment of the old heating system with a thermostat andreplacement of pipes and radiators will cost about20–30RMB/m2.We investigated the acceptability of contributing different proportions of the cost of refurbishment.The percentages of the payment are grouped as‘Not at all’.Fig.9 shows the results.From the figure we can see that not many respondents like to pay the costs.This information is very useful for drafting the heating system metering payment system.About42%of the refurbishments of the heating network did not achieve a10%improvement in efficiency.The reform of the heating systems will focus on the improvement of energy efficiency to the end-user.The survey result reveals that the installation of thermostats and a metering payment system can achieve a30%Theinsuppliers who are willing to undertake over30%of the refurbishment costs are mainly the producers of combined heat and power.In China,heat resource suppliers charge heat supply agents for the heat while the heat supply agents charge the users by floor area.。

谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能摘要：暖通空调节能关系到千家万户的冷暖与广大群众的健康，还关系到国家能源安全策略与环境保护工作，是影响到国计民生与国家可持续发展的产业。

关键词：暖通空调；建筑；节能空调是一种常用的家用电气设备，并且随着社会的发展，人们的生活平提高，在现代人们的日常生活生产中，空调更是成为一种不可或缺家用电气设备，随着空调在现代人们生活中的推广应用，极大的提高了人们的生活质量。

然而，在空调的使用过程中却伴随了大量的能源消耗和环保节能问题。

然而在全球性能源危机的背景下，能源问题已经成为了一个世界性的话题。

1建筑生态环境建筑生态环境是对建筑有影响的一切外在事物，包括室内外的光源、声量、热度、湿度、水源，以及包含的生态理念，即人、建筑、环境的共同发展。

建筑是为人们提供基本活动的重要场所，同时也是人类文化的组成部分，建筑也能反应出不同阶段社会的潮流、人们的审美。

建筑有着物质形态的基本特征，从本质上来看，建筑是人工环境一部分，同时也与生态环境有着密切不可分割的关系，它是指建筑周围对建筑的存在和发展有所影响的一切外在事物。

建筑在历史的发展过程中有着悠久的历史，与传统的建筑环境一样，建筑生态环境也会分为室内环境和室外环境两部分。

室内环境与人们居住的舒适度和健康指数相关，与传统的建筑物室内环境只考虑温湿度不同，现代的建筑室内环境包括了室内的温湿度、气流组织分布、采光、照明、色彩、空间布局以及它们之间产生的相互作用等。

建筑室外环境的涵盖则更为广泛，主要是自然环境，包括水环境、声环境、光环境、热湿环境、人文环境、地理环境等。

水环境满足人的正常需求；声环境满足人的听觉需求，降低噪声污染；光环境满足人的审美需求，使人达到视觉上的满足；人文环境指的是人的生活习惯；地理环境是人们所处位置的特点。

