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宏观经济复习一、Measuring of a Nation’s Income and the Cost of Living1.The Economy’s Income and Expenditure 经济的收入与支出国家总收入=总支出=GDP无论是国家企业还是家庭，交易总有买入和卖出，因此对于一个整体而言，总收入必定等于总支出。
具体参考循环流向表2.The Measurement and Components of GDP GDP的度量与构成GDP=Y=C+I+GS+NX什么不算GDP：二手货；在别国生产的物品；household；illegal3.Real vs. Nominal GDP 实际GDP和名义GDP名义GDP：按现期价格评价的物品与劳务的生产实际GDP：按不变价格评价的物品与劳务的生产(通常以某年做基年，然后以那年的价格计算)。
区别：前者是以现期价格计算，后者是以不变价格计算。
4.CPI and Inflation CPI与通货膨胀消费物价指数英文缩写为CPI，是根据与居民生活有关的产品及劳务价格统计出来的物价变动指标，通常作为观察通货膨胀水平的重要指标。
从2011年1月起，我国CPI开始计算以2010年为对比基期的价格指数序列。
CPI=（一组固定商品按当期价格计算的价值/一组固定商品按基期价格计算的价值）×100%.若1995年某国普通家庭每个月购买一组商品的费用为800元，而2000年购买这一组商品的费用为1000元，那么该国2000年的消费价格指数为（以1995年为基期）CPI= 1000/800×100%=125%，也就是说上涨了（125-100）%=25%。
通货膨胀（Inflation）是指物价水平（price level）整体上涨的情况计算：（第二年CPI／第一年CPI）*100%真实利率=名义利率-通货膨胀率如果inflation，谁比较开心：a）borrower b）bargaining powerpart-time worker c）Asset二、The Real Economy in the Long-run 长期中的真实经济1.Unemployment 失业a）摩擦性失业：上家辞了还没找着下家b）结构性失业：老行业消失c）季节性失业：春天有工作秋天没有d）技术性失业：新技术带来生产效率的提高，劳动力过剩e）周期性失业：国家经济周期性萎缩导致定义：able and willing to work, but cannot find a jobLabor Participant Rate: (Labor Force/Adults) *100%Unemployment Rate: (unemployment/LF) *100%三、Money and Prices in the Long-run 期中的货币与物价 1. The Monetary System 货币系统定义： 人们用于购买物品的资本分类：（1）货币本身价值：a ）legal tender 如人民币，本身没有价值。
曼昆《宏观经济学》重点名词解释(总4页)本页仅作为文档页封面，使用时可以删除This document is for reference only-rar21year.March国民收入：指一个国家或地区在一定时期投入的生产资源生产出来的最终产品和劳务的价值总和。
国内生产总值（GDP）：一个国家或地区在一定时期内运用生产要素所生产的全部最终产品的市场价值。
总产出=总收入=总支出=新增价值支出法：按购买者支出的货币金额汇总而成。
GDP＝C＋I＋G＋（X－M）C：个人消费I：私人投资：总投资=净投资+折旧 G：政府购买X：出口M：进口收入法要素收入法按企业生产成本核算国民收入GDP＝工资＋利息＋利润＋租金+非公司企业主收入＋企业间接税和转移支付＋折旧+误差调整国民生产总值（GNP）：一定时期内本国或本地区常住单位生产的各种最终产品的市场价值总和。
名义GDP用生产的物品和服务的当年价格计算的全部最终产品的市场价值实际GDP按不变价格计算的当年全部最终产品的市场价值。
实际GDP＝名义GDP／物价指数均衡产出：与总需求相一致的产出，即经济社会收入正好等于全体居民和企业想要有的支出。
国民收入决定于总需求均衡产出=计划需求=计划支出=计划产出边际消费倾向递减规律：收入的增长带来消费的增长，但消费增长的幅度总是小于收入的增长的幅度，边际消费倾向不断递减杜森贝里相对收入消费理论：消费者会受自己过去的消费习惯及周围消费水准的影响来决定消费，从而消费是相对地决定。
消费与所得在长期维持一固定比率，长期消费函数为从零点出发的直线。
棘轮效应：由于消费习惯，增加消费易，减少消费难示范效应：消费者的消费行为受周围人们消费水准的影响。
莫迪利安尼生命周期理论：消费者会在更长时间范围内计划他们的生活消费开支，以达到他们在整个生命周期内消费的最佳配置弗里德曼永久收入消费理论：消费者的消费支出主要不是由他的现期收入决定的，而是由他们的永久收入决定的。
曼昆宏观经济学(英文版)名词解释本页仅作为文档页封面，使用时可以删除This document is for reference only-rar21year.MarchGDP is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.Consumption is spending by households n goods and services, with the exception of purchased of new housing.Investment is spending on capital equipment inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housing.Government purchases are spending on goods and services by local, state, ad federal government.Net export is spending on domestically produced goods by foreigners (exports) minus spending on foreign goods by domestic residents (imports)Nominal GDP is the production of goods and services valued at current prices.Real GDP is the production of goods and services valued at constant prices.GDP deflator is a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100.CPI is measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer.Inflation rate is the percentage change in the price index from the preceding period. Producer price index (PPI) is a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firms.Nominal interest rate is the interest rate as usually reported without a correction of the effects of inflation.Real interest rate is the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation. Productivity is the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time.Physical capital is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.Human capital is the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.Natural resources are the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature.Technological knowledge is society’s understanding of the bes ways to produce goods and services.Diminishing returns are the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Catch-up effect is the property whereby continues that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich.Financial system is the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment.Financial markets are financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers.Bond is a certificate of indebtednessStock is a claim to partial ownership in a firmFinancial intermediaries are financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers.Mutual fund is an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portion