必修一语法点一：Be+v.ing表将来use the present continuous tense for future plans In English, we have lots of ways of talking about the future. The most common ways of talking about the future we encounter use ‘will’ or ‘be going to’ followed by an infinitive（动词原形）, and we tend to use ‘be going to’ most often for talking about future plans. Sometimes, we also use the present continuous tense to talk about future plans.Ex. ①we are going to Mexico next Sunday.②Are you coming to the cinema?③He is leaving for London in two hours.④We are spending next winter in Australia.Only some verbs can be used in this situation, such as: go, arrive, come, leave, start, stay, return, play, have, work, wear, spend, see, meet, etc.扩展：What’s the difference between using ‘be going to’ and the present continuous to talk about future plans? Let’s look at some more examples:“I’m going to play football on Saturday”You have made a plan in your head but possibly not taken any real action to confirm it. Also, playing football on Saturday is probably not a regular event for you.“I’m playing football on Saturday”You have made a plan and taken some real action to confirm it (e.g. called your friends or booked a place to play). In this case, it’s likely that playing football on Saturdays is a common activity for you.语法点二：Direct speech and indirect speech(直接引语和间接引语)Let's first define the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to convert speech from direct to indirect or vice-versa.You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words.Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Quotation marks are not used.1、declarative sentence陈述句①Change in pronoun: The pronoun (subject) of the reported speech is changed according to the pronoun of reporting verb or object (person) of reporting verb (first part of sentence). Sometimes the pronoun may not change.In following example the pronoun of reported speech is “I” which will be changed in indirect speech into the pronoun (Subject) of reporting verb that is “he”.He said, “I like it very much.”→He said that he liked it very much.②Change in tense: If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to past tense the tense ofreported speech will change. If the first part of sentence (reporting verb part) belongs to present or future tense, the tense of reported speech will not change.③Change in demonstrative pronoun指示代词, temporal adverbial时间状语, adverbial of place 地点状语and verbs.Ps：(1)if the direct speech indicates objective truth, then there is no change in tense when it’s convertedto indirect speech.Ex. He said, “Light travels much faster than sound.”→He said that light travels much faster than sound.(2) 如果在当地转述，here不必改成there，come不必改为go，如果在当天转述，yesterday, tomorrow等时间状语也不必改变。
2、imperative sentence祈使句Imperative sentences do not normally have an expressed subject. In order to change an imperative sentence into the indirect speech, we use a to-infinitive. Note that instead of ‘said’ we use one of the following reporting verbs:Ask, Tell, Advise, command, request, order, forbid, decree, propose etc.If the imperative sentence is in negative form, then add ‘not’ in front of to-infinitive when convert the speech.Ex.①The hostess said to us, “Please sit down.”→The hostess asked us to sit down.②He said, “Don’t make so much noise, boys.”→He told the boys to not to make so much noise.3、interrogative sentence疑问句Turn word order in interrogative sentence into that in declarative sentence, and use a full stop in the end. The subject, tense, adverbial etc have to change accordingly.(1)general question一般疑问句General questions are changed into the indirect speech by using the connective if or whether. The reporting verb say or said changes to ask or asked.Ex. He said, “Are you interested in English?”→He asked (me) if I was interested in English.(2)special questionSpecial questions are changed into the indirect speech by using the same interrogative.Ex. “What do you want?” he asked me.→He asked me what I wanted.