第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:语言学研究有不同的侧重。
对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
语言学复习重点第一章第1章语言和语言学(本章主要讨论什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及什么是语言学，语言学研究的范围是什么)1.1语言的本质——什么是语言？单句小结，语言是一种用于人类交流的任意发声符号系统。
人类特有的，用于交流)语言是系统的(强调:语言的双重性)解释:语言是系统化的。
二元性:每种语言被组织成两个基本系统:一个声音系统和一个手段系统。
语言是象征性的(强调:图标，索引，这是我第一次能够做到这一点。
但是没有办法，PPT这么说，我认为符号的理解应该是人们用符号来交流。
这是因为:，现代语言学之父，索绪尔:指南是符号学的一个分支。
语言作为人类交流的特殊手段)语言学家感到厌烦，决定对这些混乱的符号进行分类。
所以有:图标索引符号3。
语言是任意的解释:手段和声音之间没有自然的联系。
词和宾语，词的形式和意义。
索绪尔也提出，意义和意义之间没有自然的联系。
但是，换句话说，发明这个词的人可以随意发明它，而你不能随意使用它。
简而言之，你不能把桌子叫做猪。
4 .语言主要是有声的(语言是从一开始说的)有五个理由可以这样说:①儿童在学会阅读和写作之前学会说话(2)儿童在成长过程中自己学习语言(3)在人类历史上，有先说后写(4)写作是以语言为基础的(5)人们说得多写得少(5)。
语言是人类特有的(语言是人类独有的)解释:因为，人类语言具有以下特征:(1)置换199 (2)生产力或创造力:人类有能力生产和理解。
③文化传播:学习作为人类语言的一个因素比动物交流更重要。
4结构复杂性语言的结构复杂无界动物交流系统是封闭的。
当他还是个孩子的时候，他不知道该做什么。
语言不仅是一种心理现象，也是一种社会事实。
语言功能分为两类，一类是通用功能，一类是元功能，元功能(注:通用功能是专用的，特殊应用；元函数涵盖更广泛的更抽象的函数) 1。
一般功能:指个人对语言的具体使用英寸列出了7种一般功能:①生理/表达/情绪功能心理学\ \表达\ \情绪功能:这种功能没有交际目的。
语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。