of stocks and bonds.National saving (saving) is the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchase.Private saving is the income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumption.Public saving is the tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending.Budget surplus is an excess of tax revenue over government spending.Budget deficit is a shortfall of tax revenue from government spendingCrowding out is a decrease in investment that results from government borrowing. Market for loanable funds are the market in which those who want to save supply funds those who want to borrow to invest demand funds.Labor force is the total number of workers, including both the employed and the unemployed.Unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.Labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor force.Natural rate of unemployment is the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuates.Cyclical unemployment is the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate. Discouraged workers are individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a jobFrictional unemployment is the unemployment that results because it takes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes and skills.Structural unemployment is the unemployment that results because the number of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a job for everyone who wants one.Job search is the process by which workers find the appropriate jobs given their tastes and skillsUnemployment insurance is a government program that partially protects workers’incomes when they became unemployed.Union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditionsCollective bargaining is the process by which unions and firms agree on the terms of employment.Strike is the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a unionEfficiency wages are above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityMoney is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people.Medium of exchange is an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services.Unit of account is the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts.Store of value is an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future.Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange.Commodity money is money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value. Fiat money is money without intrinsic value fiat is used as money because of government decree.Currency is the paper bills and coins in the hands of public.Demand deposits are balances in bank accounts that depositions can access on demand by writing a check.Money supply is the quantity of money available in the economy.Monetary policy is the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bankReserves are deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out. Fractional-reserve banking is a banking in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reservesReserve ratio is the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves.Money multiplier is the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserveOpen-market operation is the purchase and sale of . government bonds by the Fed. Reserve requirements are regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against depositsDiscount rate is the interest rate on the loans that the Fed to banks.Nominal variables are variables measured in monetary units.Real variables are variables measured in physical units.Classical dichotomy is the theoretical separation of nominal and variables. Monetary neutrality is the proposition that changes in the money supply do not affect real variables.Velocity of money is the rate at which money changes hands.Quantity equation is the equation M*V=P*Y which relates the quantity of money, the velocity of money, and the dollar value of the economy’s output of goods and services.Inflation tax is the revenue the government raises by creating money.Fisher effect is the one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate.Shoeleather costs are the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdings.Menu costs are the costs of changing prices.Close economy is an economy that does not interact with other economies in the worldOpen economy is an economy that interacts freely with other economies around the world.Exports are goods and services that are produced domestically and sold