语法点三：The Attributive Clause定语从句Attributive clause is a sentence that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun to make clear which person or thing we are talking about.Ex. The man who lives next to us sells vegetable.You must do everything that I do.In the two examples above, man and everything are called antecedents先行词. Who lives next to us and that I do are attributive clauses. Who and that are relative pronoun关系代词. The words to connect main clause and attributive clause are divided into two groups, they are relative pronouns, namely that, which, who, whom, whose, and relative adverbs, namely where, when, why.Relative pronouns: We use who and whom for people, and which for things. We use that for people or things.1.That, which, who2.WhoseWhose replaces a genitive noun名词所有格in an attributive clause. The antecedent can be thing or person.Ex. This is the scientist whose name is known all over the world.The room whose window faces south is mine.3.When, where, whyFirst, when the antecedent is about reason, and it acts as an adv in the attributive clause, we will use “why”. Second, when the antecedent is about time, and it plays the role of an adv,“when” will be used. Third, when the antecedent is about place, playing the role of an adv of place, we will consider adopting where.必修二语法点一：（接定从讲）4.The restrictive and non-restrictive attributive clause.限制性和非限制性(1)Restrictive clauses limit the possible meaning of a preceding subject. They are usually not markedby pauses in speech, and they are not set off by commas in writing. Sometimes the relative pronoun which serves as an object in clause can be omitted.Ex. What is the name of the tall man who just came in?Beijing is a city (that) I’ve always wanted to visit.He has found the book (that) he was looking for.(2)Nonrestrictive clauses tell you something about a preceding subject, but they do not limit, orrestrict, the meaning of that subject. They are usually marked by brief pauses in speech and are usually set off by commas in writing. Relative cannot be omitted.Ex. Beijing, which is the capital of China, has a very long history.Yesterday I met Li Ping, who seemed to be very busy.Ps: ①In restrictive attributive clause, relative adverbs behind time or place sometimes can be omitted in spoken English.Ex. That was the year (when) I first went abroad.We need a place (where) we can stay for a few days.②Why clause can only modified ‘reason’ and it can be converted to ‘for which’. In spoken English, we can also use ‘that’ or just omit the relative.Ex. The reason (why/for which/that) I bought the roses is that Mary likes them.③‘How’cannot be used as relative adverbs. We use in which, that, or no relative to modify ‘way’.Ex. This is the way (how) I did it. (wrong)This is the way(in which/that) I did it. (correct)④the attributive clause can also be called as relative clause.语法点二：The passive voiceWe have learned the passive voice of the simple present tense and simple past tense.1.The simple future tense (use ask as an example)Ps: affirmative form; negative form; interrogative form2.The present perfect tense3.The present continuous tense4.Phrasal verb短语动词Normally, only transitive verbs can be used in passive voice, but with the addition of preposition or adverb to intransitive verbs, some phrasal verbs serve as transitive verbs, so they have passive voice too. Pay attention, we can’t miss any part of phrasal verb when we change it into passive voice.At last they put out the fire. →At last the fire was put out.They will put up a notice on the wall. →A notice will be put up on the wall.Have you sent for a doctor? →Has the doctor been sent for?Ps:必修三语法点一：modal verbs情态动词A modal verb is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality – that is: likelihood, ability, permission, and obligation. They have to be used with infinitive.Can-could may-might shall-should will-would have to-had to must1.Can & couldThey can be used to indicate ability, permission, possibility, etc.Ps:Possibility:We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter)We use could as the past tense of can:It could be very cold in winter. (=Sometimes it was very cold in winter.)We use could to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:If we don’t hurry we could be late. (=Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)We use could have to show that something is/was possible now or at some time in the past: It’s ten o’clock. They could have arrived now.Permission:We use can to ask for permission to do something or give permission; could is more formal and polite than can.2.May & mightPs: The negative forms are may not and might not.We use may:①when we are not sure about something:Jack may be coming to see us tomorrow.②to make polite requests:May I borrow the car tomorrow?③When we use may not for a refusal it is emphatic:You may not borrow the car until you can be more careful with it. We use might:①when we are not sure about something:I might see you tomorrow.It’s quite bright. It might not rain today.②As the past tense of may for requests:He asked if he might borrow the car.