名词解释
Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognition
Minimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each word
Semi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.
Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.
Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.
A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of
rules is called his linguistic competence.
Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.
Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.
A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.
Chapter 1
Design feature of language
Arbitrariness
1.bowwow 汪汪
2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序
3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的
Duality
1.底层构建上层
Creativity/productivity
1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构
2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长
Displacement
1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的
Functions of language
Halliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual
◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容
◆Interpersonal function
◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关
门）
◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）
◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）
◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操
◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）
Important distinctions in linguistics
◆Descriptive VS prescriptive
尊重语言事实，客观描述
约定俗成的
现在更关注descriptive
◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）
Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言
◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出
天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写
A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competence
Chapter 2
Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lips
Voiceless consonants-- air can pass through easily
voiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each other
Consonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻
P32, 33 图（⚠）
例如：voiceless bilabial stop
Voiced bilabial stop
Voiceless alveolar fricative
Voiceless velar stop
Glottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant
例如：high front tense unrounded vowel
High back lax rounded vowel
Phonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.
Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）
Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）
Nasalization （cap-can）
Dentalization （tent-tenth）
Velarization （since-sink）
Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）
Rule ordering
冠词规则：
The elsewhere condition
The more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）
Syllable
Nucleus 一般为元音
Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则
如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)
Intonation and tone
Intonation-- fall-rise tones
Chinese is tone language.
Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）
Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}
Chapter3
Morpheme
◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在
◆Bound Morpheme 不可以
Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是cat
Root：nature stem：natural
Affix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）
Allomorphs同位异形体
in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开
Lexeme 词位
Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word form
Content words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）
◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）
◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）
Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰mill
Coordinative compound （teacher-student）并列
Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形
存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compound
Inflection 曲折构词
曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。
（区别于derivation）
Chapter4
Syntactic relations
◆Positional relation 位置关系
Syntagmatic relations 横向关系即一句话中词的排放顺序英语中SVO
◆Relation of substitutability 替换关系
一个位置词可以被很多词替换（主语可以是你，我，她）vertical relations 纵向关系
◆Relation of co-occurrence 纵向+横向关系
树形图
Endocentric construction 向心结构通常为VP, NP, AP
Very late （late 是head）
Exocentric construction 离心结构通常为S, PP, CC
Seemed angry 都重要
Syntactic function (subject, predicate, object)
Phrase, clause, sentence
Recursiveness
Recursiveness has become an umbrella term, under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining, hypotactic and paratactic.
Embedding refers to the means by which one clauses is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.（把句子嵌入主句中）
Sentential connection
hypotactic and paratactic
形合有提示词如however；意合靠内部逻辑将两句话产生联系
Cohesion 衔接微观（观察句子词衔接，句与句间）
Coherence 连贯宏观（关注整个语篇意义连贯）
Chapter 5
P88 table ⚠️
A theory which explicitly employs the notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning. They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.
Word->concept->thing (desk)
Synonymy total synonymy is rare.
Antonymy
Gradable antonymy (好坏)
Complementary antonymy （生死）
Converse antonymy （买卖）
Hyponymy
Superordinate ：color
Hyponyms：red，purple。
（一起为co-hyponyms）
Sentence meaning (word meaning+sentence structure)
The car sells well. 这车很好卖
The car is sold well. 这车卖得很好
Construction grammar
The meaning of a sentence does not only depend on the individual words used, but more importantly on the construction as a whole.
Construction: the way the words are combined in a sentence
Cognitive semantics （研究意义理解的心理过程）language is all about meaning.
词语在句子中的组合方式
Take: CAUSE (x, (HAVE (x, y)))
x cause x to have y : x使得x拥有y
I took an umbrella.
x=I, y= an umbrella
I caused myself to have an umbrella.
Logical semantics
Universal quantifier 全称量词
Existential quantifier 存在量词
Proposition 命题
Chapter 6
Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.
Six subjects: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition.
Language acquisition
Holophrastic stage (一岁左右开始，持续两个月到一年)
使用单个常用词食物类等
Two-word stage (18个月)
词汇量增加，出现简单句法；95%词序正确
Stage of three-word utterances
Cognitive linguistics
Is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. The basic principle of cognitive linguistics is that language is symbolic rather than automatic.
Disagree with “universal grammar” (Chomsky)
Constructual and constructual operations
Attention/salience
不同词在句子中注意力不同，脑中呈现图像不同一唯二维三维
Judgment / comparison
There’s a cat [figure] on the mat[ground]. 静态
We [trajector] went across the field [landmark]. 动态
Perspective/situatedness
车在自行车前；自行车在车前
Categorization 范畴化
Image schemas (Johnson)
A recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.
Metaphor
Time (target domain) is money (source domain).
The conceptual metaphors were originally classified into 3 categories by Lakoff & Johnson. Structural metaphors allow us to structure one concept according to another.
Argument is war. --> I won an argument with him.
Orientational metaphors gives a concept a spatial orientation.
I’m feeling up.
Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions and ideas, etc., as entities and substances.
Inflation is lowering our standard of living.
Metonymy （部分代替整体，在一个域中）
Radden & Kovecses propose two general conceptual configurations: whole ICM and its part(s); parts of an ICM. （整体和部分间的转喻，部分和部分之间的转喻）
Rebuild the nation （rebuild 建筑范围，nation国家范围）隐喻
他在看书（看书包括很多种动作，翻书，看字等）转喻
Blending theory (Fauconnier & Turner)
Blending is one cognitive operation by which the elements of two or more mental spaces can be blended or integrated via projection or mapping into a new space having a unique structure.
Understanding of ourselves：On Language and Thoughts by Chomsky
Departing from the Delphi Oracle, this article contends that knowing ourselves requires us to realize the species properties that are common to humans. The article argues that it is language and thoughts that distinguish humans from all other species in the living world. This can be related with the design features of language, especially the creativity and displacement.
Language and thoughts hold a relation to identity: language is a system for generating thoughts, and thoughts are what is generated by language. Through looking back on the relevant discourse in intellectual history, this article reviews the epistemic tradition of generativity, universality, and creativity concerning language and thoughts among the thinkers and scientists, and emphasizes the “Miracle Creed”that scientists adhere to in the process of revealing the “simplicity”behind the complex appearances.
What impressed me most is the “Miracle Creed” in the study of language and thought. For this, we need to talk about one concept that language is not the vehicle of meaning or the conveyor of thoughts. Thoughts anchor language and language anchors thoughts. We use language to construct new ideas and also use language to understand the thoughts of others. It shows that
when we talk about the language we should not forget about the thought.
Language also did not escape the attention of the founders of modern science. Galileo and his contemporaries expressed their awe and wonder about a truly remarkable fact: with a few symbols, each of us can construct infinitely many thoughts in our minds, and can convey to others with no access to our minds their most inner workings.
This thought influenced a lot of people. The achievements of language are surprising. Language can express countless ideas in just a few syllables, and even transmit these ideas to people who have never accepted them through language.
I think this gives us an enlightenment. When we learn language, we can link language and thinking together. We should not only observe the characteristics and internal structure of language itself, but also study the relationship between language and thoughts, how language affects the development of thoughts, and how thoughts affects Language change.
For example, in Chinese thinking, we emphasize wholeness and internal connections between things, so it's okay to omit the conjunction “because” to indicate causality.
While in the English way of thinking, its main feature is the emphasis on logical analysis, judgment and reasoning, and formal unity, reflected in language, while English emphasizes form. So keywords like “because” that represent causality must appear.。
