汽车制动控制系统、中英文翻译、外文翻译

3.1 ClutchThe engine produces the power to drive the vehicle. The drive line or drive train transfers the power of the engine to the wheels. The drive train consists of the parts from the back of the fl ywheel to the wheels. These parts include the clutch, the transmission, the drive shaft, and the final drive assembly.The clutch which includes the flywheel, clutch disc, pressure plate, springs, pressure plate cover and the linkage necessary to operate the clutch is a rotating mechanism between the engine and the transmission. It operates through friction which comes from contact between the parts. That is the reason why the clutch is called a friction mechanism. After engagement, the clutch must continue to transmit all engine torque to transmission depending on the friction without slippage. The clutch is also used to disengage the engine from the drive train whenever the gears in the transmission are being shifted from gear ratio to another.To start the engine or shift the gears, the driver has to depr ess the clutch pedal with the purpose of disengagement the transmission from the engine. At that time, the driven members connected to the transmission input shaft are either stationary or rotating at a speed that is slower of faster than the driving membe rs connected to engine crankshaft. There is no spring pressure on the clutch assembly parts. So there is no friction between the driving members and driven members. As the driver let’s loose the clutch pedal, spring pressure increase on the clutch parts. Friction between the parts also increases. The pressure exerted by the springs on the driven members is controlled by the driver through the clutch pedal and linkage. The positive engagement of the driving and driven members is made possible the friction be tween the surfaces of the members. When full spring pressure is applied, the speed of the driving and driven members should be the same. At themoment, the clutch must act as a coupling device and transmit all engine power to the transmission, without slipping.However, the transmission should be engaged to the engine graduall y in order to operate the car smoothly and minimize tensional shock on the drive train because an engine at idle just develop little power. Otherwise, the driving members are connecte d with the driven members too quickly and the engine would be stalled.The fl ywheel is a major part of the clutch. The flywheel mounts to the engine’s crankshaft and transmits engine torque to the clutch assembly. The flywheel, when coupled with the clutc h disc and pressure plate makes and breaks the flow of power the engine to the transmission.The flywheel provides a mounting location for the clutch assembly as well. When the clutch is applied, the fl ywheel transfers engine torque to the clutch disc. Because of its weight, the fl ywheel helps to smooth engine operation. The flywheel also has a large ring gear at its outer edge, which engages with a pinion gear on the starter motor during engine cranking.The clutch disc fits between the fl ywheel and the pressure plate. The clutch disc has a splinted hub that fits over splints on the transmission input shaft. A splinted hub has grooves that match splints on the shaft. These splints fit in the grooves. Thus, the two parts held together. However, back – and – forth movement of the disc on the shaft is possible. Attached to the input shaft, the disc turns at the speed of the shaft.The clutch pressure plate is generall y made of cast iron. It is round and about the same diameter as the clutch disc. One side of the pressure plate is machined smooth. This side will press the clutch disc facing are against the flywheel. The outer side has shapes to facilitate attachment of spring and release mechanism. The two primary t ypes of pressure plate assemblies are coil sp ring assembly and diaphragm spring.In a coil spring clutch the pressure plate is backed by a number of coil springs and housed with them in a pressed –steed cover bolted to the flywheel. The spring pushes against the cover. Neither the driven plate nor the pressure plate is connected rigidl y to the flywheel and both can move either towards it o away. When the clutch pedal is depressed a thrust pad riding on a carbon or ball thrust bearing is forced towards the flywheel. Levers pivoted so that they engage with the thrust pad at one end and the pressure plate tat the other end pull the pressure plate back against its springs. This releases pressure on the driven plate disconnecting the gearbox from the engine.Diaphragm spring pressure plate assemblies are widely used in most modern cars. The diaphragm spring is a single thin sheet of metal which yields when pressure is applied to it. When pressure is removed the metal spring back to its original shape. The center portion of the diaphragm spring is slit int o numerous fingers that act as release levers. When the clutch assembly rotates with the engine these weights are flung outwards by centrifugal plate and cause the levers to press against the pressure plate. During disengagement of the clutch the fingers are moved forward by the release bearing. The spring pivots over the fulcrum ring and its outer rim moves away from the flywheel. The retracting spring pulls the pressure plate away from the clutch plate thus disengaging the clutch.When engaged the release bearing and the fingers of the diaphragm spring move towards the transmission. As the diaphragm pivots over the pivot ring its outer rim forces the pressure plate against the clutch disc so that the clutch plate is engaged to flywheel.The advantages of a diaphragm t ype pressure plate assembl y are its compactness, lower weight, fewer moving parts, less effort to engage, reduces rotational imbalance by providing a balanced force around the pressure plate and less chances of clutch slippage.The clutch pedal is connected to the disengagement mechanismeither by a cable or, more commonly, by a hydraulic s ystem. Either way, pushing the pedal down operates the disengagement mechanism which puts pressure on the fingers of the clutch diaphragm via a release bearing and causes the diaphragm to release the clutch plate. With a hydraulic mechanism, the clutch pedal arm operates a piston in the clutch master cylinder. This forces hydraulic fluid through a pipe to the cutch release cylinder where another operates the c lutch disengagement mechanism by a cable.The other parts including the clutch fork, release bearing, bell –housing, bell housing cover, and pilot bushing are needed to couple and uncouple the transmission. The clutch fork, which connects to the linkage, actually operates the clutch. The release bearing fits between the clutch fork and the pressure plate assembly. The bell housing covers the clutch assembly. The bell housing cover fastens to the bottom of the bell housing. This removable cover allows a me chanic to inspect the clutch without removing the transmission and bell housing. A pilot bushing fits into the back of the crankshaft and holds the transmission input shaft.3.2 Brake SystemThe breaking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerfu l as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.The brake s ystem is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directl yconnected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, speciall y designed to work in extreme condition, fills the system. “Shoes” and “Pads” are pushed by the salve cylinders to contact the “drum” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefull y) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder.Stepping on the brake pedal, a plunger is actually been pushing against in the master cylinder which forces hydr aulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through pipe. Unlike a s teel bar, however, fluid can be directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving with the exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very important that the fluid is pure liquid and that there is no air bubbles in it. Air can compress which causes sponginess to the pedal and severely reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove the air. There are “bleeder screws” at each wheel and caliper for this purpose.On disk brakes, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it pressure against a piston. The piton, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor) which is attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop. This process is simila r to the wheel, causing the wheel to stop. In either case, the friction surface of the pads on a disk brake system, on the shoes on a drum brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is what causes the friction surfaces (lining) of the pads and shoes to eventually wear out andrequire replacement.Brake fluid is special oil that has specifics properties. It is designed to withstand cold temperatures without thickening as well as very high temperatures without boiling. (If the brake flui d should boil, it will cause you to have a spongy pedal and the car will be hard to stop).The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. Th e brake fluid lever will drop slightl y as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the lever drops noticeabl y over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered expect for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a can of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower th at boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are onl y used in places that require flexibility, such as at the front wheels, which move up and dow n as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the complete line. If this is nit practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use brass “compression” fittings or copper tubing repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.3.2.1 Other Components in the Hydraulic System Proportioning Valve or Equalizer ValveThese valves are mounted between the master cylinder and the rear wheels. They are designed to adjust the pressure between the front and the rear brakes depending on how hard you are stopping. The shorter you stop, the mor e of the vehicle’s weight is transferred to the front wheels, in some cases, causing the rear to lift and the front to dive. These valves are designed to direct more pressure to the front and less pressure to the harder you stop. This minimizes the chance of premature lockup at the rear wheels.Pressure Differential ValveThis valve is usually mounted just below the master and is responsible for turning the brake warning light on when it detects a malfunction. It measures the pressure from the two sections of the master cylinder and compares them. Since it is mounted ahead of the proportioning or equalizer valve, the two pressures it detects should be equal. If it detects a difference, it means that there is probably a brake fluid leak somewhere in the syst em.3．1 离合器发动机产生动力来驱动汽车，它通过传动系把动力传递到车轮上，传动系包含从飞轮到车轮的所有零件。

轮毂式电动汽车驱动系统外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译The wheel type electric car is a type of electric car thatutilizes a driving system。

There are two main forms of this system: the direct driving type ___。

This system is installed on the wheel hub of the motor。

___。

n。

main cer。

___。

it allows for the ___。

making electric control technology possible。

As a result。

the wheel type electric car is expected to e the ___ electric cars.2.Advantages and disadvantagesThe wheel type electric car has many advantages。

First。

it has a simple and compact structure。

Second。

it has high n efficiency。

which improves the overall performance of the car。

Third。

it has good ___。

it has a low noise level。

However。

there are also some disadvantages。

First。

the cost of the wheel type electric car is relatively high。

Second。

the maintenance costis also high。

Third。

the wheel type electric car has ___.The wheel type electric car has a simple and compact structure。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：An Experimental Analysis of Brake Efficiency Using fourFluids in a Disc Brake SystemABSTRACTThe paper studies disc brake failure in Mini-buses using an experimental analysis to test the maximum braking force when different brake fluids such as clean, less dirty, dirty and soapy water solution were used in the braking system. The experimental results clearly showed that the soap solution appears to be the best fluid as far as low viscosity and stability of viscosity with increase in temperature are concerned. However, the soap solution is not compatible with other fluid which makes it difficult to be substitute as a clean brake fluid. The result of the Thepra Universal Brake Testing Equipment used for the braking efficiency test indicated that a pedal brake of 117 kN produce a brake force of 0.96 kN for clean brake fluid, 0.91 kN for the less dirty, 0.85 kN for dirty and 1.44 kN forsoap solution. The value of 1.44 kN which was achieved when the soap solution was used indicated a positive braking force and the indicating that soap solution could be used to produce a high pedal force within a very short time (about 10-30 min) and can therefore be used only in case of emergency. The brake efficiency test indicated that under hot conditions the braking efficiency is reduced and the presence of air in the system renders the braking ineffective because higher pedal force was needed to be able to produce a significant braking force which is noted for causing brake failure.Keywords: Brake fade, brake failure, disc brake, efficiency, pedal force INTRODUCTIONWhen a vehicle is accelerated, energy supplied by the engine causes the vehicle’s speed to increase. Part of this energy is instantly used up in overcoming frictional and tractive resistance but a large amount of it remains stored in the vehicle. According to Heinz (1999) this energy of motion is called the kinetic energy and the existence of kinetic energy is observed when a vehicle is moving and neutral gear is selected. The vehicle does not immediately come to rest; instead it travels for a considerable distance before it becomes stationary. In this case the stored energy is used to drive the vehicle against the resistances that oppose the vehicle’s motion. Relying on these r esistances to slow down a vehicle could cause many problems, so an additional resistance called a brake is needed to convert the kinetic energy to heat energy at a faster rate in order to reduce the speed of the vehicle Mcphee and Johnson (2007). This reduces the speed of the vehicle at a faster rate and brings the vehicle to rest within the shortest possibletime when the brakes are applied.From the point of view of Johnson et al. (2003) most automotive systems in use today utilize front disc brakes, but four-wheel disc systems are also common In disc brakes, the rotor rotates with the wheel and the pads move out to rub the rotor when the brakes are applied. Most disc brakes use floating calipers. The caliper slides in and out as the brakes are applied and released. The piston moves the inside pad out and pushes the outside pad into the rotor by sliding the caliper back toward the rotor.The use of disc brakes to reduce speed or bring the vehicle to rest when in motion cannot be over emphasized if the safety of the occupant is to be guaranteed Heinz (1999). To bring a vehicle to a stop, the disc brakes have to absorb all the energy given to thevehicle by the engine and that due to the momentum of the vehicle. This energy must then be dissipated. In most vehicle disc brakes, the energy is absorbed by friction, converted into heat and the heat dissipated to the surrounding air (Thoms, 1988). As the energy is absorbed, the vehicle is slowed down; in other words, its motion is retarded. The brakes must also pull up the vehicle smoothly and in a straight line to bring the vehicle to a stop position.It is therefore very important that the disc brakes of vehicles operate with the highest efficiency. This couldreduce the rate of accidents due to brake failure so that life and property could be preserved and also to ensure that occupants of these commercial vehicles go about their normal lives without any fear of being involved in an accident. Available crash data in Ghana suggests that about 1,900 persons are killed annually in road traffic crashes (Afukaar et al., 2008) and that more than 40% of the road traffic fatalities are occupants of cars, buses and trucks. Most often than not, some of the road accidents involving commercial vehicles, such as the mini-buses have been attributed to the failure of the disc brakes. The reason for testing the viscosity of these brake fluids, especially that of the soap solution was as a result of the practice of most Ghanaian drivers sometimes using the soapy solution as a substitute to the original brake fluid in the braking system and also using dirty brake fluid which has been used for bleeding purposes. The main objective of this study which is part of a larger work seeks to investigate and establish the reasons for the disc brake failure due to brake fluid also check the efficiency of the four different types of fluids used in the transmission of braking forces. The study looked at the maximum braking force when using clean, less dirty, dirty and soapy water solution in the braking system. It also looked at the braking force when the braking system is with or without servo unit and operating under cold or hot condition with air or without air in the braking systemDISC BRAKESThe disc brake consists of an exposed disc which is attached to the hub flange; the two friction pads arepressed on to this disc to give a braking action. Figure 1a, shows the disk brake system of a car and pad that is separated from wheel assembly to better shows the disk and the pad in sliding contact. As it can be seen, typical disk brake system and caliper assembly of a solid disk brake rotor is completely noticeable. Figure 1b shows schematic form of the disk and the pad in sliding contact assembly.(a) (b)Fig. 1: Disc brakeThe pads are moved by hydraulic pistons working in cylinders formed in a caliper that is secured to a fixed part of the axle. When the hydraulic pressure is applied to the two cylinders held in the fixed caliper, the pistons move; this action forces the friction pads into contact with the rotating cast iron disc. The sandwiching action of the pads on the disc gives a retarding action and heat generated from the energy of motion is conducted to the disc.Greater part of the disc is exposed to the air; therefore heat is easily radiated, with the result that the brake can be used continuously for long periods before serious fade occurs. Since the friction pads move at a right angle to the disc, any drop in the friction value does not affect the force applied to the pad. As a result this type of brake is not less sensitive to heat (Mudd, 1972). The disc brake was developed to minimize the fade problems. When fading occurs, the driver has to apply a much larger effort and in extreme cases it becomes impossible to bring the vehicle to rest. No assistance is obtained from the rotating disc to aid the driver in the application of a disc brake to achieve a given retardation. A disc brake requires a greater pedal pressure and toachieve this pressure required the hydraulic braking system using a good quality brake fluid in its operation.The fluid used in the hydraulic braking systems is a vegetable oil with certain additives. According to Nunney et al. (1998) a good brake fluid should have the following requirements, low viscosity, high boiling point, compatibility with rubber components, lubricating properties, resistance to chemical ageing and compatibility with other fluids. However, mostGhanaian drivers sometimes used other fluid such as dirty brake fluid, less dirty fluid and even soapy water sometimes as a substituted to the original brake fluid. This study among other things will also investigate which of these brake fluid, clean, dirty, less dirty and soapy water will have the best viscosity, high boiling point and less braking force.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe design used for this study was experiment which employed the used of viscometer and Thepra Universal Automotive Brake Testing machine to check the efficiency of the four fluids in the transmission of braking forces.Laboratory analysis: The viscosity tests on the four different liquids were carried out at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) Thermodynamics laboratory. The liquids were clean brake fluid, less dirty brake fluid, dirty brake fluid and soap solution. It was necessary to find out how the viscosity of different qualities of brake fluid affected braking efficiency and to find out whether there was any correlation between these and the occurrence of brake failure.Viscosity test on the various fluids used: The viscosity test was carried out on a Redwood Viscometer in Fig. 2 on the four different kinds of fluids to determine their viscosities. The apparatus consists of a vertical cylinder containing the fluid under test which was allowed to flow through a calibrated orifice situated at the centre of the cylinder base. The orifice is closed by a ball valve when it is not being used.Fig. 2: Redwood viscometer used to determine the viscosity of the fluidsThe oil cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket which maintains the lubricant under test at a required temperature by means of a Bunsen burner flame applied to the heating tube. The thermometer for the water in the jacket is mounted in a paddle-type stirrer which can be rotated by hand, using the handle (Zammit, 1987).Procedure for testing various viscosities of the fluids: To test the viscosity of a fluid, the water jacket was filled with water with the orifice ball valve in position. Fluid was poured into the cylinder to the level of the pointer. A 50 mL measuring flask was placed centrally under the orifice. The water was stirred gently until the water and fluid thermometers were the same (room temperature, 30ºC). Thetemperature was recorded. The ball valve was then raised and a stopwatch used to record the time (in seconds) for a 50 mL of fluid to flow into the measuring flask. The test was repeated with the fluid temperatures increasing by 10ºC each time up to 90ºC. All the data for the four differentfluids were recorded as shown in Table 1Thepra universal stand automotive brake testing equipment:The ThepraUniversal Stand Automotive brake testing equipment is structured in such a way that the driven part, such as brake disc, was plugged on to the motor shaft. The brake anchor plate and the caliper are fastened to a flange via a linkage of bar which is connected to the flange. The brake force is measured and displayed on a digital indicator. The individualunits are plugged into the two span-frames which are fastened to both sides. All the brake components used in the testing equipment are original vehicle components. The pedalforce is measured at the actuating linkage of the brake master cylinder and displayed on a digital indicator (Technolab, 2009)RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONExperimental results of viscosity test: Table 1 present the results of viscosity test inan experiment for the four fluids, using the Redwood Viscometer.From the test results obtained using Redwood viscometer, Viscosity-Temperature graphs for the fluids were plotted. Figure 3 shows the plot of viscosity againsttemperature of the four fluids.Table 1: Viscosity testValues of the various viscosities werecalculated using the formula:V = hfρgD232hfvwhere,V : The Viscosityhf : The capillary heightρ : The density of the fluidg : Acceleration due to gravityD : The diameter of the orificev : The velocity (Bird et al., 1960) Fig. 3: Viscosity-temperature relationship of the fluidsFrom Fig. 3 the dirty fluid has the highest viscosity followed by the less dirty fluid, clean fluid and soap solution in that order. From the results shown in Fig. 2 and theviscosity test shown in Table 1, the soap solution appear to be the best fluid as far as lowviscosity and stability of viscosity with increase in temperature are concerned. However, it is less compatible with other fluids, difficult to mix easily with other brake fluids and has a low boiling point which will not make it suitable to be substitute as clean brake fluid (Nunney et al., 1998).The clean brake fluid is next as far as viscosity and stability of viscosity with increase in temperature are concerned. On the other hand, it satisfies all the other requirements of a good fluid for the braking system given in Table 1. According to Mudd (1972) and Nunney et al. (1998), a good brake fluid should have properties such as high boiling point, compatibility with rubber components, good lubrication properties, resistance to chemical ageing (long shelf life) and compatibility with other fluids. The less dirty fluid is very unstable as far as viscosity change with temperature increase is concerned. It is therefore not very reliable in a braking system since its behavior changes as the braking system heats up. The viscosity of the dirty fluid is stable with increase in temperature, however, it is very viscous (235-178 kgs/m3 in the temperature range 30 to 90ºC). It will therefore not be good and effective in brake force transmission. From these results and literature, it is obvious that the clean brake fluid is more suitable for the transmission of braking force as it’s possess all the good brake fluid qualities.Experimental results of the disc brake system:These sections present the results and discussion of the experiments using the four fluids in a Disc brake system under different conditions. Test results for hot and cold conditions of the Disc brake system using a servo system and without using a servo system were considered.Disc brake in cold condition with and without servo unit: The result in Table 2 clearly shows the pedal force and the brake force for clean, less dirty, dirty and soap solution when using disc brake in cold condition with servo unit with the Thepra Universal Brake Testing Equipment. A pedal brake of 117 kN produce a brake force of 0.96 kN for a clean brake fluid,Table 2: Results of disc brake in cold condition with servoTable 3: Results of disc brake in hot condition with servo0.91 kN for the less dirty, 0.85 kN for dirty and 1.44 kN for soap solution. Comparatively, a maximum brake force is achieved when the fluid is clean. When there is the presence of dirt,the brake force decreases and therefore more pedal force is needed to take up thewithout servoloss created by the dirt.Hence the greater the dirt, the greater thepedal force required.The value of 1.44kN which wasachieved when the soap solution wasused indicated a positive braking force compared with all the three fluids at the same pedal force. Subsequent pedal forces applied as shown in Table 2 gave a reduction in the brake force when soap solution was used. The implication was that soap solution could be used to produce a high pedal force within a very short time (about 10-30 min) and can therefore be used in case of emergency.From Table 2, it can be observed that for the same pedal force of 117 KN the soap solution transmitted the highest amount of brake force followed by the clean fluid, less dirty fluid and dirty fluid in that order. This implies that in cold condition using servo, the soap solution performs best followed by the clean, less dirty and dirty respectively.Disc brake in hot condition with servo unit: When the experiment was carried out using a disc brake under the hot conditions with the introduction of a servo, a pedal force of 120 kN gave a brake force of 0.95 kN for clean fluid, 0.90 kN for less dirty, 0.85 kN for a dirty fluid and 0.19 KN for soap solution. The result could be explain that, the clean brake fluid gave the highest brake force follow by less dirty, dirty and soap solution. It was observed that the soap solution perform poorly at this time recording a brake force of 0.19 KN as shown in Table 3.Disc brake in hot condition without servo: Figure 4 shows a plot of disc brake inhot condition without servo unit. It can be observed that, under hot conditions for the disc brake without servo, the trend is generally the same. The soap solution performed very badly compare with the other fluids, unlike its performance under cold conditions. This may be due to evaporation of the fluid making the fluid compressible; as if air was in the braking system. Generally, the clean fluid performed best in terms of transmission of brake force followed by the less dirty, dirty and soap solution in that order.Disc brake with air in system under cold condition: Braking force for this experiment was generally low as compared with the case when air was not trapped in the system as shown in Table 4. When the experiment was conducted with a pedal force of 165 kN, braking force ofTable 4: Results of disc brake with air in system under cold condition with servoFig. 5: Results of disc brake with air in system under hot condition with servo0.32 kN soap solution was obtained, for 0.37 KN for dirty, 0.28 KN for less dirty and 0.30 kN for clean fluid. This is in line with literature because according to Mudd (1972) the presence of air in the braking system makes the system ineffective since much of the drivers effort will be used to compress the air leaving very little for the brake application.Again, the soap solution did not give the least braking force because when the system is cold, soap solution is effective and its density is higher since there is nooccurrence of evaporation of the solution.Disc brake with air in system under hot condition: The Fig. 5 shows the plot of a graph indicating disc brake with air in the system under hot condition clearly shows that, when a pedal force of 152 kN was applied, a brake force of 1.11 kN was obtained for clean, 0.37 kN for less dirty, 0.28 kN for dirty and 0.26 kN for soap solution. It was observed that the maximum brake force was attained when the fluid was clean and on the introduction of dirty fluid, the brake force reduced drastically, though the pedal force was very high at 152 kN in the hot condition.Soap solution provides the least brake force because the air content in the system increases due to evaporation and hence the pedal force compresses air rather than transmitting power. As the system heats up, the air in the system expands thereby reducing the braking efficiency which results in brake failure.CONCLUSIONThe study was conducted using an experiment performed on a Thepra Brake Testing Equipment to check the efficiency of the four fluids in the transmission of braking forces. According tothe viscometer test shown that the soap solution appears to be the best fluid as far as low viscosity and stability of viscosity with increase in temperature is concerned. However, it is less compatible with other fluids, difficult to mix easily with other brake fluids and has a low boiling point which will not make it suitable to be substituted as a clean brake fluid.Again, when air is trapped in the braking system, which results in the brake fluid being compressible, higher pedal force was needed to be able to produce a significant braking force.Also, when brakes are operated under hot conditions its efficiency is reduced, a fault known as brake fade occurs as a result of the heating up of the brakes which creates less frictional resistance between rotating disc and the frictional pads.Finally, Soap solution when used at cold condition produces high braking force but becomes less effective after prolong use due to the presence of heat which evaporates the soap solution.REFERENCESAfukaar, F., K. Agyemang, W. Ackaah and I. Mosi, 2008. Road traffic crashes inGhana, statistics 2007. Consultancy Service Report for National Road SafetyCommission of Ghana.Bird, R., S. Wright and E.N. Light, 1960. Transport Phenomena, Gibrine Publishing Company,Heinz, H., 1999. Vehicle and Engine Technology. 2nd Edn.,Butterworth-Heinemann Publications, Nurumberg, pp: 235-291Johnson, D., B. Sperandei and R. Gilbert, 2003. Analysis of the flow through a vented automotive brake rotor. J. Fluids Eng., 125: 979-986.Mcphee, A.D. and D.A. Johnson, 2007. Experimental heat transfer and flow analysis of a vented brake rotor. Int. J. Thermal Sci., 47(4): 458-467.译文：一个使用四个液体系统分析盘式制动器的制动效率的实验摘要当车辆加速时能量由发动机提供使汽车的速度增加。