③For very polite requests:Might I ask you a question?3.Must & have toPs：Must①We use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means that somepersonal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost certainly agrees with the obligation.). Its negative form is must not, but when we answer a must question, we use need not or don’t have to.②We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical deductionbased upon some clear evidence or reason.Have toWe can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary. But must indicate the speaker’s subjective opinion, have to refers to objective one.4.Shall & should5.Will & would6.oughtOught to is a semi-modal verb because it is in some ways like a modal verb and in some ways like a main verb. For example, unlike modal verbs, it is followed by to, but like modal verbs, it does not change form for person. The negative is formed by adding ‘not’ after ought (ought not to).语法点二：Noun clausesA noun clause is a clause that plays the role of a noun. The object clause, the predicative clause, the subject clause, the appositive clause同位语从句.1.The objective clauseIt is a clause that functions like a noun object. It begins with conjunctions that, if, whether, conjunctional pronoun who, whose, what, which and conjunctional adverbs when, where, how, why, etc.2.The predicative clauseIt is a clause that functions as the predicative. It begins with conjunctions that, as if, whether, conjunctional pronoun who, what, which and conjunctional adverbs when, where, how, why, etc.3.Subject clauseIt is a clause that functions as the subject. It begins with conjunctions that, whether, conjunctional pronoun who, what, which and conjunctional adverbs when, where, how, why, etc.4.The appositive clauseIt’s a clause serves as the appositive to explain the preceding noun, which usually are fact, idea, news, promise etc. It begins with conjunction that, conjunctional adverb how, when, where, etc.必修四语法点一：Agreement between subject and verb主语和谓语动词的一致1.Subjects and verbs must agree in number and person.2.If two subjects are joined by ‘and’, they typically require a plural verb form.3.Do you use a singular or plural verb to match a collective noun such as team or staff? The answeris, it depends. If these nouns are acting as a unit, use a singular verb. If the sentence indicates more individuality, use a plural verb.My family is a large one.The family are sitting at the breakfast table.This group is having a meeting.Our group are reading the newspapers.4.When indefinite pronoun like anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everything, someone,somebody, something, no one, nobody, nothing, each, the other, etc serves as the subject, use a singular verb.Is anybody going to tell him the news?There is nobody in the house.Everything is ready.5.Pronoun ‘none’ and ‘neither’ can use either singular verb or plural verb and it depends on speaker’sintention. But when ‘none’ and ‘neither’ stand for uncountable noun, they are considered as singular; when neither functions as an adjective to modify a singular noun, the predicate verb should be singular.6.The verb in an ‘or’, ‘either…or’, ‘neither…nor’ or ‘not only…but also’ sentence agrees with thenoun or pronoun closest to it.Either you or Jane is to be sent to New Zealand.Neither he nor I have finished the experiment.7.In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.There are four hurdles to jump.There is a high hurdle to jump.Here are the keys.8.Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as with, along with, together with,as well as, like, except, besides, including, in addition to, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular.The teacher with two students was at the meeting.The girl as well as the boys has learned to drive a car.9.Plural nouns that indicates time, money, distance, weight is considered as a whole when they areused as the number of a unit, so the predicate verb should be singular.Sixty years is a long time.Ten dollars is enough for him.Three thousand miles is a long distance.