2建筑环境对空调节能的影响建筑物中暖通空调能源消耗的主要影响因素就是建筑环境，因此建筑环境是每个涉及暖通空调节能人员首先要关注的重点。

暖通空调系统专业外文翻译英文文献Air Conditioning SystemsAir conditioning has rapidly grown over the past 50 years from a luxury to a standard system included in most residential and commercial buildings In 1970 36 of residences in the US were either fully air conditioned or utilized a room air conditioner for cooling Blue et al 1979 By 1997 this number had more than doubled to 77 and that year also marked the first time that over half 509 of residences in the US had central air conditioners Census Bureau 1999 An estimated 83 of all new homes constructed in 1998 had central air conditioners Census Bureau 1999 Air conditioning has also grown rapidly in commercial buildings From 1970 to 1995 the percentage of commercial buildings with air conditioning increased from 54 to 73 Jackson and Johnson 1978 and DOE 1998Air conditioning in buildings is usually accomplished with the use of mechanical or heat-activated equipment In most applications the air conditioner must provide both cooling and dehumidification to maintain comfort in the building Air conditioning systems are also used in other applications such as automobiles trucks aircraft ships and industrialfacilities However the description of equipment in this chapter is limited to those commonly used in commercial and residential buildings Commercial buildings range from large high-rise office buildings to the corner convenience store Because of the range in size and types of buildings in the commercial sector there is a wide variety of equipment applied in these buildings For larger buildings the air conditioning equipment is part of a total system design that includes items such as a piping system air distribution system and cooling tower Proper design of these systems requires a qualified engineer The residential building sector is dominatedby single family homes and low-rise apartmentscondominiums The cooling equipment applied in these buildings comes in standard packages that are often both sized and installed by the air conditioning contractor The chapter starts with a general discussion of the vapor compression refrigeration cycle then moves to refrigerants and their selection followed by packaged Chilled Water Systems11 Vapor Compression CycleEven though there is a large range in sizes and variety of air conditioning systems used in buildings most systems utilize the vapor compression cycle to produce the desired cooling and dehumidification This cycle is also used for refrigerating and freezing foods and for automotive air conditioning The first patent on a mechanically drivenrefrigeration system was issued to Jacob Perkins in 1834 in London and the first viable commercial system was produced in 1857 by James Harrison and DE SiebeBesides vapor compression there are two less common methods used to produce cooling in buildings the absorption cycle and evaporative cooling These are described later in the chapter With the vapor compression cycle a working fluid which is called the refrigerant evaporates and condenses at suitable pressures for practical equipment designsThe four basic components in every vapor compression refrigeration system are the compressor condenser expansion device and evaporator The compressor raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor so that the refrigerant saturation temperature is slightly above the temperature of the cooling medium used in the condenser The type of compressor used depends on the application of the system Large electric chillers typically use a centrifugal compressor while small residential equipment uses a reciprocating or scroll compressorThe condenser is a heat exchanger used to reject heat from the refrigerant to a cooling medium The refrigerant enters the condenser and usually leaves as a subcooled liquid Typical cooling mediums used in condensers are air and water Most residential-sized equipment uses air as the cooling medium in the condenser while many larger chillers use water After leaving the condenser the liquid refrigerant expands to a lowerpressure in the expansion valveThe expansion valve can be a passive device such as a capillary tube or short tube orifice or an active device such as a thermal expansion valve or electronic expansion valve The purpose of the valve is toregulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator so that the refrigerant is superheated when it reaches the suction of the compressor At the exit of the expansion valve the refrigerant is at a temperature below that of the medium air or water to be cooled The refrigerant travels through a heat exchanger called the evaporator It absorbs energy from the air or water circulated through the evaporator If air is circulated through the evaporator the system is called a direct expansion system If water is circulated through the evaporator it is called a chiller In either case the refrigerant does not make direct contact with the air or water in the evaporatorThe refrigerant is converted from a low quality two-phase fluid to a superheated vapor under normal operating conditions in the evaporator The vapor formed must be removed by the compressor at a sufficient rate to maintain the low pressure in the evaporator and keep the cycle operating All mechanical cooling results in the production of heat energy that must be rejected through the condenser In many instances this heat energy is rejected to the environment directly to the air in the condenser or indirectly to water where it is rejected in a cooling tower With someapplications it is possible to utilize this waste heat energy to provide simultaneous heating to the building Recovery of this waste heat at temperatures up to 65°C 150°F can be used to reduce costs for space heatingCapacities of air conditioning are often expressed in either tons or kilowatts kW of cooling The ton is a unit of measure related to the ability of an ice plant to freeze one short ton 907 kg of ice in 24 hr Its value is 351 kW 12000 Btuhr The kW of thermal cooling capacity produced by the air conditioner must not be confused with the amount of electrical power also expressed in kW required to produce the cooling effect21 Refrigerants Use and SelectionUp until the mid-1980s refrigerant selection was not an issue in most building air conditioning applications because there were no regulations on the use of refrigerants Many of the refrigerants historically used for building air conditioning applications have been chlorofluorocarbons CFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons HCFCs Most of these refrigerants are nontoxic and nonflammable However recent US federal regulations EPA 1993a EPA 1993b and international agreements UNEP 1987 have placed restrictions on the production and use of CFCs and HCFCs Hydrofluorocarbons HFCs are now being used in some applications where CFCs and HCFCs were used Having an understanding of refrigerants can helpa building owner or engineer make a more informed decision about the