附录1BRAKE SYSTEMThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).The brake system is composed of the following basic components: the “master cylinder” 、“brake lines” 、“brake hoses” 、“slave cylinders” . “brake disk” “filler block” and so on.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder .Stepping on the brake pedal, a plunger is actually been pushing against in the master cylinder which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the braking unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be compressed, pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through a pipe. Unlike a steel bar, however, fluid can be directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving with the exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very important that thefluid is pure liquid and that there are no air bubbles in it. Air can compress, which causes a sponginess to the pedal and severely reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled to remove the air. There are “bleeder screws” at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this purpose.With drum brakes, fluid is forced into the wheel cylinder which pushes the brake shoes out so that the friction linings are pressed against the drum which is attached to the wheel, causing the wheel to stop.On a disk brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against a piston. The piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk(rotor)which is attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop. This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two rubber pads rub against the wheel rim creating friction.In either case, the friction surfaces of the pads on a disk brake system, or the shoes on a drum brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is what causes the friction surfaces (linings) of the pads and shoes to eventually wear out and require replacement.Drum BrakesSo if disk brakes are so great, how come we still have cars with The reason is cost. While all vehicles produced for many years have disk brakes on the front, drum brakes are cheaper to produce for the rearwheels. The main reason is the parking brake system. On drum brakes, adding a parking brake is the simple addition of a lever, while on disk brakes, we need a complete mechanism, in some cases, a complete mechanical drum brake assembly inside the disk brake rotor! Parking brakes must be a separate system that does not use hydraulics. It must be totally mechanical, but more on parking brakes laterWheel CylinderThe wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are forced out pushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.Brake ShoesLike the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction material or lining riveted or bonded to it. Also like disk pads, the linings eventuallywear out and must be replaced. If the linings are allowed to wear through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause severe damage to the brake drum.Backing PlateThe backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes andassorted hardware. It rarely causes any problemsReading material：Disk BrakeDisk brakes, like many automotive innovations, were originally developed for auto racing, but are now standard equipment on virtually every car made. On most cars, the front brake are of the disc type, and the rear brakes are of the “drum” type. Drum brakes use two semi-circular shoes to press outward against the inner surfaces of a steel drum. Older cars often had drum brakes on all four wheels, and many new have 4-wheel disc brakes.Though disc brakes rely on the same basic principles to slow a vehicle (friction and heat), their design is far superior to that of drum brakes. Because disc brakes can fling off water more easily than drum brakes, they work much better in wet conditions. This is not to say that water does not affect them, it definitely does. If you splash through a puddle and then try to apply the brakes, your brakes may not work at all for a few seconds！Disc brakes also allow better airflow cooling, which also increases their effectiveness. Some high performance disc brakes have drilled or slotted holes through the face of the rotor, which helps to prevent the pads from “glazing” (becoming hardened due to heat). Disc brakes were introduced as standard equipment on most cars in the early seventies.译文制动系统制动系统是汽车中要紧的系统之一。

中文：汽车制动防抱死系统(Anti-lock Braking System,简称ABS)是在传统制动系统的基础上采用电子控制技术,以实现制动力的自动调节,可防止制动时车轮抱死,以期获得最有效的制动效率并提高制动安全性的一种机电液一体化装置。

帕萨特B5轿车采用MKZO 一型ABS ，该系统主要由电磁式轮速传感器、电子控制单元和液压调节器组成。

液压ABS系统主要包括如下三部分:轮速传感器、电子控制单元和液压控制单元。

其中液压控制单元是ABS的执行机构,其动态响应特性对ABS的性能起着非常重要的作用,是决定汽车制动防抱死系统性能的重要原因。

本文通过建立一种能够满足ABS液压控制单元零部件性能试验要求,同时也可用于液压控制单元整体性能试验的试验测试系统,对ABS液压控制单元、电磁阀进行了大量的性能试验研究。

论文针对ABS液压控制单元零部件性能试验要求,研究确定了系统试验方案,通过从硬件和软件两方面进行详细的分析和研究设计。

建立了ABS液压控制单元性能试验测试系统,系统设计充分体现了机电液一体化的配置特点,人机界面友好,自动化程度高。

通过ABS液压控制单元的性能试验结果表明,该试验台能较好地完成汽车ABS液压控制单元电磁阀性能试验和整体性能试验要求,对于提高ABS液压控制单元产品质量检测的准确性和工作效率具有重大的工程实际应用价值。

汽车ABS可以在汽车制动过程中自动控制和调节车轮制动力，防止制动过程中汽车车轮“抱死”，保持最大的车轮附着系数，从而得到最佳制动效果，即最短的制动距离、最小的侧向滑移及最好的制动转向性能，因此ABS是一种有效的车辆安全装置。

本文以某款轿车为研究对象，对汽车ABS展开研究。

主要介绍了车轮防抱死系统的定义、发展历史及结构组成，并对ABS的工作原理进行分析，还介绍了ABS系统的电子控制部分的组成和原理，轮速传感器，液压控制装置的组成和原理，以及对ABS的门限值控制方法进行分析。

在当代，安装ABS的车辆已经相当普遍，经济型车也安装有ABS并且随着对汽车安全性能的要求越来越高，一些更为先进的、保护范围更加广泛的安全装置相继问世了。

关于汽车制动系统英文作文英文：When it comes to the safety of a vehicle, the braking system is one of the most crucial components. The braking system is responsible for slowing down or stopping a vehicle when necessary. There are several types of braking systems, including disc brakes, drum brakes, and anti-lock braking systems (ABS).Disc brakes are the most common type of braking system used in modern vehicles. They consist of a rotor, caliper, and brake pads. When the brake pedal is pressed, thecaliper squeezes the brake pads against the rotor, creating friction and slowing down the vehicle. Disc brakes are known for their reliability and durability.Drum brakes, on the other hand, are becoming less common in modern vehicles. They consist of a brake drum, brake shoes, and a wheel cylinder. When the brake pedal ispressed, the brake shoes are pushed against the brake drum, creating friction and slowing down the vehicle. Drum brakes are known for their simplicity and low cost.ABS is a more advanced type of braking system that prevents the wheels from locking up during braking. This helps the driver maintain control of the vehicle and reduces the risk of skidding. ABS works by monitoring the speed of each wheel and adjusting the braking force accordingly.In addition to the types of braking systems, it's also important to regularly maintain and inspect the braking system. This includes checking the brake pads and rotorsfor wear, ensuring proper brake fluid levels, and checking for any leaks or damage.Overall, the braking system is a vital component of a vehicle's safety. It's important to understand thedifferent types of braking systems and how to properly maintain them to ensure a safe driving experience.中文：谈到车辆安全，制动系统是其中最关键的组成部分之一。

ABS 防抱死刹车系统（Antilock Brake System）AP 加速踏板（Accelerator Pedal）AC 空调（Air Condition）ACC 自适应巡航控制（Adaptive Cruise Control）AEBS 高级紧急刹车系统（Advanced Emergency Braking System）ADAS 高级驾驶辅助系统（Advanced Driver Assistant System）ASR 驱动防滑系统（Acceleration Slip Regulation）BCM 车身控制器（Body Control Module）CAN 控制器局域网（CAN Controller Area）DCM 车门控制器（Door Control Module）EBS 电子控制刹车系统（Electric Braking System）ECAS 电子控制空气悬架（Electronic Controlled Air Suspension）EMS 发动机管理系统（Engine Management System）EPB 电子驻车系统（Electrical Parking Brake）ESCL 电子转向柱锁（Electrical Steering Colum Lock）ESP 电子稳定程序（Electronic Stability Program）FM 车队管理模块（Fleet Management）Handle 换挡手柄IC 组合仪表（Instrument Cluster）LDW 车道偏离预警（Lane Departure Warning）LIN 局域互联网络（Local Interconnect Network）Master 主节点MSW 多功能方向盘（Multifunction steering wheel）NOx 氮氧传感器PS 智能起动控制单元（Passive Start）Retarder 缓速器Slave 从节点Tester 诊断仪TCO 行驶记录仪（Tachograph）TCU 变速箱控制器（Transmission Control Unit）TPMS 胎压监测系统（Tire Pressure Monitoring System）UDS 统一诊断服务（Unified Diagnostic Services）VCU 整车控制器（Vehicle Control Unit）VIST 车载信息服务终端（Vehicle information service terminal）TSC 扭矩/速度控制（Torque/Speed Control）OBD 车载诊断系统(On-Board Diagnostic)DTC 诊断故障码（Diagnostic Trouble Code）FAS-Cam 前视摄像头（Forward View Camera）DSM 驾驶状态检测（Driver Status Monitoring）SAS 方向盘转角传感器（Steering wheel Angle Sensor）TCM 自动变速器控制模块（Transmission Control Module）ICM 点火控制模块（Ignition Control Module）EEC 发动机电子控制器（Electronic Engine Controller）。

