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第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)布拉格学派与功能句子观2. The London School and context of situation伦敦学派与语境观3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar韩礼德与系统——功能语法4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法常考考点：各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。
本章内容索引：I. Saussure and modern linguisticsII. The Prague School1. Main points and contribution2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)3. Communicative Dynamism (CD)III. The London School1. Introduction2. Malinowski’s theories3. Firth’s theories4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar(1) Systemic grammar(2) Functional grammarIV. American Structuralism1. Introduction2. Three stages of the developmentV. Transformational-Generative Grammar1. Introduction2. The Innateness Hypothesis3. Generative Grammar4. Stage of development of TG Grammar5. Main features of TG GrammarI. Saussure and modern linguistics (索绪尔和现代语言学)Modern linguistics has started from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) , who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and exchange ideas. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, i.e. the signifier and the signified. The sign is the central fact of language, and therefore the study of language must start from the nature of the sign itself.Saussure identifies several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
第6章语言与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics心理语言学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成3. First language acquisition第一语言习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学常考考点：语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解目录第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解内容简介作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。
每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。
2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。
本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。
3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。
本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。
所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。
另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
第10章语言和计算机10.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Computer-assisted language learning计算机辅助语言学习2. Machine translation机器翻译3. Corpus linguistics语料库语言学4. Computer mediated communication计算机中介交际常考考点CALL的定义；CALL和CAI、CAL的区别；机器翻译的定义；计算机语料库的定义；计算机中介交际的定义及其形式等。
本章内容索引：I. Introduction to Computational Linguistics1. Computer Literacy2. Computational LinguisticsII. Computer-assisted Language Learning1. CAI/CAL vs. CALL2. Phases of CALL Development3. TechnologyIII. Machine Translation (MT)1. Definition and Categories2. History of Development of MT3. Research Methods(1) The linguistic approach(2) The transfer approach(3) The interlingual approach(4) The knowledge-based approach4. MT and the Internet5. Speech Translation6. MT and Human TranslationIV. Corpus Linguistics1. Corpus and Corpus Linguistics2. Criticisms and Revival3. Concordance4. The Roles of Corpus DataI. Introduction to Computational Linguistics (计算机语言学简介)1. Computer Literacy (计算机操作能力)It refers to people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.特指那些能使用计算机并具有大量计算机软件知识和技巧的人。
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程胡壮麟第5版考研笔记和题库答案考研备战对于很多语言学专业的学生来说是一项重要而艰巨的任务。
为了帮助广大考生更好地应对语言学专业考试，胡壮麟教授编写了《语言学教程（第5版）》并提供了相应的考研笔记和题库答案。
本篇文章将对《语言学教程胡壮麟第5版》的考研笔记和题库答案进行综述，帮助考生更好地把握考试重点。
一、《语言学教程胡壮麟第5版》考研笔记1. 笔记的重要性《语言学教程胡壮麟第5版》的考研笔记在备考中起到了至关重要的作用。
通过整理笔记，可以帮助考生更好地理解语言学的基本理论，掌握各个分支领域的核心知识，同时也是巩固自己的学习成果和备考复习的一种有效方式。
2. 如何做好笔记（1）有条理性：在复习过程中，要有系统地进行笔记整理。
根据课本和教学材料的内容，将重点、难点以及需要记忆的内容整理出来，便于日后回顾和复习。
（2）简明扼要：考研笔记并非要冗长复杂，而是要抓住重点，用简洁的语言将知识要点记录下来。
这样可以提高笔记的效率，避免在复习时被琐碎的内容所干扰。
（3）互联互通：考研笔记不仅仅是个人的学习工具，也可以用来方便与他人的交流与分享。
可以使用不同的颜色标记出重要的知识点，使用图表等方式更加直观地呈现笔记内容，增强交流的效果。
3. 笔记的应用考研笔记可以在备考过程中起到很大的助益。
首先，它可以帮助考生们理解和掌握语言学的核心概念和理论，提高对知识的系统性认识；其次，笔记可以作为备考复习的参考工具，方便考生回顾和巩固知识点；最后，笔记还可以与教材、辅导书等进行对照，检验自己的学习效果，找出薄弱环节并有针对性地进行加强。
二、《语言学教程胡壮麟第5版》题库答案1. 题库的作用《语言学教程胡壮麟第5版》的题库对于考生来说是一份宝贵的复习资料，可以帮助考生更好地了解考试形式和考点要求，做到心中有数，有针对性地备考。
2. 题库的特点（1）全面覆盖：胡壮麟教授的题库涵盖了语言学各个分支领域的试题，包括但不限于语音学、语法学、语义学等。
第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs 发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；音姿的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。
本章内容索引I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs▼1. Gestures2. Speech organs3. Voiceless sounds4. Voiced sounds5. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and Triphthongs IV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions＊1. Coarticulation＊2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation＊3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure▼3. Sonority Scale▼4. Stress(1) Change of the stresses due to suffixes(2) Stresses in compounds and phrases5. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第4版）考研模拟试题及详解（二）I. Fill in the following blanks.1. “Linguistic relativity”was proposed by ______ and ______.【答案】Sapir, Whorf【解析】萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为，一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反映出对于世界认识的越不同。