语法点二：the verb -ing formSubject, object, predicative, attribute, object complement, adverbial语法三：构词法word formationpounding 合成2.Conversion 转化The characteristic of a certain word词性3.Derivation 派生Prefix前缀，suffix后缀，root词根Dis, un, in, im, non, mis, re, en, able, al, er, or, ess, less…必修五语法点一：verbsThe past participle语法点二：inversion倒装Inversion happens when we reverse (invert) the normal word order of a structure, most commonly the subject-verb word order. For example, a statement has the subject (s) before the verb (v).1.QuestionTo make question word order, we invert the subject and the verb, with an auxiliary (aux) or modal verb (m) before the subject (s)What do I need to take with me?2.There beThere are some flowers on the table.3.Direct speech, sometimes“Is it ready yet?” asked Hu Xin.4.Inversion can happen after ‘there, here, out, in, up, down, away, in front of, etc’ when it is as anadverb or prepositional phrase of place or direction. It is used for emphasis.Here comes the bus!Here’s your coffee.There goes the bell.5.When we use an adverb or conjunction with negative meaning (e.g. never, not, not only, little,seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly) in front position for emphasis, we invert the subject (s) and auxiliary (aux)/modal verb.Not only was there no electricity, but also no water.Never will he forget his first time to take a place.Hardly had I got out of the house when it began to rain.6.Only in front.Only then did I begin my work.Only in this way can you learn from your friends.7.So, neither, norMy sister enjoys travelling. So do I.I don’t know and nor do I care.8.So/such…that. So or such in front.So proud was he that he never listened to any advice.So absorbed was he in the novel that he did not notice his father at the door.9.In sentences for wish.Long live the People’s Republic of China!May you have a happy holiday!10.When ‘if’ is omitted in a subjunctive sentence.Should you need more information, please let me know. (=if you should need more information, please let me know.)Had Mark invited me, I would have been glad to come. (=If Mark had invited me, I would have been glad to come.)语法点三：省略Ellipsis选修6语法点一：the subjunctive mood虚拟语气In a sentence, the grammatical mood conveys the speaker’s attitude about the state of being of what the sentence describes.1.the indicative mood陈述语气The indicative mood is used to make factual statements, ask questions, or express opinions as if they were facts. Any verb tense may be deployed in the indicative mood.2.the imperative mood祈使语气A sentence in the imperative mood expresses commands or requests. It indicates that the speaker desires for the action expressed in the sentence to take place. In most imperative sentences, there’s an implied you.3.the subjunctive mood虚拟语气The subjunctive mood is the verb form used to express a wish, a suggestion, a command, or a condition that is contrary to fact.①‘If ’ in conditional clauses②In objective clause1)After ‘wish’Use past tense to indicate the condition at present, past perfect tense to indicate the condition in the past and would/could/might + infinitive to indicate condition in future.He wishes he could paint as well as a professional artist.I wish I had been with you yesterday.We wish the rain would stop2)After ‘would rather’Use past tense to indicate the conditions at present or in future and past perfect tense to indicate conditions in the past.I would rather you did it.I would rather you hadn’t told me the truth.3)After ‘demand, suggest, order, propose, request, command, insist’, etc.Use should + infinitive or just infinitive to express wish, suggestion, command, request, etc. Should can be omitted.John Snow suggested that the source of all water supplies (should) be examined.They requested that the meeting be postponed.③The subjunctive mood can also be used in subject, predicate, appositive clauses and the predicateof the clauses is “should + infinitive” or just infinitive.It’s important that we (should) attend the meeting.It’s a pity that he (should) refuse our invitation.My advice is that she wait till next week.④the subjunctive mood can be used for wish, curse, prohibition, etc.Long live the unity of the Chinese people!God bless you!语法二：the use of “it”1.Pronoun it①To replace the things that have been mentioned before.My pen is missing. I can’t find it anywhere.②Replace demonstrative pronouns like this and that.A: Whose umbrella is that?B: It’s Mary’s.③Used as impersonal pronoun to indicate time, date, place, weather, temperature, distance etc.It’s a beautiful day.2.Introducer引导词①Used as dummy subject to replace the true subject in form of the infinitive, verb -ing form or clauses.It’s no use crying over spilt milk.It’s difficult to give up smoking.②Used as dummy object to replace the true object in form of the infinitive, verb -ing form or clauses.I think it best that you should do more exercise.He found it difficult to do homework.③We use it in cleft sentences. It emphases the subject or object of the main clause. It is (was) +stressed constituents + that (who/whom) + other constituents.It’s human activity that has caused this global warming.It was Jim Brown who/whom/that you should ask.