Automobile Brake SystemThe braking system is the most important system in cars. If the brakes fail, the result can be disastrous. Brakes are actually energy conversion devices, which convert the kinetic energy (momentum) of the vehicle into thermal energy (heat).When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force ten times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion. The braking system can exert thousands of pounds of pressure on each of the four brakes.Two complete independent braking systems are used on the car. They are the service brake and the parking brake.The service brake acts to slow, stop, or hold the vehicle during normal driving. They are foot-operated by the driver depressing and releasing the brake pedal. The primary purpose of the brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by when a separate parking brake foot pedal or hand lever is set.The brake system is composed of the following basic components: t he “master cylinder” which is located under the hood, and is directly connected to the brake pedal, converts driver foot’s mechanical pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel “brake lines” and flexible “brake hoses” connect the master cylinder to the “slave cylinders” located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially designed to work in extreme conditions, fills the system. “Shoes” and “pads” are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the “drums” and “rotors” thus causing drag, which (hopefully) slows the car.The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder (Figure).Basically, all car brakes are friction brakes. When the driver applies the brake, the control device forces brake shoes, or pads, against the rotating brake drum or disks at wheel. Friction between the shoes or pads and the drums or disks then slows or stops the wheel so that the car is braked.In most modern brake systems (see Figure 15.1), there is a fluid-filled cylinder, called master cylinder, which contains two separate sections, there is a piston in each section and both pistons are connected to a brake pedal in the driver’s compartment. When th e brake is pushed down, brake fluid is sent from the master cylinder to the wheels.At the wheels, the fluid pushes shoes, or pads, against revolving drums or disks. The friction between the stationary shoes, or pads, and the revolving drums or disks slows and stops them. This slows or stops the revolving wheels, which, in turn, slow or stop the car.The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent r reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level drops noticeably over ashort period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to fill it and never leave a cam of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling point. Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such asat the front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair, the best procedure is to replace the compete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.Drum brakes, it consists of the brake drum, an expander, pull back springs, a stationary back plate, two shoes with friction linings, and anchor pins. The stationary back plate is secured to the flange of the axle housing or to the steering knuckle. The brake drum is mounted on the wheel hub. There is a clearance between the inner surface of the drum and the shoe lining. To apply brakes, the driver pushes pedal, the expander expands the shoes and presses them to the drum. Friction between the brake drum and the friction linings brakes the wheels and the vehicle stops. To release brakes, the driver release the pedal, the pull back spring retracts the shoes thus permitting free rotation of the wheels.Disk brakes, it has a metal disk instead of a drum. A flat shoe, or disk-brake pad, is located on each side of the disk. The shoes squeeze the rotatin g disk to stop the car. Fluid from the master cylinder forces the pistons to move in, toward the disk. This action pushes the friction pads tightly against the disk. The friction between the shoes and disk slows and stops it. This provides the braking action. Pistons are made of either plastic or metal. There are three general types of disk brakes. They are the floating-caliper type, the fixed-caliper type, and the sliding-caliper type. Floating-caliper and sliding-caliper disk brakes use a single piston. Fixed-caliper disk brakes have either two or four pistons.The brake system assemblies are actuated by mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic devices. The mechanical leverage is used in the parking brakes fitted in all automobile. When the brake pedal is depressed, the rod pushes the piston of brake master cylinder which presses the fluid. The fluid flows through the pipelines to the power brake unit and then to the wheel cylinder. The fluid pressure expands the cylinder pistons thus pressing the shoes to the drum or disk. If the pedal is released, the piston returns to the initialposition, the pull back springs retract the shoes, the fluid is forced back to the master cylinder and braking ceases.The primary purpose of the parking brake is to hold the vehicle stationary while it is unattended. The parking brake is mechanically operated by the driver when a separate parking braking hand lever is set. The hand brake is normally used when the car has already stopped. A lever is pulled and t he rear brakes are approached and locked in the “on” position. The car may now be left without fear of its rolling away. When the driver wants to move the car again, he must press a button before the lever can be released. The hand brake must also be able to stop the car in the event of the foot brake failing. For this reason, it is separate from the foot brake uses cable or rods instead of the hydraulic system.Anti-lock Brake SystemAnti-lock brake systems make braking safer and more convenient, Anti-lock brake systems modulate brake system hydraulic pressure to prevent the brakes from locking and the tires from skidding on slippery pavement or during a panic stop.Anti-lock brake systems have been used on aircraft for years, and some domestic car were offered with an early form of anti-lock braking in late 1990’s. Recently, several automakers have introduced more sophisticated anti-lock system. Investigations in Europe, where anti-lock brakin g systems have been available for a decade, have led one manufacture to state that the number oftraffic accidents could be reduced by seven and a half percent if all cars had anti-lock brakes. So some sources predict that all cars will offer anti-lock brakes to improve the safety of the car.Anti-lock systems modulate brake application force several times per second to hold the tires at a controlled amount of slip; all systems accomplish this in basically the same way. One or more speed sensors generate alternating current signal whose frequency increases with the wheel rotational speed. An electronic control unit continuously monitors these signals and if the frequency of a signal drops too rapidly indicating that a wheel is about to lock, the control unit instructs a modulating device to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel. When sensor signals indicate the wheel is again rotating normally, the control unit allows increased hydraulic pressure to the brake. This release-apply cycle occurs several time per second to “pump” the brakes like a dr iver might but at a much faster rate.In addition to their basic operation, anti-lock systems have two other things in common. First, they do not operate until the brakes are applied with enough force to lock or nearly lock a wheel. At all other times, the system stands ready to function but does not interfere with normal braking. Second, if the anti-lock system fail in any way, the brakes continue to operate without anti-lock capability. A warning light on the instrument panel alerts the driver when a problem exists in the anti-lock system.The current Bosch component Anti-lock Braking System (ABSⅡ), is a second generation design wildly used by European automakers such as BWM, Mercedes-Benz and Porsche. ABSⅡsystem consists of : four wheel speed sensor, electronic control unit and modulator assembly.A speed sensor is fitted at each wheel sends signals about wheel rotation to control unit. Each speed sensor consists of a sensor unit and a gear wheel. The front sensor mounts to the steering knuckle and its gear wheel is pressed onto the stub axle that rotates with the wheel. The rear sensor mounts the rear suspension member and its gear wheel is pressed onto the axle. The sensor itself is a winding with a magnetic core. The core creates a magnetic field around the winding, and as the teeth of the gear wheel move through this field, an alternating current is induced in the winding. The control unit monitors the rate o change in this frequency to determine impending brake lockup.The control unit’s functi on can be divided into three parts: signal processing, logic and safety circuitry. The signal processing section is the converter that receives the alternating current signals form the speed sensors and converts them into digital form for the logic section. The logic section then analyzes the digitized signals to calculate any brake pressure changes needed. If impending lockup is sensed, the logic section sends commands to the modulator assembly.Modulator assemblyThe hydraulic modulator assembly regulates pressure to the wheel brakes when it receives commands from the control utuit. The modulator assembly can maintain or reduce pressure over the level it receives from the master cylinder, it also can never apply the brakes by itself. The modulator assembly consists of three high-speed electric solenoid valves, two fluid reservoirs and a turn delivery pump equipped with inlet and outlet check valves. The modulator electrical connector and controlling relays are concealed under a plastic cover of the assembly.Each front wheel is served by electric solenoid valve modulated independently by the control unit. The rear brakes are served by a single solenoid valve and modulated together using the select-low principle. During anti-braking system operation, the control unit cycles the solenoid valves to either hold or release pressure the brake lines. When pressure is released from the brakelines during anti-braking operation, it is routed to a fluid reservoir. There is one reservoir for the front brake circuit. The reservoirs are low-pressure accumulators that store fluid under slight spring pressure until the return delivery pump can return the fluid through the brake lines to the master cylinder.汽车制动系统制动系统是汽车中最重要的系统。

主动前轮转向系统AYC 主动偏航控制系统主动横摆控制系统 ASC 主动式稳定控制系统自动稳定和牵引力控制 车轮打滑控制ABS 防抱死制动系统ASR 防滑系统ASL 音量自动调节系统 排档自动锁定装置AUX 音频输入端口ADS 自适应减振系统ACC 自适应巡航控制系统AWD 全时四轮驱动系统ACD 主动中央差速器AMT 电子自动变速箱 电控机械式自动变速器All-Speed TCS: 全速段牵引力控制系统ACIS 电子控制进气流程系统 丰田可变进气歧管系统ABD 自动制动差速系统AGF 亚洲吉利方程式国际公开赛AUTO 自动切换四驱ASC+T 自动稳定和牵引力控制系统ABC 主动车身控制AXCR 亚洲越野拉力赛ARP 主动防侧翻保护 AFS 自适应照明系统 车距感应式定速巡航控制系统AFM动态燃油管理系统APEAL新车满意度中国汽车性能、运行和设计调研AT:自动变速器Asian festival of speed ：亚洲赛车节AOD电子控制按需传动装置AAC N全自动撞车通报系统ARTS智能安全气囊系统AWS 后撞头颈保护系统AIAC 奥迪国际广告大赛AVS 适应式可变悬架系统Audi AAA :奥迪认证轿车ATA 防盗警报系统ALS 自动车身平衡系统ARS 防滑系统ASPS 防潜滑保护系统ASS 自适应座椅系统AQS 空气质量系统AVCS 主动气门控制系统ASF 奥迪全铝车身框架结构A-TRC 主动牵引力控制系统AHC 油压式自动车高调整AMG 快速换档自动变速箱AHS2：“双模”完全混合动力系统AI ：人工智能换档控制APRC亚太汽车拉力锦标赛ARTS自适应限制保护技术系统ACU安全气囊系统控制单元AP:恒时全轮驱动AZ:接通式全轮驱动ASM动态稳定系统AS 转向臂APC 预喷量控制Active Light Function 主动灯光功能ACE 高级兼容性设计Audi Space Frame 奥迪全铝车身技术AWC 全轮控制系统ASTC 主动式稳定性和牵引力控制系统BBA 紧急制动辅助系统BEST 欧盟生物乙醇推广项目Brake Energy Regeneration 制动能量回收系统BLIS 盲区信息系统BAS 制动助力辅助装置BRIDGESTONE普利司通轮胎Biometric immobilizer :生物防盗系统BCI:蓄电池国际协会国际电池大会BAR大气压BDC下止点BBDC北京奔驰-戴克汽车新工厂B:水平对置式排列多缸发动机BF:钢板弹簧悬架BCM车身控制模块BCS 博世汽车专业维修网络BMBS 爆胎监测与制动系统BFCEC 北京福田康明斯发动机有限公司CCCS 智能定速巡航控制系统CSI 中国售后服务满意度调研CVVT 连续可调气门正时CVT 无级变速器CZIP 清洁区域内部组件CCC 全国汽车场地锦标赛CVTC 连续可变气门正时机构连续可变配气正时CHAC 本田汽车（中国）有限公司CAE 电脑辅助工程CAM电脑辅助制造CBC弯道制动控制系统转弯防滑系统CNG压缩天然气CSC 全国汽车超级短道拉力赛CDC 连续减振控制C-NCAP 中国新车评价规程CTIS 悍马中央轮胎充气系统C1 超级赛车劲爆秀CCA 冷启动电池CRDI 电控直喷共轨柴油机高压共轨柴油直喷系统CFK 碳纤维合成材料Child Protection 儿童保护CPU 微处理器CZ3 3 门轿车C3P技术：整合电脑、辅助设计、工程、制造数据库技术CATS连续调整循迹系统CRV 紧凑休闲车CUV 杂交车CZT 增压车型CTS 水温传感器CKP 曲轴位置传感器CC 巡航系统CFD计算流力仿真CRC全国汽车拉力锦标赛Cuprobraze Alliance ：铜硬钎焊技术联盟Cuprobraze Technology ：铜硬钎焊技术CCD连续控制阻尼系统Curb weight 汽车整备质量Cross weight 汽车总质量CKD 进口散件组装DDSC 动态稳定控制系统DSP 动态换档程序DSTC 动态稳定和牵引力控制系统动态循迹稳定控制系统DOHC 双顶置凸轮轴DSG 双离合无级变速箱直接档位变速器DCS 动态稳定系统DUNLOP 邓禄普轮胎DBW 电子油门DSR 下坡速度控制系统DATC 数位式防盗控制系统DLS 差速器锁定系统DSA 动态稳定辅助系统DAC 下山辅助系统DDC动态驾驶控制程序DIS:无分电器点火系统DLI ：丰田无分电器点火系统DSC3第三代动态稳定控制程序DOD随选排量Dynamic Drive ：主动式稳定杆D:共轨柴油发动机DD缸内直喷式柴油发动机缸内直喷式发动机（分层燃烧| 均质燃烧）德迪戎式独立悬架后桥DQL 双横向摆臂DB 减振器支柱DS 扭力杆Delphi Common Rail 德尔福柴油共轨系统DTC 动态牵引力控制系统DHS 动态操纵系统DRL 白天行车灯Doppel Vanos 完全可变正时调节DPF 柴油颗粒过滤器EECT-I 智能电子控制自动变速系统ESP 电子稳定系统EBD 电子制动力分配系统EDL电子差速锁EGR废弃再循环系统EFI ：电子燃油喷射控制系统EVA紧急制动辅助系统EPS 电子感应式动力转向电控转向助力系统EHPS 电控液压动力转向ECU 电控单元EMS 发动机管理系统ECC 电子气候控制ETCS-I 智能电子节气门控制系统EBA 电控辅助制动系统紧急制动辅助系统ECM 防眩电子内后视镜电子控制组件（模块）EEVC 欧洲车辆安全促进委员会EPAS 电动助力转向EMV 多功能显示操控系统EHPAS 电子液压动力辅助系统ETC 路虎牵引力控制系统动力控制与弥补系统电子节流阀控制系统ELSD 电子限滑差速锁ECVT 无级自动变速器ED 缸内直喷式汽油发动机EM 多点喷射汽油发动机ES单点喷射汽油发动机ESP Plus ：增强型电子稳定程序EPB标准电子手刹电子停车制动系统ESC能量吸收式方向盘柱电子动态稳定程序ETS 电子循迹支援系统ECT 电子控制自动变速系统EBD 电子制动力分配系统EHB 电子液压制动装置EGO 排气含氧量EBCM 电子制动控制组件EECS|EEC 电控发动机ESA 电控点火装置ENG 发动机ECS 电子悬架ECO 经济曲线EVM 压力调节电磁阀EVLV 变矩器锁止电磁阀EPDE 流量调节电磁阀ESP Plus 增强型电子稳定程序EDS 电子差速锁ERM 防侧倾系统F FSI ：汽油直喷发动机汽油分层直喷技术FBS衰减制动辅助FPS防火系统FF:前置前驱Four-C ：连续调整底盘概念系统Formula 1 ：世界一级方程式锦标赛FHI :富士重工FR:前置后驱FFS福特折叠系统FCV 燃料电池概念车Front Impact 正面碰撞FAP 粒子过滤装置FWD 前驱左右对称驱动总成FRV 多功能休闲车FIA 国际汽联FI 前置纵向发动机FQ 前置横向发动机FB 弹性支柱Full-time ALL 全时四驱GPS全球卫星定位系统GOOD YEAR®特异轮胎GT世界超级跑车锦标赛GDI :汽油直喷GF:橡胶弹簧悬架GLOBAL SMALL STY LISH SALOO全球小型时尚三厢车HHPS液压动力转向HBA 可液压制动辅助HDC 坡道缓降控制系统下坡控制系统HRV 两厢掀背休闲车HMI 人机交流系统HSLA 高强度低合金钢HSD 混合动力技术概念HSA 起步辅助装置HUD 抬头显示系统HPI 汽油直喷发动机HAC 上山辅助系统坡道起步控制系统HC 碳氢化合物Haldex 智能四轮全时四驱系统HID 自动开闭双氙气大灯高强度远近光照明大灯HI 后置纵向发动机HQ后置横向发动机HP液气悬架阻尼HF:液压悬架Hankook 韩泰轮胎IICC 智能巡航控制系统IAQS 内部空气质量系统IDIS 智能驾驶信息系统I-DSI 双火花塞点火I-VTEC 可变气门配气相位和气门升程电子控制系统Instant Traction 即时牵引控制Intelligent Light System 智能照明系统ITP 智能化热系统IMES 电气系统智能管理IIHS 美国高速公路安全保险协会Intelli Beam 灯光高度自动调节IFC 国际方程式冠军赛IQS 美国新车质量调查IMA 混合动力系统ITS 智能交通系统IASCA 汽车音响委员会IDS 互动式驾驶系统ILS ：智能照明系统ISC:怠速控制IC :膨胀气帘IDL :怠速触电I-Drive :智能集成化操作系统ICM:点火控制模块Intelligent Light System :智能灯光系统ITARDA日本交通事故综合分析中心IVDC:交互式车身动态控制系统JKLLSD防滑差速度LED 发光二极管LOCK 锁止四驱LPG 明仕单燃料车明仕双燃料车液化石油气LDW 车道偏离警示系统LDA 气动供油量调节装置LVA 供气组件LL 纵向摆臂LF 空气弹簧悬架Low Pressure System ：低压系统LATCH儿童座椅固定系统M MRC主动电磁感应悬架系统MPS多功能轿车MDS多排量系统MICHELIN 米其林轮胎MSR 发动机阻力扭矩控制系统MUV 多用途轿车MSLA 中强度低合金钢MMI 多媒体交互系统MT 手动变速器MPV 微型乘用厢型车MBA 机械式制动助力器MPW 都市多功能车MAP进气管绝对压力点火提前角控制脉谱图进气压力传感器气流量计MASR 发动机介入的牵引力控制MAF 空气流量传感器MTR 转速传感器MIL 故障指示灯Multi-Crossover 多功能跨界休旅车Multitronic ：多极子自动变速器Ml:中置纵向发动机MQ中置横向发动机MA机械增压ML多导向轴MES汽车制造执行系统MlVEC 智能可变气门正时与升程控制系统NNHTSA 美国高速公路安全管理局NlCS 可变进气歧管长度NCAP 欧洲新车评估体系Nivomat 车身自动水平调节系统电子液压调节系统NOR 常规模式NVH 噪音和振动减轻装置NOS 氧化氮气增压系统OOBD 车载自诊断系统OHB 优化液压制动OHV 顶置气门，侧置凸轮轴OD档 :超速档OHC 顶置气门，上置凸轮轴PASM保时捷主动悬架管理系统PSM保时捷稳定管理系统车身动态稳定控制系统联机PTM保时捷牵引力控制管理系统循迹控制管理系统PRESAFE 预防性安全系统PCC人车沟通系统遥控系统PODS 前排座椅乘坐感应系统PCCB 保时捷陶瓷复合制动系统PIM 专案信息管理系统PATS 电子防盗系统PDC 电子泊车距离控制器自动侦测停车引导系统驻车距离警示系统PGM-FI 智能控制燃油喷射Pole Test 圆柱碰撞Pedestrian Impact Test 行人碰撞PTS 停车距离探测PCV 曲轴箱强制通风PCV阀：曲轴箱通风单向阀PCM动力控制模块保时捷通讯管理系统PWR 动力模式PSI 胎压PD 泵喷嘴PDCC保时捷动态底盘控制系统PAD前排乘客侧安全气囊助手席安全气囊禁止Part-time ：兼时四驱PEM燃油泵电子模块QQLT检查机油液面高度、温度和品质的传感器(Quality LevelTemperature)Quattro 全时四驱系统QL 横向摆臂QS 横向稳定杆R RSC 防翻滚稳定系统RAB 即时警报制动ROM 防车身侧倾翻滚系统RISE 强化安全碰撞RSCA 翻滚感应气囊保护RR 后置后驱RFT 可缺气行驶轮胎RSM 雷诺三星汽车公司RDK 轮胎压力控制系统RWD 后驱RSS 道路感应系统RC蓄电池的储备容量Ray Tracing ：即时光线追踪技术R:直列多缸排列发动机RES遥控启动键Real-time ：适时四驱S SFS灵活燃料技术SAE 美国汽车工程师协会SRS 安全气囊SH-AWD 四轮驱动力自由控制系统SMG 顺序手动变速器Symmetrical AWD 左右对称全时四轮驱动系统SBW 线控转向STC 上海天马山赛车场SIPS 侧撞安全保护系统SUV 运动型多功能车SBC 电子感应制动系统电子液压制动装置Servotronic 随速转向助力系统SAIC 上海汽车工业集团公司SSUV 超级SUVSSI 中国汽车销售满意度指数SID 行车信息显示系统Side Impact ：侧面碰撞STI :斯巴鲁国际技术部SDSB车门防撞钢梁SLH自动锁定车轴心S-AWC超级四轮控制系统SSS速度感应式转向系统SVT可变气门正时系统SCF技术：选择性催化还原降解技术SCCA 全美运动轿车俱乐部SS4-11 超选四轮驱动SPORT运动曲线SACHS 气液***** 式避震系统SOHC 单顶置凸轮轴SAHR 主动性头枕SDI 自然吸气式超柴油发动机ST 无级自动变速器SL 斜置摆臂SA 整体式车桥SF 螺旋弹簧悬架S 盘式制动SI 内通风盘式制动SFI 连续多点燃油喷射发动机SF\CD汽油柴油通用机油SAV运动型多功能车SAIS:上海汽车信息产业投资有限公司SUBARU BOXER斯巴鲁水平对置发动机T TCL牵引力控制系统TCS 循迹防滑系统TRC 主动牵引力系统驱动防滑控制系统TDI 轮胎故障监测器涡轮增压直喷柴油机TSA 拖车稳定辅助TPMS 轮胎压力报警系统胎压监测系统TC Plus 增强型牵引力控制系统TDO 扭力分配系统TCU 自动变速箱的控制单元TRACS 循迹控制系统TDC 上止点TBI （化油器体的）节气门喷射TPS 节气门体和节气门位置传感器丰田生产体系Traffic Navigator 道路讯息告知系统Tiptronic 手动换档程序TFP 手控阀位置油压开关TNR 噪音控制系统Tiptronic ：轻触子- 自动变速器TDI：Turbo 直喷式柴油发动机TA：turbo 涡轮增压T:鼓式制动TCM变速器控制单元TSI ：双增压Turn-By-Turn Navigation ：远程车辆诊断和逐向道路导航THERMATIC四区域自动恒温控制系统UULEV超低排放车辆UAA联合汽车俱乐部VVDC车辆动态控制系统VTG 可变几何涡轮增压系统VIN 车辆识别代码VSA 车辆稳定性辅助装置动态稳定控制系统Volvo Safety Center 沃尔沃安全中心VSC 车辆稳定控制系统汽车防滑控制系统VDIM 汽车动态综合管理系统VTEC 可变气门正时及升程电子控制系统VCM 可变气缸系统VVT-I 智能可变正时系统进出气门双向正式智能可变系统VICS:可变惯性进气系统VGR：S 可变齿比转向系统VSES动态稳定系统Variable Turbine Geometry ：可变几何涡轮增压系统VIS :可变进气歧管系统VCU黏性耦合差速器VDS汽车可靠性调查VCC 多元化概念车VTI-S 侧安全气帘VVT 内置可变气门正时系统VDI 阀可变动态进气阀VGIS 可变进气歧管系统VTD 可变扭矩分配系统VE 容积效率Valvetronic 无级可变电子气门控制完全可变气门控制机构VSS 车速传感器VGT 可变截面涡轮增压系统V: V型气缸排列发动机VL 复合稳定杆式悬架后桥VTCS 可变涡轮控制系统VAD 可变进气道系统VANOS 凸轮轴无级调节技术WWR：C 世界汽车拉力锦标赛WHIPS头颈部安全保护系统防暴冲系统WelcomingLight ：自动迎宾照明系统WTCC世界房车锦标赛WO：T 节气门全开WA汪克尔转子发动机W W型汽缸排列发动机XYZ ZBC笼型车体概念ZEV零废气排放4WD 四轮驱动4C 四区域独立可调空调4WS 四轮转向4MATIC 全轮驱动系统4HLC 高速四轮驱动配中央差速器4H 高速四驱4L 低速四驱4LC 低速锁止四驱。

