语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

Chapter 4Syntactic relationsSyntactic relations refer to the ways in which words, word groups or phrases form sentences.Relation of substitutability refers to word classes (相同词类）or sets of words（相同词汇集合）substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.By the relation of co-occurrence one means that words of different sets of classes may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence.Syntactic construction⏹Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for everylinguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Several constituents together form a construction.⏹Construction refers to any linguistic form which is composed ofconstituents and is able to be segmented.In other words, a construction is a relationship between constituents.●Immediate constituent analysis may be defined as: the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups, whichare in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. For example,The boy ate the apple. (A)the boy (B) +ate the apple (C)( the + boy ) ( ate + the + apple)In this case, B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. The two constituents the boy (B) and ate the apple (C) can also be split into further constituents (e.g. the + boy). This process can be continued until we are left with just individual words. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called Immediate Constituent Analysis or IC analysis (直接成分分析）.The criterion used in IC analysisThe criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: Whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a singular word and the structure remains the same.Advantage of IC analysisThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may bedemonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.Endocentric and exocentric constructions(向心结构和离心结构）●Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionallyequivalent to that of one of its constituents, which serves as the head of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a head construction (有主词的结构）.●Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentricconstruction. It refers to a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.There is no noticeable “Head” in it.The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements，etc.A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought. It consists of a single independent clause which contains a subject and a predicate. The single clause stands alone as a sentence.A compound sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more connected and coordinate thoughts. It contains two clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction such as and, but, or.A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts, one of which is the main thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts. It contains two or more clauses. One of the clauses is incorporated (包含）into the otherWhy does a sentence have both a linear and hierarchical structure? Sentences are formed by following a set of syntactic rules. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Therefore the structure of a sentence is first linear. However, the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are only linearly structured. In fact, sentences are made up of layers of word groups, which are in turn made up of words. This determines that sentences are also hierarchically structured.。