best choice of refrigerants for specific applications This section discusses the different refrigerants used in or proposed for building air conditioning applications and the regulations affecting their use The American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE has a standard numbering systemfor identifying refrigerants ASHRAE 1992 Many popular CFC HCFC and HFC refrigerants are in the methane and ethane series of refrigerants They are called halocarbons or halogenated hydrocarbons because of the presence of halogen elements such as fluorine or chlorine King 1986 Zeotropes and azeotropes are mixtures of two or more different refrigerants A zeotropic mixture changes saturation temperatures as it evaporates or condenses at constant pressure The phenomena is called temperature glide At atmospheric pressure R-407C has a boiling bubble point of –44°C –47°F and a condensation dew point of –37°C –35°F which gives it a temperature glide of 7°C 12°F An azeotropic mixture behaves like a single component refrigerant in that the saturation temperature does not change appreciably as it evaporates or condenses at constant pressure R-410A has a small enough temperature glide less than 55°C 10°F that it is considered a near-azeotropic refrigerant mixture ASHRAE groups refrigerants by their toxicity and flammability ASHRAE 1994 Group A1 is nonflammable and least toxic while Group B3 isflammable and most toxic Toxicity is based on the upper safety limit for airborne exposure to the refrigerant If the refrigerant is nontoxic in quantities less than 400 parts per million it is a Class A refrigerant If exposure to less than 400 parts per million is toxic then the substance is given the B designation The numerical designations refer to the flammability of the refrigerant The last column of Table com shows the toxicity and flammability rating of common refrigerantsRefrigerant 22 is an HCFC is used in many of the same applications and is still the refrigerant of choice in many reciprocating and screw chillers as well as small commercial and residential packaged equipment It operates at a much higher pressure than either R-11 or R-12 Restrictions on the production of HCFCs will start in 2004 In 2010 R-22 cannot be used in new air conditioning equipment R-22 cannot be produced after 2020 EPA 1993bR-407C and R-410A are both mixtures of HFCs Both are considered replacements for R-22 R-407C is expected to be a drop-in replacement refrigerant for R-22 Its evaporating and condensing pressures for air conditioning applications are close to those of R-22 Table com However replacement of R-22 with R-407C should be done only after consulting with the equipment manufacturer At a minimum the lubricant and expansion device will need to be replaced The first residential-sized air conditioning equipment using R-410A was introduced in the US in 1998 Systems usingR-410A operate at approximately 50 higher pressure than R-22 Table com thus R-410A cannot be used as a drop-in refrigerant for R-22 R-410A systems utilize compressors expansion valves and heat exchangers designed specifically for use with that refrigerantAmmonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and in ammonia water absorption chillers It is moderately flammable and has a class B toxicity rating but has had limited applications in commercial buildings unless the chiller plant can be isolated from the building being cooled Toth 1994 Stoecker 1994 As a refrigerant ammonia has many desirable qualities It has a high specific heat and high thermal conductivity Its enthalpy of vaporization is typically 6 to 8 times higher than that of the commonly used halocarbons and it provides higher heat transfer compared to halocarbons It can be used in both reciprocating and centrifugal compressorsResearch is underway to investigate the use of natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide R-744 and hydrocarbons in air conditioning and refrigeration systems Bullock 1997 and Kramer 1991 Carbon dioxide operates at much higher pressures than conventional HCFCs or HFCs and requires operation above the critical point in typical air conditioning applications Hydrocarbon refrigerants often thought of as too hazardous because of flammability can be used in conventional compressors and have been used in industrial applications R-290 propane has operatingpressures close to R-22 and has been proposed as a replacement for R-22 Kramer 1991 Currently there are no commercial systems sold in the US for building operations that use either carbon dioxide or flammable refrigerants31 Chilled Water SystemsChilled water systems were used in less than 4 of commercial buildings in the US in 1995 However because chillers are usually installed in larger buildings chillers cooled over 28 of the US commercial building floor space that same year DOE 1998 Five types of chillers are commonly applied to commercial buildings reciprocating screw scroll centrifugal and absorption The first four utilize the vapor compression cycle to produce chilled water They differ primarily in the type of compressor used Absorption chillers utilize thermal energy typically steam or combustion source in an absorption cycle with either an ammonia-water or water-lithium bromide solution to produce chilled water32 Overall SystemAn estimated 86 of chillers are applied in multiple chiller arrangements like that shown in the figure Bitondo and Tozzi 1999 In chilled water systems return water from the building is circulated through each chiller evaporator where it is cooled to an acceptable temperature typically 4 to 7°C 39 to 45°F The chilled water is then distributed to water-to-air heat exchangers spread throughout the facility In theseheat exchangers air is cooled and dehumidified by the cold water During the process the chilled water increases in temperature and must be returned to the chiller sThe chillers are water-cooled chillers Water is circulated through the condenser of each chiller where it absorbs heat energy rejected from the high pressure refrigerant The water is then pumped to a cooling tower where the water is cooled through an evaporation process Cooling towers are described in a later section Chillers can also be air cooled In this configuration the condenserwould be a refrigerant-to-air heat exchanger with air absorbing the heat energy rejected by the high pressure refrigerantChillers nominally range in capacities from 30 to 18000 kW 8 to 5100 ton Most chillers sold in the US are electric and utilize vapor compression refrigeration to produce chilled water Compressors for these systems are either reciprocating screw scroll or centrifugal in design A small number of centrifugal chillers are sold that use either an internal combustion engine or steam drive instead of an electric motor to drive the compressorThe type of chiller used in a building depends on the application For large office buildings or in chiller plants serving multiple buildings centrifugal compressors are often used In applications