盘式制动器制动系统原理外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译制动系统原理摩擦力是指抵抗两个物体之间相对运动的力。

在制动系统中，通过产生摩擦力来使汽车停止运动或减速行驶。

摩擦力的大小取决于物体表面粗糙度和接触面所受压力的大小。

当发生摩擦运动时，动能就会转化为热能。

因此在刹车时，必须尽量减少热量的产生，以避免制动系统故障。

摩擦力和制动系统在制动系统中，摩擦力的大小是由控制器控制的。

通过改变摩擦力，可以使汽车停止运动或以不同的速度行驶。

控制器通过制动蹄或制动板传递给旋转的制动鼓或制动盘。

当驾驶员踩在制动脚踏板上的力增大时，摩擦力也会随之增加。

车轮在制动摩擦力的作用下逐渐停止转动，但轮胎和地面之间也会产生摩擦力。

制动器上产生的摩擦力必须与轮胎与地面之间产生的摩擦力大小相匹配，避免车轮锁死或打滑的现象。

为了控制车轮在减速时出现打滑的现象，现在广泛使用电脑控制的制动器。

鼓式制动器的基本操作原理鼓式制动器由一个铸造鼓和连接在制动板上的制动蹄构成。

铸造鼓固定在车轮上，随车轮一起转动。

制动器内还有液压缸、弹簧和连接杆等部件。

制动蹄和摩擦材料连接在一起，制动器工作时，摩擦材料贴附在制动鼓的内表面，制动蹄在力的作用下紧贴在制动鼓的内表面，产生摩擦力。

制动器的工作原理是通过液压缸控制制动蹄的运动，使其紧贴在制动鼓上，从而实现制动效果。

在刹车系统开始工作时，盘式制动器的制动片会被推向制动盘。

制动片与制动盘之间的摩擦力会使得车轮减速或停止旋转。

制动盘通常是由铁制成的，而制动片则通常是由摩擦材料制成的。

制动片与制动盘之间的摩擦力是由制动液压缸内部的液压力驱动的。

这种液压力是由操纵者的脚踏板产生的。

盘式制动器的优点是可以承受更高的温度和更大的力量，因为它们的制动面积更大。

此外，盘式制动器的制动片更容易被更换和维护。

缺点是盘式制动器比鼓式制动器更昂贵，并且更容易受到灰尘和水的影响。

总的来说，盘式制动器是一种高效、可靠的刹车系统，适用于高速行驶和紧急制动。

外文文献原稿和译文原稿A New Type Car -- Hybrid Electric VehicleWith skyrocketing fuel prices and changes in weather patterns, many car manufacturers claimed to develop the kind of vehicles that will increase the mileage and reduce the emissions. Hybrid car is a kind of vehicle which can meet above requirements. A hybrid car features a small fuel-efficient gas engine combined with an electric motor that assists the engine.The reasons of building such a complicated machine are twofold: to reduce tailpipe emissions and to improve mileage. Firstly, hybrid cars are good for the environment. They can reduce smog by 90 percent and they use far less gasoline than conventional cars. Meanwhile, hybrid cars burn less gasoline per mile, so they release fewer greenhouse gases. Secondly, hybrid cars are economical. Hybrid cars, which run on gas and electricity, can get up to 55 to 60 miles per gallon in city driving, while a typical SUV might use three times as much gas for the same distance! There are three reasons can mainly account for that: 1) Hybrid engines are much smaller than those on conventional cars. A hybrid car engine is to accommodate the 99% of driving time when a car is not going up hills or accelerating quickly. When extra acceleration power is needed, it relies on the battery to provide additional force. 2) Hybrid gasoline engine can shut off when the car is stopped and run off their electric motor and battery.3) Hybrid cars often recover braking energy. Electric motors could take the lost kinetic energy in braking and use it to charge the battery. Furthermore, hybrids are better than all-electric cars because hybrid car batteries recharge as you drive so there is no need to plug in. Most electric cars need to be recharged every 50-100miles. Also, most electric cars cannot go faster than 50-60 mph, while hybrids can.Hybrid cars bridge the gap between electric and gasoline-powered cars by traveling further and driving faster and hybrid gas-electric cars are proving to be a feasible alternative at a time of high gas prices. So, in my opinion, hybrid cars will have a bright future.How Does Hybrid Electric Vehicle Work？You probably own a gasoline or diesel-engine car. You may have heard of electric vehicles too. A hybrid vehicle or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a combination of both. Hybrid vehicles utilize two or more sources of energy for propulsion. In the case of HEVs, a combustion engine and an electric motor are used.How it works depends on the type of drive train it has. A hybrid vehicle can either have a parallel or series or parallel-series drive train.Parallel HybridThe parallel hybrid car has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission,electric motor, and batteries.A parallel hybrid is designed to run directly from either the combustion engine or the electric motor. It can run using both the engine and the motor. As a conventional vehicle, the parallel hybrid draws its power from the combustion engine which will then drive the transmission that turns the wheels. If it is using the electric motor, the car draws its power from the batteries. The energy from the batteries will then power the electric motor that drives the transmission and turns the wheel.Both the combustion engine and the electric motor are used at the same time during quick acceleration, on steep ascend, or when either the engine or the motor needs additional boost.Since the engine is directly connected to the wheels in a parallel drive train, it eliminates the inefficiency of converting mechanical energy into electrical energy and back. This makes a very effective vehicle to drive on the highway.Series HybridThe series hybrid car also has a gas tank, a combustion engine, transmission, electric motor, and batteries with the addition of the generator. The generator can be the electric motor or it can be another separate component.The series configuration is the simplest among the 3. The engine is not connected to the transmission rather it is connected to the electric motor. This means that the transmission can be driven only by the electric motor which draws its energy from the battery pack, the engine or the generator.A hybrid car with a series drive train is more suited for city driving conditions since the engine will not be subjected to the varying speed demands (stop, go, and idle) that contributes to fuel consumption.Series-Parallel HybridThe series-parallel configuration solves the individual problems of the parallel and series hybrid. By combining the 2 designs, the transmission can be directly connected to the engine or can be separated for optimum fuel consumption. The Toyota Prius and the Ford Escape Hybrid use this technology.Honda’s hybridFor those of you who have toyed with the idea of buying a hybrid but were discouraged by the price, you are not alone. In fact, despite the growing concern for the environment, not to mention the skyrocketing price of gas, hybrid cars still only represent a small percentage of global car sales, and a major reason for this is the cost.Hybrids are considered the wave of the future because they not only reduce emissions, addressing the issue of climate change, but they get great gas mileage, an important consideration with the current price of oil. It should be noted that hybrids can also improve the power of the engine, which compromises any advantages in fuel efficiency and emissions. Whatever the application, however, the technology makes the cars more expensive.Because of this, they are the vehicle of choice for only a small niche of people who can afford them, and they currently enjoy a special status amongst the image conscious celebrity-set. For most average consumers, however, they are not an option.That may soon change.Honda Motor Corporation, one of the largest car manufacturers in the world and a leader in fuel efficient technology, has unveiled it’s plan to introduce a low-cost hybrid by 2009. If they can pull it off, they hope to make the hybrid a more mainstream car that will be more appealing to the general public, with the ultimate goal of achieving greater sales and broader appeal than their current incarnation.This, of course, is making Detroit nervous, and may signal a need for American car makers to start making greener and more fuel efficient vehicles, something they could afford to ignore in the past because hybrid cars weren’t worth their attention (due to such a small market share) while gas-guzzling SUVs have such high profit margins.Honda, meanwhile, has had to confront a growing need to compete with Toyota, which has not only grown to be the world’s largest automaker, but makes the car that has become synonymous with the hybrid movement, the Prius. Honda is therefore faced with the seemingly insurmountable task of challenging Toyota’s dominance in the market.Concurrently, Toyota is racing to lower production costs on the Prius, as well, which would hopefully result in a lower cost to the consumer. All eyes are on a potentially favorable car buyers market in 2009.In the meantime, with even adamant global warming naysayers warming up (no pun intended) to the possibilities of an ecological disaster on the horizon, maybe it’s time that we got over our need to drive huge SUVs and start moderating our fuel consumption.Then again, as gas prices hovering around $4.00 and with no ceiling in sight, we may have little choice in the matter.Engine Operating PrinciplesMost automobile dngines are internal combustion, reciprocating 4-stroke gasoline engines, but other types have been used, including the diesel, the rotary ( Wankel ) , the 2-srtoke, and stratified charge.Reciprocating means up and down or banck and forth, It is the up and down action of a piston in the cylinder blick, or engine block. The blick is an iron or aluminum casting that contains engine cylinders and passges called water jackets for coolant circulation. The top of the block is covered with the cylinder head. Which forms the combustion chanber. The bottom of the block is covered with an oil pan or oil sump.Power is produced by the linear motion of a piston in a cylinder. However, this linear motion must be changed into rotary motion to turn the wheels of cars of trucks. The piston is attached to the top of a connecting rod by a pin, called a piston pin or wrist pin. The bottom of the connecting rod is attached to the crankshaft. The connecting rod transmits the up-and-down motion of the piston to the crankshaft, which changes it into rotary motion.The connecting rod is mounted on the crankshaft with large beaings called rodbearings. Similar bearings, called main bearings, are used to mount the crankshaft in the block. Shown in Fig. 1-1The diameter of the cylinder is called the engine bore. Displacement and compression ratio are two frequently used engine specifications. Displacement indicates engine size, and compression ratio compares the total cylinder volume to compression chamber volume.The term stroke is used to describe the movement of the iston within the cylinder, as well as the distance of piston travel. Depending on the type of engine the operating cycle may require either two or four strokes to complete. The 4-stroke engine is also called Otto cycle engine, in honor of the German engineer, Dr. Nikolaus Otto, who first applied the principle in 1876. In the 4-stroke engine, four strokes of the piston in the cylinder are required to complete one full operating cycle. Each stroke is named after the action it performs intake, compression, power, and exhaust in that order, shown in Fig1-2.1、Intake strokeAs the piston moves down, the vaporized mixture of fuel and air enters the cylinder through open intake valve. To obtain the maximum filling of the cylinder the intake valve opens about 10°before t.b.c., giving 20°overlap. The inlet valve remains open until some 50°after b.d.c. to take advantage of incoming mixture.2、 Compression strokeThe piston turns up, the intake valve closes, the mixture is compressed within the combustion chamber, while the pressure rise to about 1Mpa, depending on various factors including the compression ratio, throttle opening and engine speed. Near the top of the stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark which bridges the gap of the spark plug.3、 Power strokeThe expanding gases of combustion produces a rise in pressure of the gas to some 3.5Mpa, and the piston is forced down in the cylinder. The exhaust valve opens near the bottom of the stroke.4、Exhust strokeThe piston moves back up with the exhaust valve open some 50°before b.d.d., allowing the pressure within the cylinder to fall and to reduce ‘back’pressure on the piston during the exhaust stroke, and the burned gases are pushed out to prepare for the next intake stroke.The intake valve usually opens just before the exhaust stroke. This 4-stroke cycle is continuously repeared in every as long as the engineremains running.A 2-stroke engine also goes through four actions to complete one operating cycle.However, the intake and the compression actions are combined in one seroke, and the power and exhaust actions are combined in the other stroke. The term2-stroke cycle or 2-stroke is preferred to the term 2-cycle, which is really not accurate.In automobile engines, all pistons are attached to a single crankshaft. The more cylinders an engine has, the more power strokes produced for cach revolution. This means that an 8-cylinder engine runs more smoothly bdcause the power atrokes arecloser together in time and in degrees of engine rotation.The cylinders of multi-cylinder automotive engines arranged in one of three ways. 1、Inline engines use a single block of cylinder.Most 4-cylinder and any 6-cylinder engines are of this design. The cylinders do not have to be vertical. They can be inclined either side.2、V-type engines use two equal bands of cylinders, usually inclined 60degrees or 90degrees from the cach other. Most V-type engines have 6 or 8 cylinders, although V-4 and V-12 engines have been built.3、Horizontally opposed or pancake engines have two equal banks of cylinders 180degreeas apart. These space saving engine designs are often air-cooled, and are found in the Chevrolet Carvair, Porsches, Subaus, and V olkswagens. Subaus design is liquid cooled.Late-model V olkswagen vans use a liquid-cooled version of the air cooled VWhorizontally opposed engine.译文新型汽车----混合动力汽车在油价飞涨的今天，汽车制造商被要求发展一种排放低，行驶里程长的汽车。