【最新整理，下载后即可编辑】Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed ofelements of the secondary level and each of the two levels hasits own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rulewhich can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. Therecursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.加1 Each sound in the language is加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelation between meaning and form. There areresemblances between the language form andwhat they refer to. That relationship is calledicon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons andsyntax. It is the motivation between languageforms and meanings. It is a relation ofresemblance between language form and whatthey refer to.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.1. function: to convey new information, toembodying all use of language to3. referring to the fact that language hasto make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions: 1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. 1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talkabout a book, and I can also use the expression “the wordbook” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, andauditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape ofsyllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the studyof the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8.1 Psycholinguistics1.8.2 Sociolinguistics1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics1.8.4 Computational linguisticsthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which themembers of a language-community actually conform and doesnot seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, ofcorrectness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and forall.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the mainEuropean languages were studied prescriptively. However,modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature oflinguistics as a science determines its preoccupation withdescription instead of prescription.1.9.2as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic descriptionis the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is ofteninfluenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’sperformance does not always match his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. Chomsky’scompetence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of acommunity, while competence is deemed as a property of mindof each individual. Saussure looks at language more from asociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomskysince the latter deals with his issues psychologically orpsycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just asoften the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis inlinguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the nativemembers of a speech community rather than via appeal to theinvestigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three mainareas:1. phonetics –the study of the production of2. phonetics –the study of the physical properties of3. phonetics –the study of perception of speechMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in anylanguage according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters anddiacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet,some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive:2. Fricative:3. (Median) approximant:4. Lateral (approximant):2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with thelower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tipor blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside ofthe tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the backof the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front ofthe tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back ofthe tongue and the uvula, the short projection of thesoft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the rootof the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the twopieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English”or “OxfordEnglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonants[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximantChapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms ofrelationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes”has two morphemes: “box”and “es,”neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme.E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s”makes the allomorphsthereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute,by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. Stability2. Relative uninterruptibility3. A minimum free form3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable words2. Grammatical words and lexical words3. Closed-class words and open-class words4. Word class3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1.those which may constitute words by themselves, are freemorphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type offormative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute ordelicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys,walks, John’s,etc. Therefore, they serve toproduce different forms of a single word. In contrast,derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class ofthe word they attach to, such as flower, flowers,whereas derivational affixes might or might not, suchas the relation between small and smallness for theformer, and that between brother and brotherhoodfor the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned bynonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word theyattach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. thechoice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on theinternet.”is determined by the subject the boy inthe sentence, whereas derivational affixes are moreoften based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whetherwe want to talk about the property “clever” or wewant to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc.But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, whichdo not change the grammatical class of the stems to whichthey are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassifiedinto the compositional type (compound) and derivationaltype (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form, such asice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room,simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb.Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or asynthetic compound. Usually, the first member is aparticipant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control,pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machinewashable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed byV + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric comefrom V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat,etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) DerivationDerivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations canmake the word class of the original word either changedor unchanged.3.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology1. Allomorph: Any of the different forms of a morpheme.2. Morphophonology / morphophonemics:Morphophonology is a branch of linguistics referring tothe analysis and classification of the phonological factorsthat affect the appearance of morphemes, andcorrespondingly, the grammatical factors that affect theappearance of phonemes. It is also called morphonologyor morphonemics.3. Assimilation: Assimilation refers to the change of asound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called “contact”or“contiguous” assimilation.4. Dissimilation: Dissimilation refers to the influenceexercised by one sound segment upon the articulation ofanother, so that the sounds become less alike, ordifferent.3.3 Lexical change3.3.1 Lexical change proper1. InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items comedirectly from the consumer items, their producers or theirbrand names.2. BlendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part ofthe first word and the final part of the second word, or byjoining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clippingA new word is created by cutting the final part, cuttingthe initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the originalwords.4. AcronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5. Back-formationBack-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deletingan imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.6. Analogical creationThe principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in theconjugation of some English verbs.7. BorrowingEnglish in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languageshave all played an active role in this process.3.3.2 Phonological change1. LossThe loss of sound can first refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system.The loss of sounds may also occur in utterances at theexpense of some unstressed words.2. AdditionSounds may be lost but they may also be added to the original sound sequence.3. MetathesisMetathesis is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally aperformance error, which was overlooked and accepted bythe speech community.4. AssimilationAssimilation refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is morespecifically called “contact”or “contiguous”assimilation.3.3.3 Morpho-syntactical change1. Morphological changeThe form of inflectional affixes may also change.2. Syntactical changeThere are more instances of changes in the syntactical features of words3.3.4 Semantic change1. BroadeningBroadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its specific sense to a relatively general one.2. NarrowingContrary to broadening, the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3. Meaning shiftAll semantic changes involve meaning shift. Here meaning shift is understood in its narrow sense, i.e. thechange of meaning has nothing to do with generalization orrestriction as mentioned above.4. Class shiftBy shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process orattribution. This process of word formation is also knownas zero-derivation, or conversion.5. Folk etymologyFolk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of theorigin or meaning of the term or from the influence ofmore familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.3.3.5 Orthographic changeChanges can also be found at the graphitic level. Since writing is a recording of the sound system in English, phonological changes will no doubt set off graphitic changes.End of Chapter 3Chapter 4 Syntax4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and case4.1.2 Tense and aspect[For these two sections, please consult materials ontraditional English grammar. – icywarmtea]4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategories. E.g. in English the determiner and the noun itprecedes should concord in number as in this man, these men.And the form of a subject should agree with that of the verb interms of number in the present tense, e.g. He speaks English;They speak English.Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. Itdiffers from concord in that this is a relationship in which aword of a certain class determines the form of others in termsof certain category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verb ora preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him abook; She gave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or thepreposition, governs the form of the pronoun after it. Theformer is the governor, and the latter is the governed.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or betweenelements which are all present, such as the relation betweenweather and the others in the following sentence: If the weatheris nice, we’ll go out.Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)1. How to do itImmediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be asentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediateconstituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turnanalyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and theprocess goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The ICanalysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets orshown with a tree diagram. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Poor John ran awayThrough IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will berevealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linearstructure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure ofthe sentence. E.g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. isambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the book on the shelf;(2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meaningscan be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See thetextbook p125~128.)3. Its problemsHowever, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Anyconstruction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this isnot possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that itmay mean old + men and women or old men + and women.It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part oronly the succeeding part. Second, constructions withdiscontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for treediagrams in IC analysis. E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up,turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when the objectis expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb asin make it up. The most serious problem is that there arestructural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis forthe love of God.4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructionsAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one ofits constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of thewhole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentricconstructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjectivephrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes:subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in whichthere is only one head, with the head being dominant and theother constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions.In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head,e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boysand girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependenton the other.The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalentto any of its constituents. There is no noticeable center or headin it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases,subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and the verb plusobject constructions.4.3 The generative approach4.3.1 Deep and surface structuresIn transformational generative grammar (a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstractrepresentation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its differentconstituents, such as the relation between the underlyingsubject and its verb, or a verb and its object.The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to thestructural organization of a construction people actuallyproduce and receive.The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today. The deep structure of the above sentencewould be something like: (negative) someone (past tense)deliver the newspaper today (passive). The items in brackets arenot lexical items but grammatical concepts which shape thefinal form of the sentence. Rules which describe deep structureare in the first part of the grammar (base component). Ruleswhich transform these structures into surface structures(transformational rules) are in the second part of the grammar(transformational component).4.3.2 The standard theory and afterWhat is the trace theory?[I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. –icywarmtea]After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace inT-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace,all the necessary information for semantic interpretation maycome from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams arebuilt by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in。