under 1000 kW 280 tons cooling capacities reciprocating or screw chillers may be moreappropriate In smaller applications below 100 kW 30 tons reciprocating or scroll chillers are typically used33 Vapor Compression ChillersThe nominal capacity ranges for the four types of electrically driven vapor compression chillers Each chiller derives its name from the type of compressor used in the chiller The systems range in capacities from the smallest scroll 30 kW 8 tons to the largest centrifugal 18000 kW 5000 tons Chillers can utilize either an HCFC R-22 and R-123 or HFC R-134a refrigerant The steady state efficiency of chillers is often stated as a ratio of the power input in kW to the chilling capacity in tons A capacity rating of one ton is equal to 352 kW or 12000 btuh With this measure of efficiency the smaller number is better centrifugal chillers are the most efficient whereas reciprocating chillers have the worst efficiency of the four types The efficiency numbers provided in the table are the steady state full-load efficiency determined in accordance to ASHRAE Standard 30 ASHRAE 1995 These efficiency numbers do not include the auxiliary equipment such as pumps and cooling tower fans that can add from 006 to 031 kWton to the numbers shownChillers run at part load capacity most of the time Only during the highest thermal loads in the building will a chiller operate near its rated capacity As a consequence it is important to know how the efficiency of the chiller varies with part load capacity a representative data for theefficiency in kWton as a function of percentage full load capacity for a reciprocating screw and scroll chiller plus a centrifugal chiller with inlet vane control and one with variable frequency drive VFD for the compressor The reciprocating chiller increases in efficiency as it operates at a smaller percentage of full load In contrast the efficiency of a centrifugal with inlet vane control is relatively constant until theload falls to about 60 of its rated capacity and its kWton increases to almost twice its fully loaded valueIn 1998 the Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute ARI developed a new standard that incorporates into their ratings part load performance of chillers ARI 1998c Part load efficiency is expressed by a single number called the integrated part load value IPLV The IPLV takes data similar to that in Figure com and weights it at the 25 50 75 and 100 loads to produce a single integrated efficiency number The weighting factors at these loads are 012 045 042 and 001 respectively The equation to determine IPLV isMost of the IPLV is determined by the efficiency at the 50 and 75 part load values Manufacturers will provide on request IPLVs as well as part load efficienciesThe four compressors used in vapor compression chillers are each briefly described below While centrifugal and screw compressors are primarily used in chiller applications reciprocating and scrollcompressors are also used in smaller unitary packaged air conditioners and heat pumps34 Reciprocating CompressorsThe reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement compressor On the intake stroke of the piston a fixed amount of gas is pulled into the cylinder On the compression stroke the gas is compressed until the discharge valve opens The quantity of gas compressed on each stroke is equal to the displacement of the cylinder Compressors used in chillers have multiple cylinders depending on the capacity of the compressor Reciprocating compressors use refrigerants with low specific volumes and relatively high pressures Most reciprocating chillers used in building applications currently employ R-22Modern high-speed reciprocating compressors are generally limited to a pressure ratio of approximately nine The reciprocating compressor is basically a constant-volume variable-head machine It handles various discharge pressures with relatively small changes in inlet-volume flow rate as shown by the heavy line labeled 16 cylinders Condenser operation in many chillers is related to ambient conditions for example through cooling towers so that on cooler days the condenser pressure can be reduced When the air conditioning load is lowered less refrigerant circulation is required The resulting load characteristic is represented by the solid line that runs from the upper right to lower leftThe compressor must be capable of matching the pressure and flow requirements imposed by the system The reciprocating compressor matches the imposed discharge pressure at any level up to its limiting pressure ratio Varying capacity requirements can be met by providing devices that unloadindividual or multiple cylinders This unloading is accomplished by blocking the suction or discharge valves that open either manually or automatically Capacity can also be controlled through the use of variable speed or multi-speed motors When capacity control is implemented on a compressor other factors at part-load conditions need to considered such as a effect on compressor vibration and sound when unloaders are used b the need for good oil return because of lower refrigerant velocities and c proper functioning of expansion devices at the lower capacities With most reciprocating compressors oil is pumped into the refrigeration system from the compressor during normal operation Systems must be designed carefully to return oil to the compressor crankcase to provide for continuous lubrication and also to avoid contaminating heat-exchanger surfacesReciprocating compressors usually are arranged to start unloaded so that normal torque motors are adequate for starting When gas engines are used for reciprocating compressor drives careful matching of the torque requirements of the compressor and engine must be considered35 Screw CompressorsScrew compressors first introduced in 1958 Thevenot 1979 are positive displacement compressors They are available in the capacity ranges that overlap with reciprocating compressors and small centrifugal compressors Both twin-screw and single-screw compressors are used in chillers The twin-screw compressor is also called the helical rotary compressor A cutaway of a twin-screw compressor design There are two main rotors screws One is designated male and the other female The compression process is accomplished by reducing the volume of the refrigerant with the rotary motion of screws At the low pressure side of the compressor a void is created when the rotors begin to unmesh Low pressure gas is drawn into the void between the rotors As the rotors continue to turn the gas is progressively compressed as it moves toward the discharge port Once reaching a predetermined volume ratio the discharge port is uncovered and the gas is discharged into the high pressure side of the system At a rotation speed of 3600 rpm a screw compressor has over 14000 discharges per minute ASHRAE 1996 Fixed suction and discharge ports are used with screw compressors instead of valves as used in reciprocating compressors