abroad. Imports are goods and services that are produced abroad and sold domestically.Net exports (trade balance) are the value of nation’s exports minus the value of its imports.Trade surplus is an excess of exports over imports.Trade deficit is an excess of imports over exports.Balanced trade is a situation in which exports equal imports.Net capital outflow is the purchase of foreign assets by domestic residents minus the purchase of domestic assets by foreigners.Nominal exchange rate is the rate at which a person can trade the currency of one country for the currency of another.Appreciation is an increase in the value of currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buy.Depreciation is a decrease in the value of currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buy.Real exchange rate is the rate at which a person can trade the goods and services of one country for the goods and services of another.Purchasing-power parity is a theory of exchange rates whereby a unit of any given currency should be able to buy the same quantity of goods in all countries.Trade policy is a government policy that directly influences the quantity of goods and services that a country imports or exports.Capital flight is a large and sudden reduction in the demand for assets located in a country.Recession is period of declining real incomes and rising unemployment. Depression is a severe recession.Model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply is the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend.Aggregate-demand curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price level.Aggregate-supply curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level.Stagflation is period of falling output and rising prices.Theory of liquidity preference is Keynes’s theory that the interest rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.Multiplier effect is the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumers spending.Crowding-out effect is the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending.Automatic stabilizers are changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate acton.。
宏观经济学第十五章MEASUREING A NATION’S INCOME一国收入的衡量Microeconomics the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets.微观经济学：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及他们如何在市场上相互交易。
Macroeconomics the study of economy-wide phenomena,including inflation,unemployment,and economic growth宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
GDP is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.国内生产总值GDP：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值Consumption is spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchased of new housing.消费：除了购买新住房，家庭用于物品与劳务的支出。
Investment is spending on capital equipment inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housing.投资：用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。
Government purchases are spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal government.政府支出：地方、州和联邦政府用于物品和与劳务的支出。
曼昆经济学原理（第七版）微观经济学分册名词解释中英文归纳CHAPTER 1Ten Principles of EconomicsScarcity: the limited nature of society’s resources稀缺性:社会资源的有限性Economics: the study of how society manages its scarce resources经济学:研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
Efficiency: the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources效率:社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最大利益的特性Equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformly among the members of society平等：经济成果在社会成员中平均分配的特性Opportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtain some item机会成本:为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
Rational people: people who systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives理性人:系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现其目标的人Marginal change: a small incremental adjustment to a plan of action边际变动:对行动计划的微小增量调整Incentive: something that induces a person to act激励:引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
Market economy: an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services市场经济:当许多企业和家庭在物品与服务市场上相互交易时，通过它们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