第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。

Chapter 4 MorphologyT eaching aims: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methodsFocal points: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methodsTeaching procedure：The outline of the chapter:1 Morphology1.1 concept p521.2 word1.2.1 concept1.2.2 identification P571.2.3 classification2 Morpheme2.1 Concept: P52.2.2 Types of Morpheme2.2.1 Free morphemes and Bound morphemes:2.2.2 Root, affix and stem(P 53)2.2.3 Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme(P63)3 Internal structure of words3.1 mono-morphemic words3.2 poly- morphemic words3.3 compounds4 Word formation4.1 Major ways to create new words:4.2 Minor ways to create new words:1 Morphology1.1 concept p521.2 word571.2.1 concept1) wordWord is a typical grammatical unit between morpheme and word group. e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou. Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.2)lexical items see p571.2.2 identification P57(how to recognize words?)1）stability2) relative uninterruptibility3) a minimum free form1.2.3 classification1.2.3.1 words1) Variable vs. invariable words(1) criterion: whether they have inflective changes(2) classification: variable vs. invariable words2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words(1) criterion: whether they work for constructinggroup,phrase…, or referring to substance…(2) classification: grammatical words vs. lexical words3)Content words vs. function words(1) criterion: whether they carry the main content(2) classification: content words vs. function words4) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(1) criterion: whether their membership is limited or unlimited(2) classification: Closed-class words vs. open-class words1.2.3.2 word class(1) criterion: classify words by grouping them into classesaccording to their formal similarities(2) classification: 2 classes; 9 classes; 13 classes2 Morpheme2.1 Concept: P61.2.2 Types of Morpheme2.2.1 Free morphemes and Bound morphemes1) criterion: whether they may ocurr alone2) types(1) Free morphemes : morphemes which may constitute wordsby themselves(2) Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used bythemselves, but must be combined with other morphemes toform words2.2.2 Root, affix and stem(P 62)1) root2) affix3) stem2.2.3 Inflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme(P63)3 Internal structure of words3.1 mono-morphemic words3.2 poly- morphemic words3.3 compounds4 Word formation4.1 Major ways to create new words:1) Compounding: a process of combining two or more words intoone lexical unit.blackboard godfather baby-sit cross-cultural2)Derivation: the process by which new words are formed by theaddition of affixes to the roots or words. e.g.finalize widen hospitalize clockwise (顺时针)3)Conversion( Class shift)4.2 Minor ways to create new words:1) invention2)Blending : a process of forming a new word by combiningparts of other words.smog(smoke+fog); brunch smaze(smog+haze);telecast(television+ broadcast); motel (motor +hotel)3)Clipping: a shortened form of a word or phrase which representsthe complete form.e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour) ft(foot or feet)clipping: a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrasese.g. telephone---phone memorandum---memoelectronic mail---e-mail high fidelity---hi-fi4)Acronym: a word created by combining the initial letters of anumber of words.e.g. UNESCO APEC Sars CD laser radar (radio detectingand ranging) Initialism: VOA BBC WTO5)Back-formation: a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm)6)Borrowing: the taking over of words from other languages。

Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。

实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。

直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。

Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。

Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。

（完整）语⾔学知识点（语⾔学简明教程胡壮麟版）,推荐⽂档ⅠDefinitionA卷①Phonetics 语⾔学(P17)Phonetics is the field of language study concerning the physical properties of sounds and speech sounds.②Minimal pairs 最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.③Open-class 开放类词(P66)They are indefinitely extendable. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class words.④Invariable words 可变化词(P67)Invariable words refer to those words such as conjunctions, prepositions, interjections, etc. . T hey do not have inflective endings.⑤Morpheme 语素(P68)In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called morpheme.⑥Compounds 复合词(P69)Compounds consist wholly of free morphemes.⑦Derivation 派⽣(P72)Derivation is the process in which new words are created from already existing words through affixation.⑧Pragmatics 语⽤学(P150)Pragmatics is a study of the intended meaning of speakers in a particular context.⑨Blending 缩合(P187)Blending here means to form a new word by joining the initial part of a word and the initial or final part of another word together.⑩Dissimilation 异化(P189)This occurs when one of two similar or identical sounds in a word change in such a way that it becomes less similar to the other.B卷①Articulatory phonetics 发声语⾳学(P18)It studies the sound units from the angle of how each sound segment is articulated.②Diphthongs (P)There are vowels which may be described as a sequence of two sounds, or the glide from one vowel position to another.③Minimal pairs最⼩辨⽴对(P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position.④Closed-class 封闭类词(P66)Words in this class cannot normally be extended by the reation of additional members.⑤Stem 词⼲(P70)A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectionalaffix can be added.⑥Conversion 转化(P75)Conversion is actually the derivational process whereby a word is adapted or converted to a new word-class without the addition of an affix.⑦Text 语篇(P112)A text is a chunk of language spoken or written for communication in actual circumstances.⑧Theme 主位(P113)Theme is the point of departure in a sentence. The rest of the clause is called the Rheme（述位）.⑨Assimilation 同化(P189)Assimilation is a sound becomes more similar to its adjacent sound.⑩Idiolect 个⼈⽅⾔(P202)Idiolect refers to the characteristics of an individual’s speech.ⅡWrite the sources of the following Latin abbreviation and translate them into Chinese P85cf. ：confer 参看etc.：et cetera 等等et al.：et alii 以及其他等等vs. ：versus 对 e.g.：exemmpli gratia 例如id.：idem 同上a.m.：ante meridiem 午前p.m.：post meridiem 午后l.c.：loco citato 在上述引⽂中sec.：secundum 根据ⅢDisambiguate the following sentences by providing two unambiguous interpretations.P110 P157⑴We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation.①We have greater interest in our environment than the younger generation do.②We have greater interest in our environment than in the younger generation.⑵There were more wealthy farmers than you young industrialists.①There were farmers more wealthy than you young industrialists.②There were more wealthy farmers than there were you young industrialists.⑶They need more highly trained teachers.①They need teachers who are more highly trained.②They need more teachers who are highly trained.⑷The long drill was boring.①The long drill was making a hole.②The drill that lasted for a long time was boring.⑸It takes a good ruler to make a straight line.①Only a good leader can make a proper policy.②Only with a good rule can we draw a straight line.⑹The Congressman is a dirty street fighter.①The Congressman is fighting to make the streets cleaner.②The Congressman is like a dishonest guy who fights in the street.⑺The piglet is too hot to eat.①The piglet is so hot that it is unable to eat anything.②The piglet is served so hot that we cannot eat it.⑻Old men and women will be served first.①Old men will be served first and so will be women.②Old men and old women will be served first.⑼They are moving machines.①The workers are moving machines.②These are the machines that can move.⑽John loves Bill more than Emma.①John loves Bill more than Emma does.②John loves Bill more than he loves Emma.⑾They laughed at the colorful ball.①They laughed in the colorful dancing party.②They showed open scorn for the colorful ball.⑿He said he would file it on Monday.①He said he would file the document on Monday.②He said he would smooth it with a file on Monday.ⅣSemantic triangle(语义三⾓)P135Reference (e.g. thought, concept, mental image)指称意义（即，想法、概念和⼤脑中的意象）指代代表Symbol (e.g. word) referent (e.g. object in the word) 符号（即，词）stands for 指称物（即，世界上的事物）代表In the triangle, we have three components: ①the symbol as the word, the referent as the object in the world and the reference as the thought or concept or mental image.②What is symbolized by the word is not the object in the real world but the concepts and mental images the speaker have at the moment of utterance or can recall from memory. ③The dotted line at the bottom of the triangle indicates that there is no one-to one relationship between word and referent.。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