选修七语法点一：verbsThe infinitive动词不定式1.Perfect infinitiveTo+ have + past participle2.Passive infinitiveTo + be + past participle3.When “to” is omitted in the infinitive in active voice, it must re-appear in passive voice.The passive -ing form语法点二：the attributive clauseSome conditions that which can’t be used in the attributive clause1.When antecedents are indefinite pronouns like ‘all, little, much, few, everything, anything,nothing, none’, etc, the relative pronoun can’t be which but that.All that I want is your voice.There is not much that can be done.2.When antecedents are modified by superlative adjectives形容词最高级, the relative pronouncan’t be which but that.This is the funniest film that I have ever seen.3.When antecedents are modified by ordinal number序数词, the relative pronoun can’t be whichbut that.This is the first time that we have met.4.When antecedents are modified by ‘the only, the very, the same, the right’, etc, the relativepronoun can’t be which but that.American audiences will see the same movie that was shown in Asia.5.When antecedents are modified by ‘all, every, any, much, little, few, no’, etc, the relative pronouncan’t be which but that.All the things that you told me are lies.6.When the main clause is a special question that starts with ‘which, who, what’, the relativepronoun can’t be which but that.Who is the girl (that is ) sitting by the lake?Which of those books (that are )on the table belong to you?选修八语法点一：verbsTenses语法点二：the appositive同位语An appositive is a noun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause which sits next to another noun(fact, idea, news, doubt, decision, possibility, assumption, question, etc) to rename it or to describe it in another way. It’s usually introduced by that, but sometimes what, why, whether, when, etc are ok.词性part of speech实词notional word虚词structural word派生词derivative [di'rivətiv]复合词compound [ˈkɔmpaund]专有名词proper noun集体名词collective noun系动词link verb助动词auxiliary verb [ɔ:g'ziljəri]情态动词modal verb不规则动词irregular verb使役动词causative verb感官动词verb of senses感叹词exclamation [.eksklə'meiʃən]人称代词personal pronoun物主代词possessive pronoun反身代词reflexive pronoun [ri'fleksiv]指示代词demonstrative pronoun [di'mɔnstrətiv]不定代词indefinite pronoun名词性物主代词nominal possessive pronoun形容词性物主代词adjectival possessive pronoun [.ædʒik'taivəl]不定冠词indefinite article基数词cardinal numeral序数词ordinal numeral 原形base form名词性从句nominal clause定语从句attributive clause宾语从句object clause主语从句subject clause同位语从句appositive clause时间状语从句adverbial clause of time地点状语从句adverbial clause of place方式状语从句adverbial clause of manner让步状语从句adverbial clause of concession原因状语从句adverbial clause of cause结果状语从句adverbial clause of result目的状语从句adverbial clause of purpose条件状语从句adverbial clause of condition简单句simple sentence陈述句declarative sentence [di'klærətiv]一般疑问句general question特殊疑问句special question选择疑问句alternative question附加疑问句tag question反意疑问句disjunctive question [dis'dʒʌŋktiv] 存在句existential sentence [.egzis'tenʃəl]肯定句positive sentence否定句negative sentence祈使句imperative sentence省略句elliptical sentence [i'liptikəl]感叹句exclamatory sentence [ik'sklæmətəri] 句子成分members of sentences谓语predicate ['predikeit]直接宾语direct object间接宾语indirect object补语complement主补subject complement宾补object complement表语predicative定语attribute同位语appositive分词participle不定式infinitive [ɪnˈfɪnɪtɪv]所有格possessive case过去将来时past future tense过去将来进行时past future continuous tense [kənˈtɪnjuəs]过去将来完成时past future perfect tense一般现在时simple present tense一般过去时simple past tense一般将来时simple future tense过去完成时past perfect tense现在完成时present perfect tense将来完成时future perfect tense现在进行时present continuous tense过去进行时past continuous tense将来进行时future continuous tense现在完成进行时present perfect continuous tense 过去完成进行时past perfect continuous tense主动语态active voice被动语态passive voice虚拟语气subjunctive mood全部否定full negation局部否定partial negation全部倒装full inversion部分倒装partial inversion 直接引语direct speech间接引语indirect speech主谓一致subject-predicate agreement就近原则principle of proximity意群sense group语音pronunciation / speech sound连读linking of sounds语调intonation升调rising tone降调falling tone同义词synonym反义词antonym记叙文narrative writing [ˈnærətiv]议论文argumentative writing [ˌɑ:ɡjuˈmentətiv]说明文expository writing [ɪk'spɒzitəri]应用文practical writing逗号comma冒号colon [ˈkəʊlən]分号semicolon问号question mark感叹号exclamation mark [ˌekskləˈmeɪʃn]连字号hyphen [ˈhaɪfən]引号quotation marks音标phonetic transcription元音vowel单元音single vowel双元音diphthong [ˈdɪfθɒŋ]辅音consonant清辅音voiceless consonant浊辅音voiced consonant上唇upper lip下唇lower lip齿龈alveolar ridge [ælˈviələ]舌尖 tongue tip声带vocal cords。