曼昆《宏观经济学》每章关键概念（名词解释）曼昆《宏观经济学》每章关键概念（名词解释）大全【网络上第一份，造福劳苦大众！】第一章1.宏观经济学：对整体经济的研究，包括对收入的增长、价格的变动和失业率的研究2.实际GDP：用一组不变的价格衡量产品和服务的价值3.通货膨胀和通货紧缩：物价总水平的上升；物价总水平的下降4.失业：一个人愿意并有能力为获取报酬而工作，但尚未找到工作的情况5.衰退：实际GDP的减少不严重的时期6.萧条：实际GDP的减少很严重的时期7.模型：所研究的系统、过程、事物或概念的一种表达形式，其目的就是说明外生变量如何影响内生变量8.内生变量：模型要解释的变量9.外生变量：模型接受为给定的变量10.市场出清：产品或服务的价格使供给量与需求量平衡11.有伸缩性和粘性的价格：价格能否对供求变动作出即时的调整，长期适用于假设价格有伸缩性，短期适用于假设价格有粘性12.微观经济学：研究企业和个人如何作出决策，以及这些决策者是如何相互作用的第二章1.国内生产总值GDP：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值2.消费物价指数CPI：一个典型消费者所购买的一篮子产品与服务的价格相对于某个基年同样一篮子产品与服务的价格3.失业率：想要工作的人中没有工作的人的比例4.国民收入核算：用于衡量GDP和许多相关统计数字的核算体系5.存量：衡量一个给定时点上的数量；流量：衡量每一个单位时间内的数量6.增加值：该企业产出的价值减去企业购买的中间产品的价值7.估算值：对于一些不在市场上销售的产品，没有市场价格，对其使用价值的估算8.名义GDP：按现期价格衡量的产品与服务的价值；实际GDP：用一组不变价格衡量的产品与服务的价值9.GDP平减指数：又称为GDP的隐含价格平减指数，定义为名义GDP与实际GDP的比率10.国民收入核算恒等式：GDP＝消费＋投资＋政府支出＋净出口（Y＝C＋I＋G＋NX）11.消费：家庭购买的产品与服务12.投资：包括为未来使用而购买的产品。
宏观经济学原理曼昆名词解释微观经济学（microｅconoｍicｓ),研究家庭与企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互影响。
ﻫ宏观经济学（ｍacrｏeｃｏnomicｓ），研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业与经济增长。
ﻫﻫ国内生产总值GDP （gross dｏmｅsｔic pｒoｄｕct),在某一既定时期，一个国家内生产得所有最终物品与服务得市场价值。
消费(consumption），家庭除购买新住房之外，用于物品与服务得支出。
投资(ｉnvestmeｎｔ),用于资本设备、存货与建筑物得支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房得支出。
ﻫ政府购买（goｖｅｒnmｅｎt ｐurchaｓe），地方、州与联邦政府用于物品与服务得支出.ﻫﻫ净出口(net eｘｐor ｔ），外国人对国内生产得物品得支出（出口),减国内居民对外国物品得支出（进口）。
ﻫﻫ名义GDP（nｏｍinａl GDP）,按现期价格评价得物品与服务得生产。
真实GDＰ(real ＧDP),按不变价格评价得物品与服务得生产。
（总之，名义GDP就是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产得价值，真实ＧDP就是用不变得基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产得价值。
)ﻫGDP平减指数(GDＰ, ｄeflａtoｒ)，用名义GDP与真实ＧDP得比率乘以１0０计算得物价水平衡量指标。
ﻫ消费物价指数CＰI（coｎsumｅr pｒｉce index），普通消费者所购买得物品与服务得总费用得衡量指标.ﻫ通货膨胀率(iｎflａｔｉon raｔe）,从前一个时期以来,物价指数变动得百分比。
ﻫ生产物价指数(producer price ｉndex），企业所购买得一篮子物品运服务得费用得衡量指标.指数化（iｎdexaｔion），根据法律或合同按照通货膨胀得影响,对货币数量得自动调整.名义利率（nominaｌiｎtｅrｅｓt rａｔe),通常公布得、未根据通货膨胀得影响，校正得利率。
真实利率（ｒeal iｎtｅrest ｒaｔe),根据通货膨胀得影响校正过得利率。
微观经济学原理曼昆名词解释稀缺性（scarcity)：社会资源的有限性。
经济学（economics)：研究社会如何管理自己的稀缺资源。
效率(efficiency)：社会能从其稀缺资源中得到最多东西的特性。
平等(equality):经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
机会成本(opportunity cost)：为了得到某种东西所必须放弃的东西。
理性人(rational people）:系统而有目的地尽最大努力实现起目标的人。
边际变动（marginal change）：对行动计划微小的增量调整。
激励(incentive)：引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西.市场经济（market economy）:当许多企业和家庭在物品与劳务市场上相互交易时，通过他们的分散决策配置资源的经济。
产权（property rights）：个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力。
市场失灵(market failure)：市场本身不能有效配置资源的情况。
外部性(externality）：一个人的行为对旁观者福利的影响。
市场势力(market power)：一个经济活动者（或经济活动者的一个小集团）对市场价格有显著影响的能力.生产率（productivity）：一个工人一小时所生产的物品与劳务量。
通货膨胀（inflation)：经济中物价总水平的上升。
经济周期(business cycle）：就业和生产等经济活动的波动（就是生产这类经济活动的波动.）循环流向图（circular—flow diagram）：一个说明货币如何通过市场在家庭与企业之间流动的直观经济模型.生产可能性边界(production possibilities frontier):表示一个经济在可得到的生产要素与生产技术既定时所能生产的产量的各种组合的图形.微观经济学（microeconomics)：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们在市场上的相互交易。
宏观经济学（macroeconomics）：研究整体经济现象,包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
宏观经济学原理曼昆名词解释微观经济学（microeconomics），研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互影响。
宏观经济学（macroeconomics），研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
国内生产总值GDP（gross?domestic?product），在某一既定时期，一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与服务的市场价值。
消费（consumption），家庭除购买新住房之外，用于物品与服务的支出。
投资（investment），用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。
政府购买（government?purchase），地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出。
净出口（net?export），外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口），减国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。
名义GDP（nominal?GDP），按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产。
真实GDP（real?GDP），按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产。
（总之，名义GDP是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值，真实GDP是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值。
）GDP平减指数（GDP,?deflator），用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标。
消费物价指数CPI（consumer?price?index），普通消费者所购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。
通货膨胀率（inflation?rate），从前一个时期以来，物价指数变动的百分比。
生产物价指数（producer?price?index），企业所购买的一篮子物品运服务的费用的衡量指标。
指数化（indexation），根据法律或合同按照通货膨胀的影响，对货币数量的自动调整。
名义利率（nominal?interest?rate），通常公布的、未根据通货膨胀的影响，校正的利率。
真实利率（real?interest?rate），根据通货膨胀的影响校正过的利率。