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ⅠDefinitionA卷①Phonetics 语言学 (P17）Phonetics is the field of language study concerning the physical properties of sounds and speech sounds.②Minimal pairs 最小辨立对（P42)They are made up of similar sound sequence except for the difference of one sound in the corresponding position。

③Open-class 开放类词 (P66)They are indefinitely extendable。

Nouns, verbs， adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class words。

④Invariable words 可变化词 (P67)Invariable words refer to those words such as conjunctions, prepositions，interjections, etc. . T hey do not have inflective endings。

⑤Morpheme 语素 (P68）In linguistics, the minimal unit of meaning is called morpheme。

《语言学教程》汉语解释第一章 语言的性质语言的性质语言的性质 语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章 语言学语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

学）等。

第三章 语音学语音学发音器官的英文名称；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；语音学的定义；发音语音学；发音语音学；听觉听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章 音位学音位学音位理论；音位理论；最小对立体；最小对立体；最小对立体；自由变异；自由变异；自由变异；互补分布；互补分布；互补分布；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；语音的相似性；区别性特征；区别性特征；区别性特征；超语段音位学；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章 词法学词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章 词汇学词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functionalgrammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversationalimplicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstreammechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstreammechanism喉气流机制velaric airstreammechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ 能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speechorgan不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilledconsonant颤辅音rolledconsonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostionalassimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle 最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words 单语素词polymorphemic words 多语素词relative uninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form 最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammaticalwords(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(contentwords)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentriccompound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentriccompound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonologicalconditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation 临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change 形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told toregularly classes)calque仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmaticrelationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituentanalysis(IC analysis forshort)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headedconstruction向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction 并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes 成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-commandfor short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computationalsystem)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentenceperspective 功能句子观communicativedynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocativefunction称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbaloperator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(aprocess of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(aprocess of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a processof saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程。