附录附录1Automobile anti-lock braking system (ABS) Abstract: This article introduced briefly the automobile anti-lock braking system (Anti-lock Braking System, is called ABS) the control principle, the control technology which used in the present automobile anti-lock braking system has carried on the summary, and has carried on the forecast to its trend of development.Key word: Automobile anti-lock braking system control technology1.outlineAlong with automobile industry's rapid development and highway's unceasing construction, automobile's travel security more and more takes seriously for the people. To satisfy in comprehensively the brake process the automobile to the brake request, causes the brake braking force assignment to hasten reasonably. The automobile anti-lock braking system (i.e. ABS) more and more has applied on the automobile.“ABS” Chinese translates is “against deadlocks the brake system”. It is one kind has the skid prevention, against to deadlock and so on merit auto safety control systems. ABS is in the convention brake system foundation advanced version technology, separable mechanical and electronic formula two kinds.On the modern automobile installs the anti-lock braking system massively, ABS both has the ordinary braking system's brake function, and could prevent the wheel to deadlock, enables the automobile still to change under the stopping, guaranteed that automobile's brake yawing stability, prevented to have the side-slipping and to run, was on the present automobile is most advanced, the brake effect best arresting gear.The ordinary braking system applies the brake in the slippery road surface, or in emergency brake, because the wheel is easy the braking force to surpass the tire and the ground friction force hugs safely dies.The automobile anti-lock braking system is refers to the automobile in the brake process to be able the real-time determination wheel's glide rate, the automatic control function on wheel's braking moment, prevents the wheel to hug dies. Thusobtains the best brake potency the electronic installation. It can wheel's glide rate control in certain scope, use fully between the tire and the road surface adhesion, reduces the stopping distance effectively, obviously enhances when the car braking controllability and stability, when each kind of traffic accident which has avoided the wheel hugs dies easy to appear. along with brake intensity's increase, the wheel rolling ingredient are getting fewer and fewer, but skids the ingredient to be getting more and more, generally explains in the brake process with glide rate S to skid ingredient how many. The glide rate is bigger, the glide ingredient are less.And: u-- wheel center speed; r-- does not have time the ground braking force wheel rolling radius; w-- wheel's angular speed.Longitudinal and the lateral adhesion coefficient may express for the wheel slip rate function (e.g. Figure 1). The most greatly longitudinal coefficient of adhesion corresponds the glide rate is called critical point of fixity SK. Grips fast the pace according to the control theory is smaller than the SK region is called the stable brake area, what SK later has custom-made unstable moves the area. ABS is precisely uses between the path and tire's relations, compulsory wheel slip rate control nearby critical point of fixity SK, enables the road surface adhesion property to obtain the fullest display, thus achieves the best brake effect.Figure 1 coefficient of adhesion - glide rate curveAt present uses ABS mainly by a round fast sensor, the electronic control unit, appendices and so on pressure control valve and group of lines, pipeline is composed. The ABS development is mainly studies the design optimization operation and the control procedure software, realizes the real-time precise brake adjustment technology, simultaneously raises hardware's level.2.Control technology used by ABS nowThe ABS control effect is decided control technology [4] which to a great extentuses in the system. At present uses is mainly the logical threshold value control technology. To further enhance ABS the performance, but also proposed some based on the glide rate control technology, like the PID control, the glide modality change the structure controls, fuzzy control and so on. Each kind of control approaches the expectation by the different control rule the spot.2.1PID controlsThe definition expects glide rate S0 and difference of the actual glide rate S for ning error e=S-S0, then the PID control rule may be represented as:Therefore, the ABS controller's design sums up finally as, according to the ABS dynamic system, determined group of best parameter Kp, Ki and Kd, enable wheel's glide rate to approach hypothesis goal S0 by the quickest way.2.2The glide modality changes the structure controlAgainst holds the dead brake by the automobile the basic principle to be possible to know, its brake process's essential question is wheel's glide rate control in coefficient of adhesion peak point Sk, then the glide modality changed structure basis system condition, the deviation and the derivative value then, in the different controlled area, by perfect switch's way hand-off control quantity's size and the mark, the guarantee system in the glide region very small scope, the state point locus (S,×S) along moved the festival curve to slide slippery to the control objective (Sk,0). usually takes the braking moment for controlled variable U, the cut condition is:And Mb-, Mb+ represent the braking moment which decided by the governing system to reduce, to increase two different conditions separately.For the cut function, e=S-Sk is the actual glide rate relative target point deviation.2.3Fuzzy controlRegarding take the glide rate as controlled member's anti-lock braking system, its input value takes the expectation glide rate and wheel actual glide rate deviation E as well as deviation's rate of change EC, the output for the brake line flowing tubing head pressure. Uses the belt modification factor the fuzzy controller, uses the control list summary which the fuzzy reasoning algorithm forms is an analysis formula:U =α × E + (1-α)ECAnd Alpha is the modification factor, Alpha the value size has reflected directly to the deviation and the deviation rate of change weighting degree. Through the adjustment modification factor Alpha, may change the control rule. When Alpha is big, indicated that is big to deviation's weighting, the step response is quick, the control energy mainly uses in reducing the deviation, but easy to present the over modulation; When Alpha is small, the control goal reduces the over modulation, but the response process is slow. Usually uses the belt two Alpha values the modification factor expressions to be able to request on the satisfiability, namely:And, modification factor α1, α2∈(0,1), and α12.4Logical threshold value controlThis method establishes some control limit in advance to certain controlled variable (threshold) the value, when applies the brake, according to the computation real-time parameter value and the corresponding threshold value's size relations, determines wheel's state of motion, thus the control adjustment brake pressure, gains enough big brake intensity and the good yawing stability. Often includes as the ABS controlled variable: Wheel skidding rate S, the wheel rotates the angle adds (reduces) the speed Omega and the rate of change .ω and so on three kind of description wheel movement situation or dynamics condition parameter. Because only uses a controlled variable difficulty with to guarantee that ABS has the good performance under each kind of travel condition, therefore, the logical threshold value control method usually rotates at present the wheel the angle adds (reduces) the speed to take the primary control parameter, but takes wheel's glide rate S the secondary control parameter. And the glide rate is from each wheel fast signal after certain logic determined automobile's reference velocity, calculates the reference glide rate, has the difference with the actual glide rate.2.5Double parameter contro lDouble parameter control's ABS, by the vehicle speed sensor (velocity radar), a round fast sensor, the control device (computer) and the implementing agency is composed.Its principle of work is the vehicle speed sensor and a round fast sensor, separately signal input the vehicle speed and round fast the computer, calculates the actual slipping rate based on the computer, and 15% one 20% does with the idealslipping rate compares, fluctuates brake's braking force again through the solenoid valve. this kind tows the fast sensor commonly used Doppler velocity radar. When the automobile goes, the Doppler radar antenna by certain frequency to the earth launching electromagnetic wave, simultaneously receives the electromagnetic wave which unceasingly reflects, surveys the automobile radar launch and the receive differential value, then may calculate the automobile vehicle speed accurately. But turns the fast sensor to install in the transmission gearbox outer covering, actuates by the transmission gearbox output shaft, it is a pulse electrical machinery, produces frequency and round intensive direct proportion. The implementing agency and so on is composed of the solenoid valve and the relay. Solenoid valve adjustment braking force, with the aim of maintaining the ideal slipping rate. This kind of ABS may guarantee that the slipping rate ideal control, against holds the braking quality to be good, but because increased a velocity radar, therefore the structure is complex, the cost is also high.2.6Single parameter controlIt take controls wheel's angle retarded velocity as the object, controls wheel's braking force, realizes against holds the dead brake, its structure mainly by a round fast sensor, the controller (computer) and the solenoid valve is composed. For accurate meter wheel fast, the sensing and between the wheel tooth ring should leave leeway the 1mm gap. In order to avoid the water, the putty, the dust to the sensor the influence, before the installment, should the sensor replenishment butter. The solenoid valve uses in wheel brake's pressure control. Regarding four channel braking system, a vehicle rim has a solenoid valve; Three channel braking system, each front wheel has one, two trailing wheels use in common one. The solenoid valve has three hydraulic pressure holes, separately applies the brake with the brake master cylinder and the wheel to divide the cylinder to be connected, and can realize pressure lifting, pressure maintenance, the pressure drop accent to press the function. The principle of work is as follows:1) Pressure-rise when the solenoid valve does not work, the brake master cylinder connection and applies the brake to divide the cylinder connection respectively to go nonstop. Because the main spring intensity is big, makes charging valve opening, the brake pressure to increase.2) pressure maintenance, when wheel's brake divides in cylinder's pressure grows to certain value, charging valve cut-off closure. The support maintains at the compound state, three panels seal, maintain the brake pressures mutually.3) voltage dropping, when the solenoid valve works, the support overcomes two spring's tension, opens the discharge meat to cause to apply the brake to divide cylinder pressure drop. Once the pressure reduces, the solenoid valve transforms to the pressure maintenance condition, or pressure-rise ready condition.The control device ECU primary mission is the signal which passes on various wheels' sensor carries on the computation, the analysis, the enlargement and the distinction, outputs again from the output stage the command signal the solenoid valve, carries out the brake pressure adjustment task. The electronic control, by four major part is composed, input level A, controller B, output stage C, constant voltage and protective device D. Electronic controller by 4 101tz frequency actuation solenoid valves, this is the pilot is unable to achieve. This kind of single parameter control mode ABS, because the structure is simple, the cost is low, therefore the present use is broad.Mostly has provided this kind of single parameter control mode ABS in the American Chrysler custom car. It is loaded with a round fast sensor on passenger vehicle's four wheels. The installment has 45 teeth or 100 tooth's tooth rings on the axle tree, turns a fast sensor's sensing attire to go against in the tooth ring. When the wheel rotates, causes the sensor to produce the voltage signal unceasingly, and inputs the computer, the ideal speed compares with RoM, figures out wheel's speed-up or the deceleration, issues pressure-rise or the release of pressure instruction to the solenoid valve, controls applies the brake to divide the cylinder braking force.3.The problems by used the ABS system(1) replaces the brake or the replacement hydraulic pressure braking system part, should arrange only in brake line's air, in order to avoid influence braking system's normal work.(2) is loaded with the ABS automobile, every year should replace a brake fluid. Otherwise, the brake fluid water absorbability is very strong, after the watery, not only will reduce the boiling point, will have the corrosion, will also create the brake potency decline.(3) inspects the ABS anti-lock braking system, to cramp out the power source first.4.Trend of developmentUses the logical threshold value control algorithm, may avoid a series of numerous and diverse theoretical analysis and to some element of certainty quotameasurement. Simplified controller's design, because moreover only need determine wheel's angular speed, is advantageous realizes, therefore the load cost is low. This algorithm already drew close maturely, for current automobile ABS system universal use, but it by no means best control algorithm. Because under the different state of roads each kind of threshold value and guarantees presses the time is the empirical value which obtains after the repeated test, does not have the very explicit theory basis, therefore the ABS development's cycle is long, and the control quality guaranteed with difficulty.Easy to realize the stepless control based on the glide rate control algorithm, and has the very explicit theory to instruct, but present restricts the cost question which its development the bottleneck is mainly realizes, believed according to ours research, from now on ABS control algorithm development direction in the following several aspects.(1)aims at current widely uses the logical threshold value control algorithm which exists, the research can track the road surface characteristic change, causes the ABS each performance index to be at the optimum condition throughout the control algorithm. And the predictive control technology is worth taking seriously. Because when the brake process, friction characteristic between the tire and the road surface causes the anti-lock braking system has the very obvious misalignment, the denaturation and the uncertainty. Therefore difficulty with establishes its precise mathematical model, but the predictive control has the basic characteristic which the forecast model, the trundle optimize and feed back adjust, may act according to some optimized target design control system, determined that a control quantity the time series, after causing in period of time to move the quantity and the process will soften between the expectation path's error to be smallest in the future. What because this algorithm uses is the online trundle optimizes unceasingly, and unceasingly carries on the feedback in the optimal process through the actual system output and the forecast model output's error to adjust, can therefore overcome to a certain extent as a result of the forecast model error and certain uncertainty disturbance and so on influence, enables system's robustness to obtain the enhancement.(2)Is smaller along with the volume, the price is cheaper, the reliable higher vehicle speed sensor's appearance, in the ABS system will increase the vehicle speed sensor to become possible, the definite wheel slip rate will become is accurate and isfast. And the non-contact type's vehicle speed sensor (for example electro-optical type, Doppler and so on) the present will most have the possibility to apply in the automobile ABS system. This time may take seriously based on the glide rate control algorithm. And the fuzzy control will not rely on the object by it the mathematical model, is advantageous uses person's experience knowledge, robustness is good, simple practical and so on characteristics, but widely will be used.(3)Changes the multi-objectives by the sole ABS control objective integrated control [10], appeared not only the force of traction control system (TCS) can prevent the wheel in the brake process to occur hugs dies, moreover can in the actuation process (be specially in processes and so on start, acceleration, curve) prevents the driving gear to have the slipping, causes automobile's in actuation process yawing stability, to change the operation ability and the pick-up and so on also has the enhancement. In the future automobile electronic control system toward from multi-electronic control unit (ECU) the scattered independent control to the sole ECU complete bikes control, realizes data sharing and the integrated control direction by the network way develops; Or develops to the dynamic hierarchical control direction, namely each dispersion control system's ECU is not only the respective independence constructs own dynamic compensator, moreover must establish a high-level dynamic synchronizer to help unified again to determine each ECU the control policy, strengthens each ECU the control, when the solution dispersion control system existence unstable mold cannot use dynamic dispersion control calm question [11], enables the complete bikes overall performance to obtain the guarantee.5.SummaryThe automobile anti-lock braking system (ABS) can enhance the automobile, in the low coefficient of adhesion or changes under the coefficient of adhesion road surface condition the braking quality. At present the ABS control technology mainly uses the logical threshold value control method, but along with vehicle speed sensor technology development, based on wheel slip rate each kind of control algorithm by widespread value and use. Moreover. In the future the automobile electronic control technology and the equipment will realize the resource sharing and the integrated control by the network way, and toward the multi-objective integrated controls, enhances the system performance cost ratio the direction to develop.汽车防抱死制动系统（ABS）摘要：本文简要介绍了汽车防抱死制动系统（Anti-lock Braking System，简称ABS）的控制原理，对目前汽车防抱死制动系统所采用的控制技术进行了综述，并对其发展趋势进行了预测。