GDP is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.Consumption is spending by households n goods and services, with the exception of purchased of new housing.Investment is spending on capital equipment inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housing.Government purchases are spending on goods and services by local, state, ad federal government.Net export is spending on domestically produced goods by foreigners (exports) minus spending on foreign goods by domestic residents (imports)Nominal GDP is the production of goods and services valued at current prices.Real GDP is the production of goods and services valued at constant prices.GDP deflator is a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100.CPI is measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer. Inflation rate is the percentage change in the price index from the preceding period.Producer price index (PPI) is a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firms.Nominal interest rate is the interest rate as usually reported without a correction of the effects of inflation.Real interest rate is the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation.Productivity is the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time. Physical capital is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.Human capital is the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.Natural resources are the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature.Technological knowledge is society’s understanding of the bes ways to produce goods and services.Diminishing returns are the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.Catch-up effect is the property whereby continues that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich.Financial system is the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment.Financial markets are financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers.Bond is a certificate of indebtednessStock is a claim to partial ownership in a firmFinancial intermediaries are financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers.Mutual fund is an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portion of stocks and bonds.National saving (saving)is the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchase.Private saving is the income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumption. Public saving is the tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending. Budget surplus is an excess of tax revenue over government spending.Budget deficit is a shortfall of tax revenue from government spendingCrowding out is a decrease in investment that results from government borrowing.Market for loanable funds are the market in which those who want to save supply funds those who want to borrow to invest demand funds.Labor force is the total number of workers, including both the employed and the unemployed. Unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.Labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor force. Natural rate of unemployment is the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuates.Cyclical unemployment is the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate.Discouraged workers are individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a job Frictional unemployment is the unemployment that results because it takes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes and skills.Structural unemployment is the unemployment that results because the number of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a job for everyone who wants one.Job search is the process by which workers find the appropriate jobs given their tastes and skills Unemployment insurance is a government program that partially protects workers’incomes when they became unemployed.Union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditions Collective bargaining is the process by which unions and firms agree on the terms of employment.Strike is the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a unionEfficiency wages are above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityMoney is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people.Medium of exchange is an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services.Unit of account is the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts.Store of value is an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future.Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange.Commodity money is money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value.Fiat money is money without intrinsic value fiat is used as money because of government decree. Currency is the paper bills and coins in the hands of public.Demand deposits are balances in bank accounts that depositions can access on demand by writing a check.Money supply is the quantity of money available in the economy.Monetary policy is the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bank Reserves are deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out.Fractional-reserve banking is a banking in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reservesReserve ratio is the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves.Money multiplier is the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserveOpen-market operation is the purchase and sale of U.S. government bonds by the Fed. Reserve requirements are regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against depositsDiscount rate is the interest rate on the loans that the Fed to banks.Nominal variables are variables measured in monetary units.Real variables are variables measured in physical units.Classical dichotomy is the theoretical separation of nominal and variables.Monetary neutrality is the proposition that changes in the money supply do not affect real variables.Velocity of money is the rate at which money changes hands.Quantity equation is the equation M*V=P*Y which relates the quantity of money, the velocity of money, and the dollar value of the economy’s output of goods and services.Inflation tax is the revenue the government raises by creating money.Fisher effect is the one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate. Shoeleather costs are the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdings.Menu costs are the costs of changing prices.Close economy is an economy that does not interact with other economies in the worldOpen economy is an economy that interacts freely with other economies around the world. Exports are goods and services that are produced domestically and sold abroad.Imports are goods and services that are produced abroad and sold domestically.Net exports (trade balance) are the value of nation’s exports minus the value of its imports. Trade surplus is an excess of exports over imports.Trade deficit is an excess of imports over exports.Balanced trade is a situation in which exports equal imports.Net capital outflow is the purchase of foreign assets by domestic residents minus the purchase of domestic assets by foreigners.Nominal exchange rate is the rate at which a person can trade the currency of one country for the currency of another.Appreciation is an increase in the value of currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buy.Depreciation is a decrease in the value of currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buy.Real exchange rate is the rate at which a person can trade the goods and services of one country for the goods and services of another.Purchasing-power parity is a theory of exchange rates whereby a unit of any given currency should be able to buy the same quantity of goods in all countries.Trade policy is a government policy that directly influences the quantity of goods and services that a country imports or exports.Capital flight is a large and sudden reduction in the demand for assets located in a country. Recession is period of declining real incomes and rising unemployment.Depression is a severe recession.Model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply is the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend.Aggregate-demand curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price level.Aggregate-supply curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level.Stagflation is period of falling output and rising prices.Theory of liquidity preference is Keynes’s theory that the interest rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.Multiplier effect is the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumers spending.Crowding-out effect is the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending.Automatic stabilizers are changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate acton.。
宏观经济学原理曼昆名词解释微观经济学（microeconomics），研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互影响。
宏观经济学（macroeconomics），研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
国内生产总值GDP（gross domestic product），在某一既定时期，一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与服务的市场价值。
消费（consumption），家庭除购买新住房之外，用于物品与服务的支出。
投资（investment），用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。
政府购买（government purchase），地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出。