These set the built-in volume ratio the ratio of the volume of fluid space in the meshing rotors at the beginning of the compression process to the volume in the rotors as the discharge port is first exposed Associated with thebuilt-in volume ratio is a pressure ratio that depends on the properties of the refrigerant being compressed Screw compressors have the capability to operate at pressure ratios of above 201 ASHRAE 1996 Peak efficiency is obtained if the discharge pressure imposed by the system matches the pressure developed by the rotors when the discharge port is exposed If the interlobe pressure in the screws is greater or less than discharge pressure energy losses occur but no harm is done to the compressor Capacity modulation is accomplished by slide valves that provide a variable suction bypass or delayed suction port closing reducing the volume of refrigerant compressed Continuously variable capacity control is most common but stepped capacity control is offered in some manufacturers machines Variable discharge porting is available on some machines to allow control of the built-in volume ratio during operation Oil is used in screw compressors to seal the extensive clearance spaces between the rotors to cool the machines to provide lubrication and to serve as hydraulic fluid for the capacity controls An oil separator is required for the compressor discharge flow to remove the oil from the high-pressure refrigerant so that performance of system heat exchangers will not be penalized and the oil can be returned for reinjection in the compressorScrew compressors can be direct driven at two-pole motor speeds 50 or 60 Hz Their rotary motion makes these machines smooth running andquiet Reliability is high when the machines are applied properly Screw compressors are compact so they can be changed out readily for replacement or maintenance The efficiency of the best screw compressors matches or exceeds that of the best reciprocating compressors at full load High isentropic and volumetric efficiencies can be achieved with screw compressors because there are no suction or discharge valves and small clearance volumes Screw compressors for building applications generally use either R-134a or R-22中文译文空调系统过去 50 年以来空调得到了快速的发展从曾经的奢侈品发展到可应用于大多数住宅和商业建筑的比较标准的系统在 1970 年的美国 36 的住宅不是全空气调节就是利用一个房间空调器冷却到1997年这一数字达到了 77在那年作的第一次市场调查表明在美国有超过一半的住宅安装了中央空调人口普查局1999 在1998年83的新建住宅安装了中央空调人口普查局 1999 中央空调在商业建筑物中也得到了快速的发展从 1970年到1995年有空调的商业建筑物的百分比从54增加到 73 杰克森和詹森1978建筑物中的空气调节通常是利用机械设备或热交换设备完成在大多数应用中建筑物中的空调器为维持舒适要求必须既能制冷又能除湿空调系统也用于其他的场所例如汽车卡车飞机船和工业设备然而在本章中仅说明空调在商业和住宅建筑中的应用商业的建筑物从比较大的多层的办公大楼到街角的便利商店占地面积和类型差别很大因此应用于这类建筑的设备类型比较多样对于比较大型的建筑物空调设备设计是总系统设计的一部分这部分包括如下项目例如一个管道系统设计空气分配系统设计和冷却塔设计等这些系统的正确设计需要一个有资质的工程师才能完成居住的建筑物即研究对象被划分成单独的家庭或共有式公寓应用于这些建筑物的冷却设备通常都是标准化组装的由空调厂家进行设计尺寸和安装本章节首先对蒸汽压缩制冷循环作一个概述接着介绍制冷剂及制冷剂的选择最后介绍冷水机组11 蒸汽压缩循环虽然空调系统应用在建筑物中有较大的尺寸和多样性大多数的系统利用蒸汽压缩循环来制取需要的冷量和除湿这个循环也用于制冷和冰冻食物和汽车的空调在1834年一个名叫帕金斯的人在伦敦获得了机械制冷系统的第一专利权在1857年詹姆士和赛博生产出第一个有活力的商业系统除了蒸汽压缩循环之外有两种不常用的制冷方法在建筑物中被应用吸收式循环和蒸发式冷却这些将在后面的章节中讲到对于蒸汽压缩制冷循环有一种叫制冷剂的工作液体它能在适当的工艺设备设计压力下蒸发和冷凝每个蒸汽压缩制冷系统中都有四大部件它们是压缩机冷凝器节流装置和蒸发器压缩机提升制冷剂的蒸汽压力以便使制冷剂的饱和温度微高于在冷凝器中冷却介质温度使用的压缩机类型和系统的设备有关比较大的电冷却设备使用一个离心式的压缩机而小的住宅设备使用的是一种往复或漩涡式压缩机冷凝器是一个热交换器用于将制冷剂的热量传递到冷却介质中制冷剂进入冷凝器变成过冷液体用于冷凝器中的典型冷却介质是空气和水大多数住宅建筑的冷凝器中使用空气作为冷却介质而大型系统的冷凝器中采用水作为冷却介质液体制冷剂在离开冷凝器之后在膨胀阀中节流到一个更低的压力膨胀阀是一个节流的装置例如毛细管或有孔的短管或一个活动的装置例如热力膨胀阀或电子膨胀阀膨胀阀的作用是到蒸发器中分流制冷剂以便当它到压缩物吸入口的时候制冷剂处于过热状态在膨胀阀的出口制冷剂的温度在介质空气或水的温度以下之后制冷剂经过一个热交换器叫做蒸发器它吸收通过蒸发器的空气或水的热量如果空气经过蒸发器在流通该系统叫做一个直接膨胀式系统如果水经过蒸发器在流通它叫做冷却设备在任何情况下在蒸发器中的制冷剂不直接和空气或水接触在蒸发器中制冷剂从一个低品位的两相液体转换成在正常的工艺条件下过热的蒸汽蒸汽的形成要以一定的足够速度被压缩机排出以维持在蒸发器中低压和保持循环进行所有在生产中的机械冷却产生的热量必须经过冷凝器散发在许多例子中在冷凝器中这个热能被直接散发到环境的空气中或间接地散发到一个冷却塔的水中在一些应用中利用这些废热向建筑物提供热量是可能的回收这些最高温度为65℃ 150°F 的废热可以减少建筑物中采暖的费用空调的制冷能力常用冷吨或千瓦千瓦来表示冷吨是一个度量单位它与制冰厂在 24小时内使1吨 907 公斤的水结冰的能力有关其值是351千瓦12000 Btuhr 空调的冷却能力不要和产生冷量所需的电能相互混淆21 制冷剂的使用和选择直到20世纪80年代中叶制冷剂的选择在大多数的建筑物空调设备中不是一个问题因为在制冷剂的使用上还没有统一的的标准在以前用于建筑物空调设备的大多数制冷剂是氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物且大多数的制冷剂是无毒的和不可燃的然而最近的美国联邦的标准环保署 1993a环保署 1993b 和国际的协议 UNEP1987 已经限制了氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物的制造和使用现在氟氯碳化物和氟氯碳氢化物在一些场合依然被使用对制冷剂的理解能帮助建筑物拥有者或者工程师更好的了解关于为特定的设备下如何选择制冷剂这里将讨论不同制冷剂的使用并给出影响它们使用的建筑空调设备和标准美国社会的供暖制冷和空调工程师学会 ASHRAE 有一个标准的限制系统表 com 用来区分制冷剂许多流行的氟氯碳化物氟氯碳氢化物和氟碳化物的制冷剂是在甲烷和乙烷的制冷剂系列中因为卤素元素的存在他们被叫作碳化卤或卤化的碳化氢例如氟或氯Zeotropes 和azeotropes 是混合二种或更多不同的制冷剂一种zeotropic混合物能改变饱和温度在它在不变的压力蒸发或冷凝这种现象被称温度的移动在大气压力下R-407 C的沸点沸腾是–44 °C – 47° F 和一个凝结点露点是–37°C –35°F 产生了7°C的温度移动 12°F 一个azeotropic 混合物的性能像单独成份制冷剂那样它在不变的压力下蒸发或冷凝它们的饱和温度不会有少许变化R-410有微小的足够温度滑动少于55 C10°F 可以认为接近azeotropic混合制冷剂ASHRAE组制冷剂 com 根据它们的毒性和易燃性 ASHRAE1994 划分的A1组合是不燃烧的和最没有毒的而B3组是易燃的和最有毒的以空气为媒介的制冷剂最高安全限制是毒性如果制冷剂在少于每百万分之400是无毒的它是一个A级制冷剂如果对泄露少于每百万分之400是有毒的那么该物质被称B级制冷剂这几个级别表示制冷剂的易燃性表 com 的最后一栏列出了常用的制冷剂的毒性和易燃的等级因为他们是无毒的和不燃烧的所以在A1组中制冷剂通常作为理想的制冷剂能基本满足舒适性空调的需求在A1中的制冷剂通常用在建筑空调设备方面的包括 R-11R-12R-22R-134a和R-410AR-11R-12R-123和R-134a是普遍用在离心式的冷却设备的制冷剂R-11氟氯碳化物和R-123 HCFC 都有低压高容积特性是用在离心式压缩机上的理想制冷剂在对氟氯碳化物的制造的禁令颁布之前R-11和R-12已经是冷却设备的首选制冷剂在已存在的系统维护中现在这两种制冷剂的使用已经被限制现在R-123 和 R-134a都广泛的用在新的冷却设备中R-123拥有的效率优势在 R-134a之上表 com 然而R-123有 B1安全等级这就意谓它有一个比较低的毒性而胜于R-134a如果一个使用R-123冷却设备在一栋建筑物中被用当使用这些或任何其他有毒的或易燃的制冷剂时候标准 15 ASHRAE1992 提供安全预防的指导方针制冷剂22 属于HCFC在多数的相同设备中被用也是在多数往复和螺旋式冷却设备和小型商业和住宅的集中式设备中的首选制冷剂它可以在一个更高的压力下运行这一点要优于R-11或R-12中的任何一个从2004开始HCFCs的制造将会受到限制在2010年R-22不能在新的空调设备中被使用 2020年之后R-22不允许生产环保署1993bR-407C和R-410A是 HFCs的两种混合物两者都是R-22的替代品R-407C预期将很快地替换R-22在空调设备中它的蒸发和冷凝压力接近R-22 com 然而用R-407C来替换R-22应该在和设备制造者商议之后才能进行至少润滑油和膨胀装置将需要更换在1998年第一个使用R-410A的空调设备的住宅在美国出现使用R-410A的系统运作中压力大约比R-22高50 表 com 因此R-410A不能够用于当作速冻制冷剂来替代 R-22R-410A系统利用特定的压缩机膨胀阀和热交换器来利用该制冷剂氨广泛地被在工业的冷却设备和氨水吸收式制冷中用它具有可燃性并且分毒性等级为B因此在商业建筑物中使用受到限制除非冷却设备的制造工厂独立于被冷却的建筑物之外作为制冷剂氨有许多良好的品质例如它有较高的比热和高的导热率它的蒸发焓通常比那普遍使用的卤化碳高6到8倍而且氨和卤化碳比较来看它能提供更高的热交换量而且它能用在往复式和离心式压缩机中天然制冷剂的使用例如二氧化碳 R-744 和碳化氢在空调和制冷系统中的使用正在研究之中二氧化碳能在高于传统的HCFCs或HFCs的压力下工作和在超过临界点的典型的空调设备中工作人们通常认为碳化氢制冷剂易燃且比较危险但它在传统的压缩机中和有的工业设备中都可以被使用R-290 丙烷都有接近R-22的工作压力并被推荐来替代R-22 Kramer 1991 目前在美国没有用二氧化碳或可燃的制冷剂的商业系统用于建筑部门31冷水机组1995年在美国冷水机组应用在至少4％的商用建筑中而且由于制冷机组通常安装在较大的建筑中在同一年里制冷机组冷却了多于28％的商用建筑的地板空间DOE1998在商用建筑中普遍采用五种型式的制冷机往复式螺杆式旋涡式离心式和吸收式前四种利用蒸汽压缩式循环来制得冷冻水它们的不同主要在于使用的压缩机种类的不同吸收式制冷机在吸收循环中利用热能典型的是来自蒸汽或燃料燃烧并利用氨－水或水－锂溴化物制得冷冻水32总的系统大约86％的制冷机和表所示的一样用在多台制冷机系统中Bitondo和Tozzi1999在冷冻水系统中建筑物的回水通过每个蒸发器循环流动在蒸发器中回水被冷却到合意的温度典型的为4～7℃－39～45℉然后冷冻水通过各设备传送到水－空气换热器在换热器中空气被冷冻水冷却和加湿在这个过程中冷水的温度升高然后必须回送到蒸发器中制冷机组是冷水机组水通过每个机组的冷凝器循环在冷凝器中水吸收了来自高压制冷剂的热量接着水用水泵打到冷却塔中水通过蒸发而降温冷却塔将在后一部分讲述冷凝器也可以是空冷式的在这种循环中冷凝器应是制冷剂－空气热交换器空气吸收来自高压制冷剂的热量制冷机组名义制冷量为30～18000kw8～5100tons在美国出售的大部分制冷机组是用电的利用蒸汽压缩制冷循环来制得冷冻水在设计中这种系统所使用的压缩机也有往复式螺杆式旋涡式和离心式一小部分的离心式制冷机利用内燃机或蒸汽机代替电来启动压缩机在建筑中所使用的制冷机组类型根据应用场所来确定对于大的办公室建筑或制冷机组需服务于多个建筑时通常使用离心式压缩机在所需制冷量小于1000kw280tons时使用往复式或螺杆式制冷机组较合适在小的应用场合若低于100kw30tons时使用往复式或旋涡式制冷机组33蒸汽压缩式制冷机四种电启动的蒸汽压缩式制冷机组的名义制冷量范围每种制冷机以所使用的压缩机类型来命名各种系统的制冷能力范围从最小的旋涡式30kw8tons到最大的离心式18000kw5000tons制冷机可使用HCFCsR22R123或HFCsR－134a制冷剂制冷机的效率通常用输入功用kw表示与制冷量用tons表示的比值表示1tons 的制冷量等于352kw或1200btu／h用这种方法衡量效率其数值越小越好离心式制冷机的效率最高而往复式是这四种类型中效率最低的表中所提供的效率是根据ASHRAE Standard30ASHRAE1995在稳定状态下测得满负荷时的效率这些效率中不包括辅助设备的能耗比如泵冷却塔的风机而这些设备可以增加006～。