外文原文：THE BRAKE BIBLEBrakes - what do they do?The simple answer: they slow you down.The complex answer: brakes are designed to slow down your vehicle but probably not by the means that you think. The common misconception is that brakes squeeze against a drum or disc, and the pressure of the squeezing action is what slows you down. This in fact is only part of the equation. Brakes are essentially a mechanism to change energy types. When you're travelling at speed, your vehicle has kinetic energy. When you apply the brakes, the pads or shoes that press against the brake drum or rotor convert that energy into thermal energy via friction. The cooling of the brakes dissipates the heat and the vehicle slows down. It's the First Law of Thermodynamics, sometimes known as the law of conservation of energy. This states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another. In the case of brakes, it is converted from kinetic energy to thermal energy.Angular force. Because of the configuration of the brake pads and rotor in a disc brake, the location of the point of contact where the friction is generated also provides a mechanical moment to resist the turning motion of the rotor.Thermodynamics, brake fade and drilled rotors.If you ride a motorbike or drive a race car, you're probably familiar with the term brake fade, used to describe what happens to brakes when they get too hot. A good example is coming downa mountain pass using your brakes rather than your engine toslow you down. As you start to come down the pass, the brakes on your vehicle heat up, slowing you down. But if you keep using them, the rotors or drums stay hot and get no chance to cool off. At some point they can't absorb any more heat so the brake pads heat up instead. In every brake pad there is the friction material that is held together with some sort of resin and once this starts to get too hot, the resin starts to vapourise, forming a gas. Because the gas can't stay between the pad and the rotor, it forms a thin layer between the two whilst trying to escape. The pads lose contact with the rotor, reducing the amount of friction and voila. Complete brake fade.The typical remedy for this would be to get the vehicle to a stop and wait for a few minutes. As the brake components cool down, their ability to absorb heat returns and the next time you use the brakes, they seem to work just fine. This type of brake fade was more common in older vehicles. Newer vehicles tend to have less outgassing from the brake pad compounds but they still suffer brake fade. So why? It's still to do with the pads getting too hot. With newer brake pad compounds, the pads transfer heat into the calipers once the rotors are too hot, and the brake fluid starts to boil forming bubbles in it. Because air is compressible (brake fluid isn't) when you step on the brakes, the air bubbles compress instead of the fluid transferring the motion to the brake calipers. Voila. Modern brake fade.So how do the engineers design brakes to reduce or eliminate brake fade? For older vehicles, you give that vapourised gas somewhere to go. For newer vehicles, you find some way to cool the rotors off more effectively. Either way you end up with cross-drilled or grooved brake rotors. While grooving the surface may reduce the specific heat capacity of the rotor, its effect is negligible in the grand scheme of things. However, under heavy braking once everything is hot and the resin is vapourising, the grooves give the gas somewhere to go, so the pad can continue to contact the rotor, allowing you to stop.The whole understanding of the conversion of energy is critical in understanding how and why brakes do what they do, and why they are designed the way they are. If you've ever watched Formula 1 racing, you'll see the front wheels have huge scoops inside the wheel pointing to the front (see the picture above). This is to duct air to the brake components to help them cool off because in F1 racing, the brakes are used viciously every few seconds and spend a lot of their time trying to stay hot. Withoutsome form of cooling assistance, the brakes would be fine for the first few corners but then would fade and become near useless by half way around the track.Rotor technology.If a brake rotor was a single cast chunk of steel, it would have terrible heat dissipation properties and leave nowhere for t he vapourised gas to go. Because of this, brake rotors are typically modified with all manner of extra design features to help them cool down as quickly as possible as well as dissapate any gas from between the pads and rotors. The diagram here shows some examples of rotor types with the various modification that can be done to them to help them create more friction, disperse more heat more quickly, and ventilate gas. From left to right.1: Basic brake rotor. 2: Grooved rotor - the grooves give more bite and thus more friction as they pass between the brake pads They also allow gas to vent from between the pads and the rotor. 3: Grooved, drilled rotor - the drilled holes again give more bite, but also allow air currents (eddies) to blow through the brake disc to assist cooling and ventilating gas. 4: Dual ventilated rotors - same as before but now with two rotors instead of one, and with vanes in between them to generate a vortex which will cool the rotors even further whilst trying to actually 'suck' any gas away from the pads.An important note about drilled rotors: Drilled rotors are typically only found (and to be used on) race cars. The drilling weakens the rotors and typically results in microfractures to the rotor. On race cars this isn't a problem - the brakes are changed after each race or weekend. But on a road car, this can eventually lead to brake rotor failure - not what you want. I only mention this because of a lot of performance suppliers will supply you with drilled rotors for street cars without mentioning this little fact.Big rotors.How does all this apply to bigger brake rotors - a common sports car upgrade? Sports cars and race bikes typically have much bigger discs or rotors than your average family car. A bigger rotor has more material in it so it can absorb more heat. More material also means a larger surface area for the pads to generate friction with, and better heat dissipation. Larger rotors also put the point of contact with the pads further away from the ax le of rotation. This provides a larger mechanical advantage to resist the turning of the rotor itself. To best illustrate how this works, imagine a spinning steel disc on an axle in front of you. If you clamped your thumbs either side of the disc close to the middle, your thumbs would heat up very quickly and you'd need to push pretty hard to generate the friction required to slow the disc down. Now imagine doing the same thing but clamping your thumbs together close to the outer rim of the disc. The disc w ill stop spinning much more quickly and your thumbs won't get as hot. That, in a nutshell explains the whole principle behind why bigger rotors = better stopping power.The different types of brake.All brakes work by friction. Friction causes heat which i s part of the kinetic energy conversion process. How they create friction is down to the various designs.Bicycle wheel brakesI thought I'd cover these because they're about the most basic type of functioning brake that you can see, watch working, and understand. The construction is very simple and out-in-the-open.A pair of rubber blocks are attached to a pair of calipers which are pivoted on the frame. When you pull the brake cable, the pads are pressed against the side or inner edge of the bicycle wheel rim. The rubber creates friction, which creates heat, which is the transfer of kinetic energy that slows you down. There's onlyreally two types of bicycle brake - those on which each brake shoe shares the same pivot point, and those with two pivot points. If you can look at a bicycle brake and not understand what's going on, the rest of this page is going to cause you a bit of a headache.Drum brakes - single leading edgeThe next, more complicated type of brake is a drum brake.The concept here is simple. Two semicircular brake shoes sit inside a spinning drum which is attached to the wheel. When you apply the brakes, the shoes are expanded outwards to press against the inside of the drum. This creates friction, which creates he at, which transfers kinetic energy, which slows you down. The example below shows a simple model. The actuator in this case is the blue elliptical object. As that is twisted, it forces against the brake shoes and in turn forces them to expand outwards. The return spring is what pulls the shoes back away from the surface of the brake drum when the brakes are released. See the later section for more information on actuator types.The "single leading edge" refers to the number of parts of the brake shoe which actually contact the spinning drum. Because the brake shoe pivots at one end, simple geometry means that the entire brake pad cannot contact the brake drum. The leading edge is the term given to the part of the brake pad which does contact the drum, and in the case of a single leading edge system, it's the part of the pad closest to the actuator. This diagram (right) shows what happens as the brakes are applied. The shoes are pressed outwards and the part of the brake pad which first contacts the drum is the leading edge. The action of the drum spinning actually helps to draw the brake pad outwards because of friction, which causes the brakes to "bite". The trailing edge of the brakeshoe makes virtually no contact with the drum at all. This simple geometry explains why it's really difficult to stop a vehicle rolling backwards if it's equipped only with single leading edge drum brakes. As the drum spins backwards, the leading edge of the shoe becomes the trailing edge and thus doesn't bite.Drum brakes - double leading edgeThe drawbacks of the single leading edge style of drum brake can be eliminated by adding a second return spring and turning the pivot point into a second actuator. Now when the brakes are applied, the shoes are pressed outwards at two points. So each brake pad now has one leading and one trailing edge. Because there are two brake shoes, there are two brake pads, which means there are two leading edges. Hence the name double leading edge.Disc brakesSome background. Disc brakes were invented in 1902 and patented by Birmingham car maker Frederick William Lanchester. His original design had two discs which pressed against each other to generate friction and slow his car down. It wasn't until 1949 that disc brakes appeared on a production car though. The obscure American car builder Crosley made a vehicle called the Hotshot which used the more familiar brake rotor and calipers that we all know and love today. His original design was a bit crap though - the brakes lasted less than a year each. Finally in 1954 Citroën launched the way-ahead-of-its-time DS which had the first modern incarnation of disc brakes along with other nifty stuff like self-levelling suspension, semi-automatic gearbox, active headlights and composite body panels. (all things which were re-introduced as "new" by car makers in the 90's).Disc brakes are an order of magnitude better at stopping vehicles than drum brakes, which is why you'll find disc brakes on the front of almost every car and motorbike built today. Sportier vehicles with higher speeds need better brakes to slow them down, so you'll likely see disc brakes on the rear of those too.译文：制动器制动器：它们的作用？简单的说：它会使你的汽车慢下来。

汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献1汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Changing Automotive Environment: High-Temperature ElectronicsR. Wayne Johnson, Fellow, IEEE, John L. Evans, Peter Jacobsen, James R. (Rick) Thompson, and Mark ChristopherAbstract —The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperatureenvelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control unitson the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmissionwill push the ambient temperature above 125125℃℃.However, extreme cost pressures,increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerableheat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the controlunit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150 ℃ or less andthese will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition toX-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integrationof power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical℃ to 200℃ . Hybridactuator will require power devices to operate at 175electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. Thealternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasingas more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors mustwork in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaustgas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This paper examines themotivation for higher temperature operation,the packaging limitations evenat 125 C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenge at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125 ℃.Index Terms—Automotive, extreme-environment electronics.I. INTRODUCTIONI N 1977, the average automobile contained $110 worth of electronics [1]. By 2003 the electronics content was $1510 per vehicle and is expected to reach$2285 in 2013 [2].The turning point in automotive electronics was governmentTABLE IMAJOR AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSTABLE IIAUTOMOTIVETEMPERATUREEXTREMES(DELPHIDELCOELECTRONIC SYSTEMS) [3]regulation in the 1970s mandating emissions control and fuel economy. The complex fuel control required could not be accomplished using traditional mechanical systems. These government regulations coupled with increasing semiconductor computing power at decreasing cost have led to an ever increasing array of automotive electronics. Automotive electronics can be divided into five major categories as shown in Table I.The operating temperature of the electronics is a function of location, power dissipation by the electronics, and the thermal design. The automotive electronics industry defines high-temperature electronics as electronics operating above 125 ℃. However, the actual temperature for various electronics mounting locations varies considerably. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems recently published the typical continuous maximum temperatures as reproduced in Table II [3]. The corresponding underhood temperatures are shown in Fig. 1. The authors note that typical junction temperatures for integrated circuits are 10 ℃to15℃ higher than ambient or baseplate temperature, while power devices can reach 25 ℃ higher. At-engine temperatures of 125℃ peak can be maintained by placing the electronics on theintake manifold.Fig. 1. Engine compartment thermal profile (Delphi Delco Electronic Systems) [3].TABLE III THEAUTOMOTIVEENVIRONMENT(GENERALMOTORS ANDDELPHIDELCO ELECTRONICSYSTEMS) [4]TABLE IV REQUIREDOPERATIONTEMPERATURE FORAUTOMOTIVEELECTRONIC SYSTEMS(TOYOTAMOTORCORP. [5]TABLE VMECHA TRONICMAXIMUMTEMPERA TURERANGES(DAIMLERCHRYSLER,EA TONCORPORA TION, ANDAUBURNUNIVERSITY) [6]Fig. 2. Automotive temperatures and related systems (DaimlerChrysler) [8].automotive electronic systems [8]. Fig. 3 shows an actual measured transmission transmission temperature temperature temperature profile profile profile during during during normal normal normal and and excessive excessive driving drivingconditions [8]. Power braking is a commonly used test condition where the brakes are applied and the engine is revved with the transmission in gear.A similar real-world situation would be applying throttle with the emergencybrake applied. Note that when the temperature reached 135135℃℃,the over temperature light came on and at the peak temperature of 145145℃℃,the transmission was beginning to smell of burnt transmission fluid.TABLE VI2002I NTERNA TIONAL T ECHNOLOGY R OADMAPFOR S EMICONDUCTORS A MBI ENTOPERA TINGTEMPERA TURES FORHARSHENVIRONMENTS (AUTOMOTIVE) [9]The 2002 update to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) did not reflect the need for higher operating temperatures for complex integrated circuits, but did recognize increasing temperature requirements for power and linear devices as shown in Table VI [9]. Higher temperature power devices (diodes and transistors) will be used for the power section of power converters and motor drives for electromechanical actuators. Higher temperature linear devices will be used for analog control of power converters and for amplification and some signal processing of sensor outputs prior to transmission to the control units. It should be noted that at the maximum rated temperature for a power device, the power handling capability is derated to zero. Thus, a 200℃ rated power transistor in a 200℃ environment would have zero current carrying capability. Thus, the actual operating environments must be lower than the maximum rating.In the 2003 edition of the ITRS, the maximum junction temperatures identified forharsh-environment complex integrated circuits was raised to 150℃through 2018 [9]. Theambient operating temperature extreme for harsh-environment complex integrated circuits was defined as 40℃to 125℃ through 2009, increasing to 40℃to 150℃for 2010 and beyond. Power/linear devices were not separately listed in 2003.The ITRS is consistent with the current automotive high-temperature limitations. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems offers two production engine controllers (one on ceramic and one on thin laminate) for direct mounting on the engine. These controllers are rated for operation over the temperature range of 40℃to 125℃. The ECU must be mounted on the coolest spot on the engine. The packaging technology is consistent with 140℃ operation, but the ECU is limited by semiconductor and capacitor technologies to 125℃.The future projections in the ITRS are not consistent with the desire to place controllers on-engine or in-transmission. It will not always be possible to use the coolest location for mounting control units. Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has developed an in-transmission controller for use in an ambient temperature of 140℃[10] using ceramic substrate technology. DaimlerChrysler is also designing an in-transmission controller for usewith a maximum ambient temperature of 150℃ (Figs. 4 and 5) [11].II. MECHATRONICSMechatronics, or the integration of electrical and mechanical systems offers a number ofadvantages in automotive assembly. Integration of the engine controller with the engine allows pretest of the engine as a complete system prior to vehicle assembly. Likewise with the integration of the transmission controller and the transmission, pretesting and tuning to account for machining variations can be performed at the transmission factory prior to shipment to the automobile assembly site. In addition, most of the wires connecting to a transmission controller run to the solenoid pack inside the transmission. Integration of the controller into the transmission reduces the wiring harness requirements at the automobile assembly level.Fig. 4. Prototype DaimlerChrysler ceramic transmission controller [11]Fig. 5. DaimlerChrysler in-transmission module [11].The trend in automotive design is to distribute control with network communications. As the industry moves to more X-by-wire systems, this trend will continue. Automotivefinalassembly plants assemble subsystems and components supplied by numerous vendors to build the vehicle. Complete mechatronic subsystems simplify the design, integration, management, inventory control, and assembly of vehicles. As discussed in the previous section, higher temperature electronics will be required to meet future mechatronic designs.III. PACKAGINGCHALLENGES AT125℃Trends in electronics packaging, driven by computer and portable products are resulting in packages which will not meet underhood automotive requirements at 125℃. Most notable are leadless and area array packages such as small ball grid arrays (BGAs) and quadflatpacks no-lead (QFNs). Fig. 6 shows the thermal cycle test 40 ℃to 125℃ results for two sizes of QFN from two suppliers [12]. A typical requirement is for the product to survive 2000–2500 thermal cycles with<1% failure for underhood applications. Smaller I/O QFNs have been found to meet the requirements.Fig. 7 presents the thermal cycle results for BGAs of various body sizes [13]. The die size in the BGA remained constant (8.6 *8.6 mm). As the body size decreases so does the reliability. Only the 23-mm BGA meets the requirements. The 15-mm BGA with the 0.56-mm-thick BT substrate nearly meets the minimum requirements. However, the industry trend is to use thinner BT substrates (0.38 mm) for BGA packages.One solution to increasing the thermal cycle performance of smaller BGAs is to use underfill. Capillary underfill was dispensed and cured after reflow assembly of the BGA. Fig. 8 shows a Weibull plot of the thermal cycle data for the 15-mm BGAs with four different underfills. Underfill UF1 had no failures after 5500 cycles and is, therefore, not plotted. Underfill, therefore, provides a viable approach to meeting underhood automotive requirements with smaller BGAs, but adds process steps, time, and cost to the electronics assembly process.Since portable and computer products dominate the electronics market, the packages developed for these applications are replacing traditional packages such as QFPs for new devices. The automotive electronics industry will have to continuedeveloping assembly approaches such as underfill just to use these new packages in current underhood applications.IV. TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ABOVE125 ℃The technical challenges for high-temperature automotive applications are interrelated, but can be divided into semiconductors, passives, substrates,interconnections, and housings/connectors. Industries such as oil well logging have successfully fielded high-temperature electronics operating at 200℃ and above. However, automotive electronics are further constrained by high-volume production, low cost, and long-term reliability requirements. The typical operating life for oil well logging electronics may only be 1000 h, production volumes are in the range of 10s or 100s and, while cost is a concern, it is not a dominant issue. In the following paragraphs, the technical challenges for high-temperature automotive electronics are discussed.Semiconductors: The maximum rated ambient temperature for most silicon basedintegrated circuits is 85℃, which is sufficient for consumer, portable, and computing product applications. Devices for military and automotive applications are typically rated to 125℃. A few integrated circuits are rated to 150℃, particularly for power supply controllers and a few automotive applications. Finally, many power semiconductor devices are derated to zero power handling capability at 200℃.Nelmset al.and Johnsonet al.have shown that power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors (MOSFETs) can be used at 200℃[14], [15]. The primary limitations of these power transistors at the higher temperatures are the packaging (the glass transition temperature of common molding compounds is in the 180℃ to 200℃range) and the electrical stress on the transistor during hard switching.A number of factors limit the use of silicon at high temperatures. First, with a bandgap of 1.12 eV, the silicon p-n junction becomes intrinsic at high temperature (225℃ to 400℃depending on doping levels). The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by (1)As the temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases. When the intrinsic carrier concentration nears the doping concentration level, p-n junctions behave as resistors, not diodes, and transistors lose their switching characteristics. One approach used in high-temperature integrated circuit design is to increase the doping levels, which increases the temperature at which the device becomes intrinsic. However, increasing the doping levels decreases the depletion widths, resulting in higher electricfields within the device that can lead to breakdown.A second problem is the increase in leakage current through a reverse-biased p-n junction with increasing temperature. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are commonly used in IC design to provide isolation between devices. The saturation current (I,the ideal reverse-bias current of the junction) is proportional to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentrationwhere Ego=bandgap energy atT= 0KThe leakage current approximately doubles for each 10℃rise in junction temperature. Increased junction leakage currents increase power dissipation within the device and can lead to latch-up of the parasitic p-n-p-n structure in complimentary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Epitaxial-CMOS (epi-CMOS) has been developed to improve latch-up resistance as the device dimensions are decreased due to scaling and provides improved high-temperature performance compared to bulk CMOS.Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology replaces reverse-biased p-n junctions with insulators, typically SiO2 , reducing the leakage currents and extending the operating range of silicon above 200℃. At present, SOI devices are more expensive than conventional p-njunction isolated devices. This is in part due to the limited use of SOI technology. With the continued scaling of device dimensions, SOI is being used in some high-performance applications and the increasing volume may help to eventually lower the cost.Other device performance issues at higher temperatures include gate threshold voltage shifts, decreased noise margin, decreased switching speed, decreased mobility, decreased gain-bandwidth product, and increased amplifier input–offset voltage [16]. Leakage currents also increase for insulators with increasing temperature. This results in increased gate leakage currents, and increased leakage of charge stored in memory cells (data loss). For dynamic memory, the increased leakage currents require faster refresh rates. For nonvolatile memory, the leakage limits the life of the stored data, a particular issue for FLASH memory used in microcontrollers and automotive electronics modules.Beyond the electrical performance of the device, the device reliability must also be considered. Electromigration of the aluminum metallization is a major concern. Electromigration is the movement of the metal atoms due to their bombardment by electrons (current flow). Electromigration results in the formation of hillocks and voids in the conductor traces. The mean time to failure (MTTF) for electromigration is related to the current density (J)and temperature(T) as shown in (3)The exact rate of electromigration and resulting time to failure is a function of the aluminum microstructure. Addition of copper to the aluminum increases electromigration resistance. The trend in the industry to replace aluminum with copper will improve the electromigration resistance by up to three orders of magnitude [17].Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) is a second reliability concern. Time to failure due to TDDB decreases with increasing temperature. Oxide defects, including pinholes, asperities at the Si–SiO2 interface and localized changes in chemical structure that reduce the barrier height or increase the charge trapping are common sources of early failure [18]. Breakdown can also occur due to hole trapping (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). The holes can collect at weak spots in the Si–SiO2 interface, increasing the electricfield locally and leading to breakdown [18]. The temperature dependence of time-to-breakdown(tBD) can be expressed as [18]Values reported for Etbd vary in the literature due to its dependence on the oxidefield and the oxide quality. Furthermore, the activation energy increases with breakdown time [18].With proper high-temperature design, junction isolated silicon integrated circuits can be used to junction temperatures of 150℃ to 165℃, epi-CMOS can extend the range to 225℃to 250℃ and SOI can be used to 250℃ to 280℃ [16, pp. 224]. High-temperature, nonvolatile memory remains an issue.For temperatures beyond the limits of silicon, silicon carbidebased semiconductors are being developed. The bandgap of SiC ranges from 2.75–3.1 depending on the polytype. SiC has lower leakage currents and higher electric field strength than Si. Due to its wider bandgap, SiC can be used as a semiconductor device at temperatures over 600℃. Theprimary focus of SiC device research is currently for power devices. SiC power devices may eventuallyfind application as power devices in braking systems and direct fuel injection. High-temperature sensors have also been fabricated with SiC. Berget al.have demonstrated a SiCbased sensor for cylinder pressure in combustion engines [19] at up to 350℃ and Casadyet al.[20] have shown a SiC-based temperature sensor for use to 500℃. At present, the wafer size, cost, and device yield have made SiC devices too expensive for general automotive use. Most SiC devices are discrete, as the level of integration achieved in SiC to date is low.Passives: Thick and thin-film chip resistors are typically rated to 125 ℃. Naefeet al.[21] and Salmonet al.[22] have shown that thick-film resistors can be used at temperatures above 200℃ if the allowable absolute tolerance is 5% or greater. The resistors studied were specifically formulated with a higher softening point glass. The minimum resistance as afunction of temperature was shifted from 25℃to 150℃to minimize the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) over the temperature range to 300℃. TaN and NiCr thin-film resistors have been shown to have less than 1% drift after 1000 h at 200℃ [23]. Thus, for tighter tolerance applications, thin-film chip resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors provide a high-temperature option for higher power dissipation levels [21].High-temperature capacitors present more of a challenge. For low-value capacitors, negative-positive-zero (NPO) ceramic and MOS capacitors provide low-temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) to 200℃. NPO ceramic capacitorshave been demonstrated to 500℃ [24]. Higher dielectric constant ceramics (X7R, X8R, X9U), used to achieve the high volumetric efficiency necessary for larger capacitor values, exhibit a significant capacitance decrease above the Curie temperature, which is typically between 125℃ to 150℃. As the temperature increases, the leakage current increases, the dissipation factor increases, and the breakdown strength decreases. Increasing the dielectric tape thickness to increase breakdown strength reduces the capacitance and is a tradeoff. X7R ceramic capacitors have been shown to be stable when stored at 200℃ [23]. X9U chip capacitors are commercially available for use to 200 C, but there is a significant decrease in capacitance above 150℃.Consideration must also be given to the capacitor electrodes and terminations. Ni is now being substituted for Ag and PdAg to lower capacitor cost. The impact of this change on hightemperature reliability must be evaluated. The surface finish for ceramic capacitor terminations is typically Sn. The melting point of the Sn (232℃) and its interaction with potential solders/brazes must also be considered. Alternate surfacefinishes may be required.For higher value, low-voltage requirements, wet tantalum capacitors show reasonable behavior at 200℃ if the hermetic seal does not lose integrity [23]. Aluminum electrolytics are also available for use to 150℃. Mica paper (260℃) and Teflonfilm (200℃) capacitors can provide higher voltage capability, but are large and bulky [25]. High-temperature capacitors are relatively expensive. V capacitors are relatively expensive. Volumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, olumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, high-temperature and low-cost capacitors are still needed.Standard transformers and inductor cores with copper wire and teflon insulation are suitable for operation to 200℃. For higher temperature operation, the magnetic core, the conductor metal (Ni instead of Cu) and insulator must be selected to be compatible with the higher temperatures [16, pp. 651–652] Specially designed transformers can be used to 450℃ to 500℃, however, they are limited in operating frequency.Crystals are required for clock frequency generation for microcontrollers. Crystals with acceptable frequency shift over the temperature range from 55℃to 200℃ have been demonstrated [22]. However, the selection of packaging materials and assembly process for the crystal are key to high-temperature performance and reliability. For example, epoxies used in assembly must be compatible with 200℃ operation.Substrates: Thick-film substrates with gold metallization have been used in circuits to 500℃ [21], [23]. Palladium silver, platinum silver, and silver conductors are morecommonly used in automotive hybrids for reduced cost. Silver migration has been observed with an unpassivated PdAg thick-film conductor under bias at 300℃ [21]. The time-to-failure needs to be examined as a function of temperature and bias voltage with and without passivation. Low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) and high-temperature cofired ceramic (HTCC) are also suitable for high-temperature automotive applications. Embedded resistors are standard to thick-film hybrids, LTCC, and some HTCC technologies. As previously mentioned, thick-film resistors have been demonstrated at temperatures 200℃. Dielectric tapes for embedded capacitors have also been developed for LTCC and HTCC. However, these embedded capacitors have not been characterized for high-temperature use.High-Tg laminates are also available for fabrication of hightemperature printed wiring boards. Cyanate esters [Tg=250℃by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], polyimide (260℃by DSC), and liquid crystal polymers(Tm>280℃）provide options for use to 200℃. Cyanate ester boards have been used successfully in test vehicles at 175℃, but failed when exposed to 250℃ [26]. The higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the laminate substrates compared to the ceramics must be considered in the selection of component attachment materials. The temperature limits of the laminates with respect to assembly temperatures must also be carefully considered. Work is ongoing to develop and implement embedded resistor and capacitor technology for laminate substrates for conventional temperature ranges. This technology has not been extended to high-temperature applications.One method many manufacturers are using to address the higher temperatures whilemaintaining lower cost is the use of laminate substrates attached to metal. The typical design involves the use of higher Tg( +140℃ and above) laminate substrates attached to an aluminum plate (approximately 2.54-mm thick) using a sheet or liquid adhesive. To assist in thermal performance, the laminate substrate is often thinner (0.76 mm) than traditional automotive substrates for under-the-hood applications. While this design provides improved thermal performance, the attachment of the laminate to aluminum increases the CTE for the overall substrates. The resultant CTE is very dependent on the ability of the attachment material to decouple the CTE between the laminate substrate and the metal backing. However, regardless of the attachment material used, the combination of the laminate and metal will increase the CTE of the overall substrate above that of a stand-alone laminate substrate. This impact can be quite significant in the reliability performance for components with low CTE values (such as ceramic chip resistors). Fig. 9 illustrates the impact of two laminate-to-metal attachment options compared to standard laminate substrates [27], [28]. The reliability data presented is for 2512 ceramic chip resistors attached to a 0.79-mm-thick laminate substrate attached to aluminum using two attachment materials. Notice that while one material significantly outperforms the other, both are less reliable than the same chip resistor attached to laminate without metal backing.This decrease in reliability is also exhibited on small ball grid array (BGA) packages. Fig. 10 shows the reliability of a 15-mm BGA package attached to laminate compared to the same package attached to a laminate substrate with metal backing [27], [28]. The attachment material used for the metal-backed substrate was the best material selected from previous testing. Notice again that the metal-backed substrate deteriorates the reliability. This reliability deterioration is of particular concern since many IC packages used for automotive applications are ball grid array packages and the packaging trend is for reduced packaging size. These packaging trends make the use of metal-backed substrates difficult for next generation products.One potential solution to the above reliability concern is the use of encapsulants and underfills. Fig. 11 illustrates how conformal coating can improve component reliability for surface mount chip resistors [27], [28]. Notice that the reliability varies greatly depending on material composition. However, for components which meet a marginal level of reliability, conformal coatings may assist the design in meeting the target reliability requirements. The same scenario can be found for BGA underfills. Typical underfill materials may extend the component life by a factor of two or more. For marginal IC packages, this enhancement may provide enough reliability improvement toall the designs to meet under-the-hood requirements. Unfortunately, the improvements provided byencapsulants and underfills increase the material cost and adds one or more manufacturing processes for material dispense and cure.Interconnections: Methods of mechanical and electrical interconnection of the active and passive components to the board include chip and wire,flip-chip, and soldering of packaged parts. In chip and wire assembly, epoxy die-attach materials can beused to 165℃ [29]. Polyimide and silicone die-attach materials can be used to 200℃. For higher temperatures, SnPb ( >90Pb), AuGe, AuSi, AuSn, and AuIn have been used. However,with the exception of SnPb, these are hard brazes and with increasing die size, CTE mismatches between the die and the substrate will lead to cracking with thermal。

