语⾔学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第⼀部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme ⾃由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词⼲A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派⽣词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第⼆部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最⼩的⾃由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventionsor discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派⽣Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借⽤English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱⼝秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。