Shallow talk the building environment an air condition to can consume with thewarmSummary:The research constructs environment, understanding a warm an air condition to carry output reason and influencing factor, can be more and reasonably put forward solve problem of method.Keyword:Constructing a warm of environment an air condition can consumeShallow talk the building environment an air condition to can consume with the warmThe energy provided motive for the development of the economy, but because of various reason, the development of the energy is a usually behind in economy of development.In the last few years, the growth rate maintenance of citizen's total output value of China are in about 10%, but the growth rate of the energy only have 3% ～s 4%.Such situation's requesting us has to economize on energy.The comparison that constructs the energy depletion in the society always the ability consume compares greatly, the building of the flourishing nations' use can have to the whole country generally and always can consume of 30% ～s 40%;China adopts the town population of the warm area although only 13.6% that have national population, adopt warm use an ability but have a whole country and always can consume of 9.6%.Construct the economy energy is the basic trend of the building development, is also a new growth of[with] the contemporary building science technique to order.The necessity of the modern building constitutes a part of warm, the air condition realm has already received the influence of this kind of trend as well, warm the economy energy within air condition system is cause a warm the attention of the air condition worker, and aims at different of the adopt of energy characteristics and the dissimilarity building of the nation,region is warm,well ventilated,the air condition request develop a related economy energy technique.The research constructs environment, understanding a warm an air condition to carry output reason and influencing factor, can be more and reasonably put forward solve problem of method.Warm the air condition can consume of constituteFor creating comfortable indoor air condition environment, have to consume a great deal of energy.Warm the air condition can consume is the building can consume medium of big door, reside to statistics a warm an air condition in the flourishing nation and can consume to have 65% that building can consume, canning consume to share by building always can consume of 356% calculation, warm the air condition can consume to share and always can consume of the comparison is up to 22.75% unexpectedly, be showed from this the building economy energy work of point should be warm the economy energy of the air condition.The air condition can consume to constitute and can see from the warm:Warm the air condition system can consume main the decision is cold in the air condition,hot the burden really certainly installs with the reasonable of the air condition system, the decoration of the air condition system and the choice of the air-condition take the air condition burden as basis of.So warm air condition economy energy of the key is the air condition the external world to carry to carry and inner part really settle, and warm air condition economy energy the work should also begin from this aspect, reasonable decoration building of position, the exactitude chooses the shape and material etc.s of the outside wall,door,window,roof, reducing air condition burden as far as possible.The influence of the indoor environmentWarm the target of the air condition is for people to provide comfortable life and produce indoor hot environment。