汽车主减速器外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译XXX Final DriveA final drive is an essential component of a power XXX primary n is to change the n of the power transmitted by the drive shaft by 90 degrees to the driving axles。

nally。

it provides a fixedn een the speed of the drive shaft and the axle that drives the wheels.The final drive is XXX power from the engine to the wheels。

allowing the vehicle to move。

It is composed of several XXX tothe wheels。

The final drive。

determines the number of ns the wheels make for each n of the engine.There are two types of final drives: the live axle and the independent XXX to the wheels。

while the independent XXX tothe wheels through a series of CV joints and half-shafts.In n。

the final drive is a XXX of power from the engine to the wheels。

It is essential to maintain and service the final drive XXX.The gear。

TransmissionBrakesBrake is a movement of vehicles or impede the movement of the trend components. According to brake torque generated in different ways, the brakes can be divided into: friction brake and retarder brakes, brake, broadly speaking, usually referred to the friction brake. At present all kinds of cars used by the brake drum brakes and can be divided into two major categories of disc brakes. Drum brake friction in the rotating components of the brake drum, and its work surface for the cylindrical surface of the rotating disc brake components for the brake disc, to end the work surface. In addition, under the rotating components of the installation of different positions, the brakes can be divided into the wheel brakes and brake two categories. Among them, the rotating wheels, brake components installed in thesolid-wheel or axle, brake torque that is a direct role in both sides of the wheels, respectively, for its general travel brake, and can also be used to brake the second and the car braking; rotating components of the brake-installed in the transmission of the transmission shaft, after its brake torque to be driven to the redistribution of the bridge on both sides of the wheel, generally used only for its cars in the system Retarded and dynamic braking.Drum brakes are within and outside the beam-type-two. The former brake drum to work within the cylindrical surface of the car on the wide application of the latter brake drum is the work of Outer cylindrical surface, only a handful of cars will be used in car brakes.Zhang-drum brakes, mainly by the brake drum (Xingzhuang Si pot, installed in the wheel, and synchronization with the rotating wheels), brake shoes, (arc-shaped parts, a group of two, shoes, with a lateral Nien Moment of friction brake lining film), fixed sales andbrake-cylinder, and so on. Brake, brake drum in the internal brake shoes, brake points from one end to bear the Prokinetic cylinder, around the other side of the fulcrum of its outward rotation, the pressure on the brake drum with a round face, then friction Torque.Disc brake mainly by the brake discand calipers. Among them, ventilated brake disc-andtwo-solid; mainly floating calipers clamp, fork-floating, such as several fixed-clamp. Braking system of new technologiesAs people of vehicle safety requirements and the continuous improvement of the rapid development of electronic technology, today's automobile braking system have taken place in the revolutionary progress. On the one hand, the brake system through a variety of sensors for real-time monitoring of the braking system braking to provide a more efficient and effective security assurances on the other hand, automobile braking systems and other systems constitute stretches of the regional network, in Implementation of intelligent brake control at the same time, but also further reduce the energy consumption of motor vehicles; addition, with new materials and new structure of the large number of applications, the reliability of its braking system has been further improved.制动器是产生阻碍车辆运动或运动趋势的力的部件。

Brake systemsWe all know that pushing down on the brake pedal slows a car to a stop. But how does this happen？How does your car transmit the force from your leg to its wheels？ How does it multiply the force so that it is enough to stop something as big as a car?Brake Image GalleryLayout of typical brake system. See more brakeimages。

When you depress your brake pedal， your car transmits the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid. Since the actual brakes require a much greater force than you could apply with your leg， your car must also multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways：•Mechanical advantage (leverage)•Hydraulic force multiplicationThe brakes transmit the force to the tires using friction， and the tires transmit that force to the road using friction also。

Before we begin our discussion on the components of the brake system, we’ll cover these three principles:•Leverage•Hydraulics•FrictionLeverage and HydraulicsIn the figure below, a force F is being applied to the left end of the lever. The left end of the lever is twice as long (2X) as the right end （X）。