净出口（net export），外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口），减国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。
名义GDP（nominal GDP），按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产。
真实GDP（real GDP），按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产。
（总之，名义GDP是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值，真实GDP是用不变的GDP平减指数（GDP, deflator），用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标。
消费物价指数CPI（consumer price index），普通消费者所购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。
通货膨胀率（inflation rate），从前一个时期以来，物价指数变动的百分比。
生产物价指数（producer price index），企业所购买的一篮子物品运服务的费用的衡量指标。
指数化（indexation），根据法律或合同按照通货膨胀的影响，对货币数量的自动调整。
名义利率（nominal interest rate），通常公布的、未根据通货膨胀的影响，校正的利率。
真实利率（real interest rate），根据通货膨胀的影响校正过的利率。
生产率（productivity），每单位劳动投入所生产的物品和服务的数量。
物质资本（physical capital），用于生产物品与服务的设备和建筑物存量。
人力资本（human capital），工人通过教育、培训和经验而获得的知识与技能。
自然资源（natural resources），由自然界提供的用于生产物品与服务的投入，如土地、河流和矿藏。
技术知识（technological knowledge），社会对生产物品与服务的最好方法的了解。
收益递减（diminishing returns），随着投入量的增加，每一单位额外投入得到的收益减少的特性。
追赶效应（catch-up effect），开始时贫穷的国家倾向于比开始时富裕的国家增长更快的特征。
金融体系（financial system），经济中促使一个人的储蓄与另一个人的投资相匹配的一组机构。
金融市场（financial markets），储蓄者可以借以直接向借款者提供资金的金融机构。
债券（bond），一种债务证明书。
股票（stock），企业部分所有权的索取权。
金融中介机构（financial intermediaries），储蓄者可以借以间接地向借款者提供资金的金融机构。
国民储蓄（national saving）（储蓄）（saving），在用于消费和政府购买后剩下的一个经济中的总收入。
私人储蓄（private saving），家庭在支付税收和消费之后剩下来的收入。
公共储蓄（public saving），政府在支付其支出后剩下的税收收入。
预算盈余（budget surplus），税收收入大于政府支出的余额。
预算赤字（budget deficit），政府支出引起的税收收入短缺。
可贷资金市场（market for loanable funds），想储蓄的人借以提供资金、想借钱投资的人借以借贷资金的市场。
挤出（crowding out），政府借款所引起的投资减少。
金融学（finance），研究人们如何在某一时期内做出关于配置资源和应对风险的决策的学科。
现值（present value），用现行利率产生一定量未来货币所需要的现在货币量。
终值（future value），在现行利率既定时，现在货币量将带来的未来货币量。
复利（compounding），货币量的积累，比如说银行账户上货币量的积累，即赚得的利息仍留在账户上以赚取未来更多的利息。
风险厌恶（risk aversion），不喜欢不确定性。
多元化（diversification），通过用大量不相关的小风险代替一种风险来降低风险。
企业特有风险（firm-specific risk），只影响一家公司的风险。
市场风险（market risk），影响股市上所有公司的风险。
基本面分析（fundamental analysis），为决定一家公司的价值而对其会计报表和未来前景进行的研究。
有效市场假说（efficient markets hypothesis），认为资产价格反映了关于一种资产价值的所有公开的、可获得的信息的理论。
信息有效（informational efficiency），以理性方式反映所有可获得的信息的有关资产价格的描述。
随机游走（random work），一种不可预期的变量变动的路径。
劳动力（labor force），既包括就业者又包括失业者的工人总数。
失业率（unemployment rate），劳动力中失业者所占的百分比。
劳动力参工率（labor-force participation rate），劳动力占成年人口的百分比。
自然失业率（natural rate of unemployment），失业率围绕它而波动的正常失业率。
周期性失业（cyclical unemployment），失业率对自然失业率的背离。
丧失信心的工人（discouraged workers），想工作但已放弃寻找工作的人。
摩擦性失业（frictional unemployment），由于工人寻找最适合自己嗜好和技能的工作需要时间而引起的失业。
结构性失业（structural unemployment），由于某些老动力市场上可提供的工作岗位数量不足以为每个想工作的人提供工作而引起的失业。
寻找工作（job search），有工人的嗜好与技能既定时工人寻找适当工作的过程。
失业保险（unemployment insurance），当工人失业时为他们提供部分收入保障的政府计划。
工会（union），与雇主就工资、津贴和工作条件进行谈判的工人协会。
集体谈判（collective bargaining），工会和企业就就业条件达成一致的过程。
罢工（strike），工会组织工人从企业撤出劳动。
效率工资（efficiency wages），企业为了提高工人的生产率而支付的高于均衡水平的工资。
货币（money），经济中人们经常用于向其他人购买物品与服务的一组资产。
交换媒介（medium of exchange），买者在购买物品与服务时给予卖者的东西。
计价单位（unit of account），人们用来表示价格和记录债务的标准。
价值储藏手段（store of value），人们可以用来把现在的购买力转变为未来的购买力的东西。
流动性（Liquidity），一种资产兑换为经济中交换媒介的容易程度。
商品货币（commodity money），以有内在价值的商品为形式的货币。
法定货币（fiat money），没有内在价值、由政府法令确定作为通货使用的货币。
通货（currency），公共手中持有的纸币钞票和铸币。
活期存款（demand deposits），储户可以通过开支票而随时支取的银行账户余额。
中央银行（central bank），为了监管银行体系和调节经济中的货币量而设计的机构。
货币供给（money supply），经济中可得到的货币量。
货币政策（monetary policy），中央银行的决策者对货币供给的安排。
准备金（reserves），银行得到但没有贷出去的存款。
部分准备金银行（fractional-reserve banking），只把部分存款作为准备金的银行制度。
准备金率（reserve ratio），银行作为准备金持有的存款比例。
货币乘数（money multiplier），银行体系用一美元准备金所产生的货币量。
银行资本（bank capital），银行的所有者投入机构的资源。
杠杆（leverage），将借到的货币追加到用于投资的现有资金上。
杠杆率（leverage ratio），资产与银行资本的比率。
资本需要量（capital requirement），政府管制确定的最低银行资本量。
贴现率（discount rate），美联储向银行发放贷款的利率。
法定准备金（reserve requirements），关于银行必须根据其存款持有的最低准备金量的规定。
联邦基金利率（federal funds rate），银行向另一家银行进行隔夜贷款时的利率。
货币数量论（quantity several of money），一种认为可得到的货币量决定物价水平，可得到的货币量的增长率决定通货膨胀率的理论。
名义变量（nominal variables），按货币单位衡量的变量。
真实变量（real variables），按实物单位衡量的变量。
古典二分法（classical dichotomy），名义变量和真实变量的理论区分。
货币中性（monetary neutrality），认为货币供给变动并不影响真实变量的观点。
货币流通速度（velocity of money），货币易手的速度。
数量方程式（quantity equation），即方程式MxV=PxY，它把货币量、货币流通速度和经济中物品与服务产出的美元价值联系在一起。
费雪效应（Fisher effect），名义利率对通货膨胀率所进行的一对一的调整。
皮鞋成本（shoeleather coast），当通货膨胀鼓励人们减少货币持有量时所浪费的资源。
菜单成本（menu costs），改变价格的成本。
封闭经济（closed economy），不与世界上其他经济相互交易的经济。
开放经济（open economy），与世界上其他经济自由交易的经济。
出口（exports），在国内生产而在国外销售的物品与服务。
进口（imports），在国外生产而在国内销售的物品与服务。
净出口（net exports），一国的出口值减进口值，又称贸易余额。
贸易余额（trade balance），一国的出口值减进口值，又称净出口。
贸易盈余（trade surplus），出口大于进口的部分。
贸易赤字（trade deficit），进口大于出口的部分。