暖通空调对可持续发展中的应用英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1With the growing focus on sustainability and environmental protection, the application of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems in sustainable development has become increasingly important. HVAC systems play a vital role in ensuring indoor air quality, thermal comfort, and energy efficiency in buildings. In this essay, we will discuss the application of HVAC systems in sustainable development and the benefits they bring.First and foremost, HVAC systems contribute to energy efficiency in buildings, which is a key aspect of sustainable development. By using energy-efficient HVAC systems, buildings can reduce their energy consumption and carbon emissions, thus reducing their environmental impact. Energy-efficient HVAC systems use advanced technologies such as variable speed drives, thermal storage, and heat recovery to optimize energy usage and minimize waste. By investing in energy-efficient HVAC systems, buildings can achieve significant cost savings in the long run while also reducing their carbon footprint.Moreover, HVAC systems also play a crucial role in ensuring indoor air quality and occupant comfort in buildings. Poor indoor air quality can have negative impacts on occupant health and productivity, while inadequate thermal comfort can lead to discomfort and reduced productivity. By providing proper ventilation, filtration, and temperature control, HVAC systems can create a healthy and comfortable indoor environment for building occupants. This not only improves occupant well-being but also contributes to the overall sustainability of the building.In addition to energy efficiency and indoor comfort, HVAC systems can also be integrated with renewable energy sources to further enhance sustainability. Renewable energy sources such as solar panels, geothermal heat pumps, and wind turbines can be used to power HVAC systems, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering carbon emissions. By harnessing the power of renewable energy, buildings can become more self-sufficient and environmentally friendly, contributing to a more sustainable future.Furthermore, smart HVAC technologies and building automation systems can also play a key role in sustainable development. These systems use sensors, algorithms, and advanced controls to optimize energy usage, monitor indoor airquality, and adjust settings based on occupancy and environmental conditions. By implementing smart HVAC technologies, building owners can achieve greater energy efficiency, operational cost savings, and enhanced occupant comfort. Additionally, these systems can enable remote monitoring and control, allowing for proactive maintenance and troubleshooting to prevent system failures and downtime.Overall, the application of HVAC systems in sustainable development offers a wide range of benefits, including energy efficiency, indoor comfort, renewable energy integration, and smart technologies. By investing in sustainable HVAC solutions, building owners can reduce their environmental impact, improve occupant well-being, and achieve long-term cost savings. As the demand for sustainability continues to grow, the role of HVAC systems in sustainable development will only become more important in creating a greener and healthier built environment.篇2With the increasing focus on sustainable development and climate change, the use of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems has become a crucial aspect in achieving environmental goals. HVAC systems play a significant role in providing thermal comfort and indoor air quality inbuildings. However, they also consume a significant amount of energy, leading to greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to global warming.In order to mitigate the environmental impact of HVAC systems and promote sustainable development, innovative technologies and practices are being implemented in the industry. One key strategy is the adoption of energy-efficient HVAC systems that minimize energy consumption while maintaining comfort levels. This includes the use ofhigh-efficiency heat pumps, variable refrigerant flow systems, and demand-controlled ventilation.Another important aspect of sustainable HVAC applications is the integration of renewable energy sources. Solar thermal systems can be used to provide heating and hot water, while solar photovoltaic panels can generate electricity to power HVAC systems. Geothermal heat pumps utilize the constant temperature of the earth to provide heating and cooling, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels.Furthermore, smart HVAC controls and building automation systems are being employed to optimize energy usage and improve indoor air quality. These systems can adjust temperature settings, airflow rates, and ventilation levels basedon occupancy patterns, weather conditions, and energy prices. By implementing advanced control strategies, buildings can achieve significant energy savings and reduce their carbon footprint.In addition to technological advancements, sustainable HVAC applications also involve proper system design, installation, and maintenance. Building envelope improvements, such as insulation upgrades and air sealing, can reduce heat loss and improve energy efficiency. Regular maintenance andtune-ups of HVAC equipment ensure optimal performance and extend their lifespan.Moreover, building codes and standards are evolving to promote sustainable HVAC practices. Energy efficiency regulations, such as the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive in the European Union, set minimum requirements for HVAC systems in new construction and renovations. Green building certifications, such as LEED and BREEAM, incentivize the use of sustainable HVAC technologies and practices.Overall, the application of sustainable HVAC solutions is essential in addressing the challenges of climate change and promoting environmentally-friendly building practices. By implementing energy-efficient technologies, integratingrenewable energy sources, optimizing system controls, and adhering to green building standards, HVAC systems can contribute to a more sustainable future. It is imperative for stakeholders in the industry, including designers, manufacturers, installers, and building owners, to collaborate and innovate in order to achieve a low-carbon built environment.In conclusion, the integration of sustainable HVAC applications is a key component in advancing the goals of sustainable development and combating climate change. By adopting energy-efficient technologies, utilizing renewable energy sources, implementing smart controls, and ensuring proper system maintenance, HVAC systems can play a significant role in reducing energy consumption, minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, and enhancing indoor comfort. Through collective efforts and continuous innovation, the HVAC industry can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient built environment for future generations.篇3The Application of HVAC in Sustainable DevelopmentWith the rapid development of society and the increasing demand for energy, sustainable development has become aglobal priority. As a key component of buildings, HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems play a crucial role in achieving sustainability by promoting energy efficiency and reducing environmental impact.One of the main challenges in achieving sustainable development is the high energy consumption of buildings, especially in HVAC systems. According to research, buildings account for about 40% of global energy use and 30% of greenhouse gas emissions. HVAC systems, in particular, consume a significant amount of energy in buildings due to the need for heating, cooling, and ventilation.To address this issue, energy-efficient HVAC systems are being developed and implemented in buildings. These systems use advanced technologies such as variable refrigerant flow, heat recovery, and smart controls to optimize energy usage and reduce operational costs. By improving the efficiency of HVAC systems, buildings can significantly reduce their energy consumption and carbon footprint, contributing to sustainable development goals.In addition to energy efficiency, HVAC systems also play a vital role in indoor air quality and occupant comfort. Poor indoor air quality can have detrimental effects on human health andproductivity, leading to increased absenteeism and reduced performance. By providing adequate ventilation and filtration, HVAC systems can help create a healthy and comfortable indoor environment, promoting the well-being of building occupants.Furthermore, HVAC systems can also be integrated with renewable energy sources to further enhance sustainability. Solar panels, geothermal heat pumps, and wind turbines can be used to power HVAC systems, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering carbon emissions. 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浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能摘要：随着人类社会的深入发展，环境问题越来越严重，人们也越来越重视通过生态建筑环来实现对暖通空调的节能效果。