Chapter 4 Syntax4.1 The traditional approach4.1.1 Number, gender and case4.1.2 Tense and aspect[For these two sections, please consult materials on traditional Englishgrammar. – icywarmtea]4.1.3 Concord and governmentConcord (a.k.a. agreement) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree witheach other in terms of some categories. E.g. in English the determiner and thenoun it precedes should concord in number as in this man, these men. Andthe form of a subject should agree with that of the verb in terms of number inthe present tense, e.g. He speaks English; They speak English.Government is another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic construction. It differs from concord in thatthis is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form ofothers in terms of certain category. E.g. in English, the pronoun after a verbor a preposition should be in the object form as in She gave him a book; Shegave a book to him. In other words, the verb, or the preposition, governs theform of the pronoun after it. The former is the governor, and the latter is thegoverned.4.2 The structural approach4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic (a.k.a. horizontal / chain) relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present,such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence: If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.Paradigmatic (a.k.a. vertical / choice) relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in astructure, or between one element present and the others absent.4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis)1. How to do itImmediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents – word groups(phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of theirown, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. The ICanalysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or shown with a treediagram. E.g.Poor John ran away. →(1) ((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away)).(2)Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, any ambiguities, if any, will be revealed in that IC analysis emphasizes not only the linear structure of the sentence but also the hierarchical structure of the sentence. E.g. the sentence Leave the book on the shelf. is ambiguous. It has two meanings: (1) Put the book on the shelf; (2) Don’t touch the book on the shelf. These two meanings can be shown by the following tree diagrams. (Omitted. See the textbook p125~128.)3. Its problemsHowever, IC analysis has three disadvantages. First, at the beginning, some advocator insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at any level, will be cut into two parts. But this is not possible. E.g. Old men and women is ambiguous in that it may mean old + men and women or old men + and women. It’s impossible to combine with only the preceding part or only the succeeding part. Second, constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis. E.g. the phrasal verbs like make up, turn on, or give up will cause problems in that when the object is expressed by a pronoun, it will interrupt the phrasal verb as in make it up. The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis. E.g. the tree diagram and the labels can only do one analysis for the love of God.4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructionsAn endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. It is also called headed construction. Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. They may be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions. Those, in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constructions dependent, are subordinate constructions. In the coordinate construction, there are more than one head, e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.The exocentric construction is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents.There is no noticeable center or head in it. Typical exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, English basic sentences, and环球时代英语专业考研MTI翻译硕士专四专八日语考研等the verb plus object constructions.4.3 The generative approach4.3.1 Deep and surface structuresIn transformational generative grammar (a.k.a. T-G grammar), the deep structure may be defined as the abstract representation of the syntacticproperties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlyingsubject and its verb, or a verb and its object.The surfaces structure is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.The example for the surface structure is The newspaper was not delivered today.The deep structure of the above sentence would besomething like: (negative) someone (past tense) deliver the newspaper today(passive).The items in brackets are not lexical items but grammaticalconcepts which shape the final form of the sentence. Rules which describedeep structure are in the first part of the grammar (base component). Ruleswhich transform these structures into surface structures (transformationalrules) are in the second part of the grammar (transformational component).4.3.2 The standard theory and afterWhat is the trace theory?[I think this is difficult. It is too abstract for me. – icywarmtea]After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’ssuggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information forsemantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. Thepassive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams.in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace elementrepresented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t bybeavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams wasoriginally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Tracetheory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empiricallyvalid.4.3.3 Government, binding, etc.1. Constituent command / C-command: α c-commands β if α does notdominate β and every γ that dominates α also dominates β, as shownin the diagram below:αβ2. Binding theory: Part of the government / binding theory. It examinesconnections between noun phrases in sentences and explores theway they relate and refer to each other.(1) An anaphor is bound in its governing category.(2) A pronominal is free in its governing category.(3) An r-expression is free.3. Binding: The notion binding is borrowed from logic, which refers tothe relation between a quantifier and a variable, that is a variable isbound by a quantifier. In the generative approach, binding refers tothe relation between different referring word and the subject of asentence containing it.4. Anaphor: A process where a word or phrase refers back to anotherword or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation. In anarrow sense, it used to include only reflexives like myself andreciprocals like each other.5. Pronominal: A pronominal refers to pronouns other than reflexivesand reciprocals.6. R-expression: A r-expression, as the abbreviation of areferential-expression, covers all the other r-expressions exceptanaphors and pronominals, e.g. John, Bill, the man.7. The D-structure and the S-structureIn Government / Binding theory, the D-structure is an abstract levelof sentence representation where semantic roles such as an agent(the doer of an action) and patient (the entity affected by an action)are assigned to the sentence. Agent is sometimes also referred to asthe logical subject and patient as the rheme of the sentence. E.g. (insimplified form)Vera shoot intrudersAgent or logical subject patient or rhemeThe next level of sentence representation is the S-structure wheresyntactic / grammatical cases such as nominative / grammaticalsubject and accusative / grammatical object are assigned. E.g. (insimplified form)Vera (agent) shoot intruders (patient /rheme)Grammatical subject grammatical objectThe phonetic form (PF) component and the logical form (LF)component are then needed to turn the S-structure into a surfacesentence. The PF component presents the S-structure as sound, andthe LF component gives the syntactic meaning of the sentence.4.4 The functional approach4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective1. Functional sentence perspective (FSP)环球时代英语专业考研MTI翻译硕士专四专八日语考研等The functional sentence perspective (FSP) is a type of linguistic analysis associated with the Prague School which describes how information isdistributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of thedistribution of known information and new information in discourse. Theknown information (known as theme), refers to information that is not new tothe reader or listener. The rheme refers to information that is new. FSP differsfrom the traditional grammatical analysis of sentences because thedistribution between subject-predicate is not always the same astheme-rheme contrast. E.g.(1) John sat in the front seatSubject predicateTheme rheme(2) In the front seat sat John.Predicate subjectTheme rhemeJohn is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but theme in (1) and rheme in (2).2. Communicative dynamism (CD)By CD Firbas means the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.4.4.2 Systemic-functional grammar1. The material process (a process of doing): the representation of outerexperience.2. The mental process (a process of sensing): the representation ofinner experience.3. The relational process (a process of being): the relation between oneexperience and another.4. The behavioral process (a process of behavioring): physiological andpsychological behavior.5. The verbal process (a process of saying): any kinds of symbolicexchange of meaning.6. The existential process (a process of happening): a representation ofsomething in existence or happening/These six processes form a circle as follows: (omitted. See textbook, p.155)。