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immobilizer：生物防盗系统BCI：蓄电池国际协会国际电池大会BAR：大气压BDC：下止点BBDC：奔驰-戴克汽车新工厂B：水平对置式排列多缸发动机BF：钢板弹簧悬架BCM：车身控制模块BCS：博世汽车专业维修网络BMBS：爆胎监测与制动系统BFCEC：福田康明斯发动机CCCS：智能定速巡航控制系统CSI：中国售后服务满意度调研CVVT：连续可调气门正时CVT：无级变速器CZIP：清洁区域部组件CCC：全国汽车场地锦标赛CVTC：连续可变气门正时机构连续可变配气正时CHAC：本田汽车（中国）CAE：电脑辅助工程CAM：电脑辅助制造CBC：弯道制动控制系统转弯防滑系统CNG：压缩天然气CSC：全国汽车超级短道拉力赛CDC：连续减振控制C-NCAP：中国新车评价规程CTIS：悍马中央轮胎充气系统C1：超级赛车劲爆秀CCA：冷启动电池CRDI：电控直喷共轨柴油机高压共轨柴油直喷系统CFK：碳纤维合成材料Child Protection：儿童保护CPU：微处理器CZ3：3门轿车C3P技术：整合电脑、辅助设计、工程、制造数据库技术CATS：连续调整循迹系统CRV：紧凑休闲车CUV：杂交车CZT：增压车型CTS：水温传感器CKP：曲轴位置传感器CC：巡航系统CFD：计算流力仿真CRC：全国汽车拉力锦标赛Cuprobraze Alliance：铜硬钎焊技术联盟Cuprobraze Technology：铜硬钎焊技术CCD：连续控制阻尼系统Curb weight：汽车整备质量Cross weight：汽车总质量CKD：进口散件组装DDSC：动态稳定控制系统DSP ：动态换档程序DSTC：动态稳定和牵引力控制系统动态循迹稳定控制系统DOHC：双顶置凸轮轴DSG：双离合无级变速箱直接档位变速器DCS：动态稳定系统DUNLOP：邓禄普轮胎DBW：电子油门DSR：下坡速度控制系统DATC：数位式防盗控制系统DLS：差速器锁定系统DSA：动态稳定辅助系统DAC：下山辅助系统DDC：动态驾驶控制程序DIS：无分电器点火系统DLI：丰田无分电器点火系统DSC3：第三代动态稳定控制程序DOD：随选排量Dynamic Drive：主动式稳定杆D：共轨柴油发动机DD：缸直喷式柴油发动机缸直喷式发动机（分层燃烧|均质燃烧）德迪戎式独立悬架后桥DQL：双横向摆臂DB：减振器支柱DS：扭力杆Delphi Common Rail：德尔福柴油共轨系统DTC：动态牵引力控制系统DHS：动态操纵系统DRL：白天行车灯Doppel Vanos：完全可变正时调节DPF：柴油颗粒过滤器EECT-I：智能电子控制自动变速系统ESP：电子稳定系统EBD：电子制动力分配系统EDL：电子差速锁EGR：废弃再循环系统EFI：电子燃油喷射控制系统EVA：紧急制动辅助系统EPS：电子感应式动力转向电控转向助力系统EHPS：电控液压动力转向ECU：电控单元EMS：发动机管理系统ECC：电子气候控制ETCS-I：智能电子节气门控制系统EBA：电控辅助制动系统紧急制动辅助系统ECM：防眩电子后视镜电子控制组件（模块）EEVC：欧洲车辆安全促进委员会EPAS：电动助力转向EMV：多功能显示操控系统EHPAS：电子液压动力辅助系统ETC：路虎牵引力控制系统动力控制与弥补系统电子节流阀控制系统ELSD：电子限滑差速锁ECVT：无级自动变速器ED：缸直喷式汽油发动机EM：多点喷射汽油发动机ES：单点喷射汽油发动机ESP Plus：增强型电子稳定程序EPB：标准电子手刹电子停车制动系统ESC：能量吸收式方向盘柱电子动态稳定程序ETS：电子循迹支援系统ECT：电子控制自动变速系统EBD：电子制动力分配系统EHB：电子液压制动装置EGO：排气含氧量EBCM：电子制动控制组件EECS|EEC：电控发动机ESA：电控点火装置ENG：发动机ECS：电子悬架ECO：经济曲线EVM：压力调节电磁阀EVLV：变矩器锁止电磁阀EPDE：流量调节电磁阀ESP Plus：增强型电子稳定程序EDS：电子差速锁ERM：防侧倾系统FFSI：汽油直喷发动机汽油分层直喷技术FBS：衰减制动辅助FPS：防火系统FF：前置前驱Four-C：连续调整底盘概念系统Formula 1：世界一级方程式锦标赛FHI：富士重工FR：前置后驱FFS：福特折叠系统FCV：燃料电池概念车Front Impact ：正面碰撞FAP：粒子过滤装置FWD：前驱左右对称驱动总成FRV：多功能休闲车FIA：国际汽联FI：前置纵向发动机FQ：前置横向发动机FB：弹性支柱Full-time ALL：全时四驱G GPS：全球卫星定位系统GOODYEAR：固特异轮胎GT：世界超级跑车锦标赛GDI：汽油直喷GF：橡胶弹簧悬架GLOBAL SMALL STYLISH SALOON：全球小型时尚三厢车HHPS：液压动力转向HBA：可液压制动辅助HDC：坡道缓降控制系统下坡控制系统HRV：两厢掀背休闲车HMI：人机交流系统HSLA：高强度低合金钢HSD：混合动力技术概念HSA：起步辅助装置HUD：抬头显示系统HPI：汽油直喷发动机HAC：上山辅助系统坡道起步控制系统HC：碳氢化合物Haldex：智能四轮全时四驱系统HID：自动开闭双氙气大灯高强度远近光照明大灯HI：后置纵向发动机HQ：后置横向发动机HP：液气悬架阻尼HF：液压悬架Hankook：泰轮胎IICC：智能巡航控制系统IAQS：部空气质量系统IDIS：智能驾驶信息系统I-DSI：双火花塞点火I-VTEC：可变气门配气相位和气门升程电子控制系统Instant Traction：即时牵引控制Intelligent Light System：智能照明系统ITP：智能化热系统IMES：电气系统智能管理IIHS：美国高速公路安全保险协会Intelli Beam：灯光高度自动调节IFC：国际方程式冠军赛IQS：美国新车质量调查IMA：混合动力系统ITS：智能交通系统IASCA：汽车音响委员会IDS：互动式驾驶系统ILS：智能照明系统ISC：怠速控制IC：膨胀气帘IDL：怠速触电I-Drive：智能集成化操作系统ICM：点火控制模块Intelligent Light System：智能灯光系统ITARDA：日本交通事故综合分析中心IVDC：交互式车身动态控制系统JKLLSD：防滑差速度LED：发光二极管LOCK：锁止四驱LPG：明仕单燃料车明仕双燃料车液化石油气LDW：车道偏离警示系统LDA：气动供油量调节装置LVA：供气组件LL：纵向摆臂LF：空气弹簧悬架Low Pressure System：低压系统LATCH：儿童座椅固定系统MMRC：主动电磁感应悬架系统MPS：多功能轿车MDS：多排量系统MICHELIN：米其林轮胎MSR：发动机阻力扭矩控制系统MUV：多用途轿车MSLA：中强度低合金钢MMI：多媒体交互系统MT：手动变速器MPV：微型乘用厢型车MBA：机械式制动助力器MPW ：都市多功能车MAP：进气管绝对压力点火提前角控制脉谱图进气压力传感器空气流量计MASR：发动机介入的牵引力控制MAF：空气流量传感器MTR：转速传感器MIL：故障指示灯Multi-Crossover：多功能跨界休旅车Multitronic：多极子自动变速器MI：中置纵向发动机MQ：中置横向发动机MA：机械增压ML：多导向轴MES：汽车制造执行系统MIVEC：智能可变气门正时与升程控制系统NNHTSA：美国高速公路安全管理局NICS：可变进气歧管长度NCAP：欧洲新车评估体系Nivomat：车身自动水平调节系统电子液压调节系统NOR：常规模式NVH：噪音和振动减轻装置NOS：氧化氮气增压系统OOBD：车载自诊断系统OHB：优化液压制动OHV：顶置气门，侧置凸轮轴OD档：超速档OHC：顶置气门，上置凸轮轴PPASM：保时捷主动悬架管理系统PSM：保时捷稳定管理系统车身动态稳定控制系统联机PTM：保时捷牵引力控制管理系统循迹控制管理系统PRESAFE：预防性安全系统PCC：人车沟通系统遥控系统PODS：前排座椅乘坐感应系统PCCB：保时捷瓷复合制动系统PIM：专案信息管理系统PATS：电子防盗系统PDC：电子泊车距离控制器自动侦测停车引导系统驻车距离警示系统PGM-FI：智能控制燃油喷射Pole Test：圆柱碰撞Pedestrian Impact Test：行人碰撞PTS：停车距离探测PCV：曲轴箱强制通风PCV阀：曲轴箱通风单向阀PCM：动力控制模块保时捷通讯管理系统PWR：动力模式PSI：胎压PD：泵喷嘴PDCC：保时捷动态底盘控制系统PAD：前排乘客侧安全气囊助手席安全气囊禁止Part-time：兼时四驱PEM：燃油泵电子模块QQLT：检查机油液面高度、温度和品质的传感器(Quality Level Temperature)Quattro：全时四驱系统QL：横向摆臂QS：横向稳定杆RRSC：防翻滚稳定系统RAB：即时警报制动ROM：防车身侧倾翻滚系统RISE：强化安全碰撞RSCA：翻滚感应气囊保护RR：后置后驱RFT：可缺气行驶轮胎RSM：雷诺三星汽车公司RDK：轮胎压力控制系统RWD：后驱RSS：道路感应系统RC：蓄电池的储备容量Ray Tracing：即时光线追踪技术R：直列多缸排列发动机RES：遥控启动键Real-time：适时四驱SSFS：灵活燃料技术SAE：美国汽车工程师协会SRS：安全气囊SH-AWD：四轮驱动力自由控制系统SMG：顺序手动变速器Symmetrical AWD：左右对称全时四轮驱动系统SBW：线控转向STC：天马山赛车场SIPS：侧撞安全保护系统SUV：运动型多功能车SBC：电子感应制动系统电子液压制动装置Servotronic：随速转向助力系统SAIC：汽车工业集团公司SSUV：超级SUVSSI：中国汽车销售满意度指数SID：行车信息显示系统Side Impact：侧面碰撞STI：斯巴鲁国际技术部SDSB：车门防撞钢梁SLH：自动锁定车轴心S-AWC：超级四轮控制系统SSS：速度感应式转向系统SVT：可变气门正时系统SCR技术：选择性催化还原降解技术SCCA：全美运动轿车俱乐部SS4-11：超选四轮驱动SPORT：运动曲线SACHS：气液*****式避震系统SOHC：单顶置凸轮轴SAHR：主动性头枕SDI：自然吸气式超柴油发动机ST：无级自动变速器SL：斜置摆臂SA：整体式车桥SF：螺旋弹簧悬架S：盘式制动SI：通风盘式制动SFI：连续多点燃油喷射发动机SF\CD：汽油\柴油通用机油SAV：运动型多功能车SAIS：汽车信息产业投资SUBARU BOXER：斯巴鲁水平对置发动机TTCL：牵引力控制系统TCS：循迹防滑系统TRC：主动牵引力系统驱动防滑控制系统TDI：轮胎故障监测器涡轮增压直喷柴油机TSA：拖车稳定辅助TPMS：轮胎压力报警系统胎压监测系统TC Plus：增强型牵引力控制系统TDO：扭力分配系统TCU：自动变速箱的控制单元TRACS：循迹控制系统TDC：上止点TBI：（化油器体的）节气门喷射TPS：节气门体和节气门位置传感器丰田生产体系Traffic Navigator ：道路讯息告知系统Tiptronic：手动换档程序TFP：手控阀位置油压开关TNR：噪音控制系统Tiptronic：轻触子-自动变速器TDI：Turbo直喷式柴油发动机TA：turbo涡轮增压T：鼓式制动TCM：变速器控制单元TSI：双增压Turn-By-Turn Navigation：远程车辆诊断和逐向道路导航THERMATIC：四区域自动恒温控制系统UULEV：超低排放车辆UAA：联合汽车俱乐部VVDC：车辆动态控制系统VTG：可变几何涡轮增压系统VIN：车辆识别代码VSA：车辆稳定性辅助装置动态稳定控制系统Volvo Safety Center：沃尔沃安全中心VSC：车辆稳定控制系统汽车防滑控制系统VDIM：汽车动态综合管理系统VTEC：可变气门正时及升程电子控制系统VCM：可变气缸系统VVT-I：智能可变正时系统进出气门双向正式智能可变系统VICS：可变惯性进气系统VGRS：可变齿比转向系统VSES：动态稳定系统Variable Turbine Geometry：可变几何涡轮增压系统VIS：可变进气歧管系统VCU：黏性耦合差速器VDS：汽车可靠性调查VCC：多元化概念车VTI-S：侧安全气帘VVT：置可变气门正时系统VDI阀：可变动态进气阀VGIS：可变进气歧管系统VTD：可变扭矩分配系统VE：容积效率Valvetronic：无级可变电子气门控制完全可变气门控制机构VSS：车速传感器VGT：可变截面涡轮增压系统V：V型气缸排列发动机VL：复合稳定杆式悬架后桥VTCS：可变涡轮控制系统VAD：可变进气道系统VANOS：凸轮轴无级调节技术WWRC：世界汽车拉力锦标赛WHIPS：头颈部安全保护系统防暴冲系统WelcomingLight：自动迎宾照明系统WTCC：世界房车锦标赛WOT：节气门全开WA：汪克尔转子发动机W：W型汽缸排列发动机XYZ ZBC：笼型车体概念ZEV：零废气排放数字4WD：四轮驱动4C：四区域独立可调空调4WS：四轮转向4MATIC：全轮驱动系统4HLC：高速四轮驱动配中央差速器4H：高速四驱4L：低速四驱4LC：低速锁止四驱。

汽车电子控制系统英文缩写AFM 空气流量计AIC 空气喷射控制AIS 空气喷射系统ALT 海拔开关A/M 自动—手动ASC 自动稳定性控制AT(A/T) 自动变速器ATS 空气温度传感器B+ 蓄电池正极BPA 旁通空气BPS 大气压力传感器BTSC 上止点前CCS 巡航控制系统CFI 中央燃油喷射CFI 连续燃油喷射CID 判缸传感器CIS (燃油)连续喷射系统CIS气缸识别传感器(判缸传感器) CNG 天然气CNGV 天然气汽车CPS 轮轴位置传感器CPS 曲轴位置传感器CPU 中央处理器CTP 节气门关闭位置CTS 冷却液温度传感器CYL 气缸（传感器）DC 直流电DI 分电器点火DIS 无分电器点火系统DIAGN 诊断DLC 数据线接DLI 无分电器点火DTC 诊断故障码ECA 电子控制点火提前ECCA发动机集中控制系统ECD 电子控制柴油机ECM 发动机控制模块ECT 电控变速器ECT 发动机机冷却液温度ECU 电子控制单元(电脑) EDS 柴油机电控系EEC 发动机电子控制EFI 电控燃油喷射EGI 电控汽油喷射EGR 废气再循环EIS 电子点火系统EPA 环保机构ER 发动机运转ESA 电子点火提前EST 电子点火正时EUT 电子控制燃油喷射系统EVAP燃油蒸气排放控制装置FP 燃油泵FTMP 燃油温度FFM 热膜式空气质量流量计HAC 海拔(高度)补偿阀HEI 高能点火HEUI液压电子控制燃油喷射系统HIC 热怠速空气补偿阀HO2S 加热型氧传感器HZ 故障灯IAA 怠速空气调整IAB 进气旁通控制系统IAC 进气控制IACV 进气控制阀常用汽车英文缩写含义全攻略Quattro-全时四轮驱动系统Tiptronic-轻触子-自动变速器Multitronic-多极子-无级自动变速器控制系统ABC-车身主动控制系统DSC-车身稳定控制系统VSC-车身稳定控制系统TRC-牵引力控制系统TCS-牵引力控制系统ABS-防抱死制动系统ASR-加速防滑系统BAS-制动辅助系统DCS-车身动态控制系统EBA-紧急制动辅助系统EBD-电子制动力分配系统EDS-电子差速锁ESP-电子稳定程序系统HBA-液压刹车辅助系统HDC-坡道控制系统HAC-坡道起车控制系统DAC-下坡行车辅助控制系统A-TRC--车身主动循迹控制系统SRS-双安全气囊SAHR-主动性头枕GPS-车载卫星定位导航系统i-Drive--智能集成化操作系统Dynamic.Drive-主动式稳定杆发动机R-直列多缸排列发动机V-V型汽缸排列发动机B-水平对置式排列多缸发动机WA-汪克尔转子发动机W-W型汽缸排列发动机Fi-前置发动机（纵向）Fq-前置发动机（横向）Mi-中置发动机（纵向）Mq-中置发动机（横向）Hi-后置发动机（纵向）Hq-后置发动机（横向）气门OHV-顶置气门，侧置凸轮轴OHC-顶置气门，上置凸轮轴DOHC-顶置气门，双上置凸轮轴CVT C-连续可变气门正时机构VVT-i--气门正时机构VVTL-i--气门正时机构V-化油器ES-单点喷射汽油发动机EM-多点喷射汽油发动机SDi-自然吸气式超柴油发动机TDi-Turbo直喷式柴油发动机ED-缸内直喷式汽油发动机PD-泵喷嘴D-柴油发动机（共轨）DD-缸内直喷式柴油发动机缸内直喷式发动机（分层燃烧/均质燃烧）TA-Turbo（涡轮增压）NOS-氧化氮气增压系统MA-机械增压FF-前轮驱动FR-后轮驱动Ap-恒时全轮驱动Az-接通式全轮驱动ASM 动态稳定系统AYC主动偏行系统ST-无级自动变速器AS-转向臂QL-横向摆臂DQL-双横向摆臂LL-纵向摆臂SL-斜置摆臂ML-多导向轴SA-整体式车桥DD-德迪戎式独立悬架后桥 VL-复合稳定杆式悬架后桥FB-弹性支柱DB-减震器支柱BF-钢板弹簧悬挂SF-螺旋弹簧悬挂DS-扭力杆GF-橡胶弹簧悬挂LF-空气弹簧悬挂HP-液气悬架阻尼HF-液压悬架QS-横向稳定杆S-盘式制动Si-内通风盘式制动T-鼓式制动SFI-连续多点燃油喷射发动机FSI-直喷式汽油发动机PCM - 动力控制模块~EGR -废气循环再利用BCM - 车身控制模块~ICM - 点火控制模块~MAP - 空气流量计ST-无级自动变速器FF-“前置引擎前轮驱动”FR-“前置引擎后轮驱动”RR-“后置引擎后轮驱动”CDI-common-rail diesel injection 共轨柴油直喷 GDI-gasoline direct injection 汽油直喷IAR 进气谐振器IAT 进气温度IC 点火控制IC 集成电路ICM 点火控制模块IDL 怠速IDM 点火诊断监控器IDM 喷油器驱动模块IGD点火检测信号(缸序判别)IGF 点火反馈信号IGN 点火IGSW 点火开关IGT 点火正时信号IMV 进气歧管真空度INJ 喷油器ISA 怠速执行器ISC 怠速控制ISCA 怠速控制执行器ISCV 怠速控制阀KC 爆燃控制KS 爆燃传感器LED 发光二极管LH 热线式空气流量计LPGV 液化石油气LPGV 液化石油气汽车MAF 空气质量流量MAP 进气管绝对压力传感器MAT 进气管空气温度MFI 多点燃油喷射MIL 故障指示灯MPI 多点喷射N/C空档起动开关/离合器开关NPS 空档/驻车开关NSW 空档起动开关O2氧传感器OBD 随车电脑诊断系统OC 氧化催化O2S 氧传感器OX、OXS 氧传感器PCV 曲轴箱强制通风PFI 进气口燃油喷射P/N 停车/空档PNP 停车/空档位置RAM 随机存储器ROM 只读存储器SABV 二次空气旁通阀SAE 汽车工程学会(美国) SAMC 一次空气控制系统SEFI 顺序电子燃油喷射SFI 顺序燃油喷射SPI 单点喷射SPD 速度传感器SSD 专用维修工具STA 起动STJ 冷起动喷油器TAP 节气门转角(开度)位置TBI 节气门体燃油喷射TC 涡轮增压器TDC 上止点TDCL 丰田诊断插座THA 进气温度THW 冷却液温度TP 节气门位置TPI 进气口喷射TPS 节气门位置传感器TWC 三元催化转化器TRC 驱动力控制(牵引)系统VAF 叶片式空气流量计VAF 体积式空气剂量计VAT 进气温度AAS 怠速空气调节螺丝ABV 空气旁通阀ABS 制动防抱死系统AC 交流电A/C 空调ACC 活性炭罐ACIS 声控进气系统ACT 进气温度ACU空调怠速提升真空开关阀ACV 二次空气喷射阀A/F 空燃比AFS 空气流量传感器ASR 加速防滑控制系统TCS 循迹控制系统ETS 电子循迹支援系统ESP 电子稳定系统EBD 电子制动力分布EBA 电子控制制动EPS 电子方向助力系统PCM 动力控制单元汽车英文缩写字母代表的含义不同规格的汽车有许多不同的代号、字母和数字，现将汽车规格表的内容介绍如下：一、车型二、传动系统三、发动机系统即其气缸排列在两侧，成“V”字型，“6、8、12”表示气缸数量，V6表示“6缸V型发动机”，其优点是发动机的布置紧凑，占用空间小。