建筑环境与暖空调节能之间存在着密切的联系，人们可以通过对生态建筑环境的改造来达到暖通空调节能的效果。

本文对建筑环境与暖通空调节能进行概述，深入研究二者之间的相互影响作用，为实现暖通空调的节能效应提出有益借鉴。

关键词：建筑环境；暖通空调节能引言随着经济的发展，人们对生活品质的追求能力获得了很大的提高，现代建筑的环境受到了更多的关注。

就当前的现代建筑环境而言，基础设施基本满足了人们的需求，室内暖通空调的自主调节功能大大满足了人居环境的舒适度。

但暖通空调在进行自主调节的同时系统的消耗却也随之增加了，环境受到了一定程度上的污染，影响了生态的平衡发展。

因此，暖通空调在调节时要注意人们对舒适度的追求，也要充分考虑与建筑环境之间的联系，利用建筑环境的优势特点降低暖通空调的能源消耗，实现可持续发展。

一、建筑环境与暖通空调节能的概述建筑与环境之间就一直遵循的是索取与被索取的关系，自然环境要提供更多的资源为建筑服务，这样下去的结果就是环境遭到破坏，生态系统紊乱。

在传统的建筑业中，在进行工程施工时一定会利用建筑周围的自然环境，运用环境的自然优势来打造所谓的现代建筑。

但在这过程中，自然环境会遭到极大的破坏，从而导致一定自然灾害的发生，比如山体的滑坡、全球变暖等都是自然遭到破坏之后的结果[1]。

合理科学地处理建筑与环境的关系，重要的发挥暖通空调的中介作用。

暖通空调是人们追求建筑环境舒适度的必要保障，暖通空调的能耗直接决定了建筑与环境之间的关系。

现代建筑的主旨是打造绿色建筑，为人们提供自然的居住环境，而暖通空调作为建筑中温度调节的主力军，作用自然不可小觑。

暖通空调的消耗主要是制冷和制热，而决定这两点的因素则是用户在使用过程中所产生的冷热外部负荷参数[2]。

用户的内部使用参数是暖通空调的内部负荷，而室外的外部环境则是暖通空调的外部负荷，所以，暖通空调的节能必须从这两点入手，这样才能确保实现对暖通空调的节能效果。

浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能摘要：本文针对建筑环境与暖通空调节做出了进一步探究，详细分析了暖通空调存在的意义以及影响、建筑环境与暖通空调节能的联系、建筑环境对暖通空调节能产生的影响，建筑环境中应用暖通空调节能设计，有益于节能减排目标的实现。

关键词：建筑环境；暖通空调；节能暖通空调需要消耗的能耗较大，占据建筑耗电量整体的50%以上，而大部分空调的状态都属于低效运行，所以会造成较大的能源浪费。

结合相关数据调查显示，社会能耗总量当中，建筑能耗占据的比例为50%，其中空调能耗在建筑能耗中占据67%。

对于这一情况，需要强化节能减排的探究工作，以免能源供需矛盾持续增加。

目前，暖通空调依然对社会不可再生资源有大量消耗，对环境产生了一定的破坏，只有对节能措施合理开展，才能使暖通空调能耗量降低。

所以，需要对暖通空调的节能管理给予加强，深入分析建筑环境与空调节能之间的关系，进而实现降低能耗的目标。

1、暖通空调存在的意义以及影响暖通空调可以为人们提供更加舒适的生活以及工作条件，如：对气体速度、湿度、温度进行改善，与人体四周建筑物的辐射实施热交换，从而使机体保持热平衡状态，满足人体的感官需求。

在很多大型企业当中，对于空调系统的应用，会满足恒定湿度、恒定温度的要求。

目前，由于建筑的密封性有所提升，不断投入使用更多的全新装饰物，所以室内污染问题比较严重，如将空调系统弃用，非常不利于人们的身体健康，因为空调系统可以对室内空气进行循环。

尽管暖通空调带来了非常多的好处，但也有相应的缺点，需要给予重视并进行解决[1]。

2、建筑环境与暖通空调节能的联系分析2.1建筑物设计针对建筑物开展设计，需要应用节能理念，实施标准化设计。

例如：在设计墙体和窗户中，需严格把控具体的比例，以便对节能需求有所适应。

此外，挑选材料时，要挑选具有节能性且能源消耗量小的材料，不但能够降低空调负荷，还能对空调产生的节能效果提升。

2.2围护结构保温我国已经编制了建筑物设计节能准则，在这一过程当中明确规定了保温要求，使得建筑物保温期间存在的一些问题得到了改善。

《浅谈建筑环境与暖通空调节能》摘要：社会的发展带动了我国经济水平的提升，自然环境十分重要，而这就需要我们工程技术人员对自然环境、建筑及人的关系进行深入研究，在建筑领域中，暖通空调作为建筑物中的重要设备，其耗能水平的高低，不仅关系到现代化社会的可持续发展，还直接关乎到整个自然生态环境的正常运行。

因此，对建筑环境的差异给暖通空调节能效果造成的影响进行研究，是具有重要现实意义的。

本文便以建筑环境作为出发点，对暖通空调的节能技术进行深入的研究，并提出相应的对策建议。

关键词：建筑环境;暖通空调;节能引言在人们的日常生活中，暖通空调被人们广泛的应用着，虽然暖通空调为我国人民的生活质量带来了显著的提高，但同时也因为暖通空调的普及对能源供应带来了较大的压力。

而且暖通空调在使用的过程中存在着十分严重的浪费能源等问题，对于我国的经济发展也造成了一定的影响。

如果能够找到改善的措施使得暖通空调的节能水平进行提高，就会对我国的社会持续发展带来深远的影响，也能为我国社会的发展奠定良好的基础。

1对暖通空调进行节能的意义暖通空调节能直接关系到人们的冷暖，以及人们的身体健康，近年来我国经济发展迅速，在此情况下，能源也越来越紧缺。

为了实现节能环保，我国政府从各种角度着手，保证资源的可持续利用，而节约资源，也是每个国人的义务。

暖通空调对能源的消耗很大，基于此情况，对暖通空调进行节能非常有必要，而且社会的发展，促使人们的居住面积在不停的扩大，这样能源的消耗也会大大提高，会引起能源在供求上的一系列问题。

在暖通空调的使用中，其中用到的能源，大多都是不可再生的，暖通空调的使用量在不停的增加，当能源消耗过大时，资源就更少了。

在暖通空调工作时，还会对电能产生很大的消耗，长此以往还会对人们的生活造成影响。

在暖通空调的使用上，要进行节能，只有这样才能有效减少对能源的过多消耗，尽量改变我国能源紧缺的现象，节约电能，缓解电能供求紧缺问题，当提高能源使用率时，一定程度上也提高了资源的利用，这样不仅有助于经济的发展，而且还会提高人们的生活水平。