因此，这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。
2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an ______ force.【答案】illocutionary【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。
3. Such errors as “teached”and “womans”are caused by ______.【答案】second language learners【解析】这些错误一般是第二语言习得者犯的。
4. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______.【答案】Phonology【解析】音系学研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。
5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without ______. 【答案】Obstruction【解析】元音与辅音的区别就在于发音过程中气流是否受阻。
6. Terms like “apple”, “banana”and “pear”are ______ of the term “fruit”. 【答案】hyponyms【解析】上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类和成员间的关系。
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语⾔与认知）【圣才出品】第6章语⾔与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics⼼理语⾔学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语⾔习得，语⾔的理解，语⾔的⽣成3. First language acquisition第⼀语⾔习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语⾔学常考考点：语⾔习得；第⼀语⾔习得；语⾔的理解和⽣成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”⼀词既可⽤于不同学科也可⽤于相关学科。
第8章语言的使用8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论4. Politeness principle礼貌原则5. Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展常考考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。
实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。
“话语意义”和“句子意义”的区别。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Difference between pragmatics and semantics II. Speech Act Theory1. Performatives and Constatives(1) Definition(2) Felicity Conditions2. A Theory of the Illocutionary Act3. Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts(1) Representatives:(2) Directives(3) Commsives(4) Expressives(5) DeclarationsIII. Cooperative Principle (CP)1. Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Politeness Principle (PP)VI. Post-Gricean Developments1. Relevance Theory2. The Q- and R-principles3. Levinson’s Q-, I-and M-principles▼4. A socio-cognitive approachI. Pragmatics (语用学)【考点：Pragmatics与Semantics的异同】1. Definition (定义)Pragmatics is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of speaker’s meaning, utterance meaning or contextual meaning.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)布拉格学派与功能句子观2. The London School and context of situation伦敦学派与语境观3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar韩礼德与系统-功能语法4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar乔姆斯基与转换-生成语法常考考点：各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。
本章内容索引：I. Saussure and modern linguisticsII. The Prague School1. Main points and contribution2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)3. Communicative Dynamism (CD)III. The London School1. Introduction2. Malinowski’s theories3. Firth’s theories4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar(1) Systemic grammar(2) Functional grammarIV. American Structuralism1. Introduction2. Three stages of the developmentV. Transformational-Generative Grammar1. Introduction2. The Innateness Hypothesis3. Generative Grammar4. Stage of development of TG Grammar5. Main features of TG Grammar▼VI. Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution▼VII. Revisionists or Rebels1. Case Grammar2. Generative SemanticsI. Saussure and modern linguistics (索绪尔和现代语言学)Modern linguistics has started from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) , who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made modern”.According to Saussure, language is a system of signs which uses sounds to express and exchange ideas. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, i.e. the signifier and the signified. The sign is the central fact of language, and therefore the study of language must start from the nature of the sign itself.Saussure identifies several groups of important concepts: signifier and signified, langue and parole, synchronic and diachronic research, etc.现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。
胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》配套题库（第4版）【课后习题】-第1~12章【圣才出品】第⼆部分课后习题第1章语⾔学导论1. Define the following terms.·design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.·function:the role language plays in communication (e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e. g. religious, legal). ·synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “ point”in time.·diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time.·prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.·descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.·arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.·duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters). ·displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from thespeaker’ s immediate situation.·phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.·metalanguage: a language used for talking about language ·macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.·competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.·performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. ·langue:the language system shared by a “ speech community”.·parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “ language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.Key: All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?Key: Creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.Cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.Bang: a sudden loud noise.Roar: a deep loud continuing sound.Buzz: a noise of buzzing.Hiss: a hissing sound.Neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.Mew: the noise that a gull makes.Bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Key: No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell’?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Key: Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Key: Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3?Key: Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when l was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that...8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Key: On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little hit. For instance, nod means“OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Key: Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language,“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar withany type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?Key: When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?There is the dialogue between Ms. P and Ms. Q. on p.12. When someonesneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic co mmunion’!Have you noticed your parents or grand-parents say something special on such an occasion?Key: Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are：吃了吗？家⾥都好吧？这是去哪⾥呀？最近都挺好的？If someone is sneezing violently, maybe your parents and grandparents may say:” Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” “or something like these to show their concerns.12. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives,。
胡壮麟语⾔学教程第5版笔记和考研真题详解胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解第1章 语⾔学导论1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and the design features of language语⾔的定义与特征2. The origin and the function of language语⾔的起源和功能3. Main branches of linguistics study语⾔学研究的范围和内容4. Important distinctions in Linguistics语⾔学的⼀些重要区分本章考点：1. 有关语⾔的常考考点语⾔的定义；语⾔的基本特征(任意性、⼆重性、多产性、移位性、⽂化传递和互换性)；语⾔的功能(提供信息、⼈际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语⾔)；语⾔的起源(神授说，⼈造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2. 有关语⾔学的常考考点(1) 语⾔学的定义，现代语⾔学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2) 语⾔学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语⾔学中⼏组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3) 普通语⾔学的主要分⽀学科及各⾃的研究范畴。
(4) 宏观语⾔学及应⽤语⾔学的主要分⽀及各⾃的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of languageII. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Duality3. Creativity4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityIII. Origin of language1. The Biblical account2. The bow-wow theory3. The pooh-pooh theory4. The yo-he-ho theory5. The evolution theoryIV. Functions of language1. Informative function2. Interpersonal function3. Performative function4. Emotive function5. Phatic function6. Recreational function7. Metalingual functionV. Definition of linguisticsVI. Branches of linguistics1. Microlinguistics2. MacrolinguisticsVII. Important concepts and their distinctions1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Langue vs. Parole3. Langue vs. Parole4. Competence vs. Performance5. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar6. Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic BehaviorI. The definition of language (语⾔的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.语⾔是⼈类以⼝头交流的任意的符号系统。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与文学）【圣才出品】第9章语言与文学9.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Foregrounding; literal language and figurative language前景化；字面语言和比喻语言2. The language in poetry, fiction and drama诗歌、小说和戏剧中的语言3. The cognitive approach to literature从认知角度研究文学常考考点：文体学概念；前景化；原语言和比喻语言；言语和思维的表达；了解诗歌、小说和戏剧语言的分析方法；掌握押韵和音步的概念以及正确辨别和不同的视角在小说作品中的运用。
本章内容索引：I. Stylistics1. Definition2. Literary Stylistics(1) Foregrounding(2) Literal language and Figurative Language II. The Language in Poetry1. Sound patterning2. Different forms of sound patterning3. Metrical patterning4. Conventional forms of meter and sound5. The poetic functions of sound and meter6. How to analyze poetryIII. The Language in Fiction1. Fiction prose and points of view(1) I-narrators(2) Third-person narrators(3) Schema-oriented language(4) Given vs. New information(5) Deixis2. Speech and thought presentation(1) Speech presentation(2) Thought presentation(3) Stream of consciousness writing3. Prose style(1) Authorial style(2) Text style4. How to analyze the language of fictionIV. The Language in Drama1. How to analyze drama2. Analyzing dramatic languageV. The Cognitive Approach to Literature1. Figure and Ground2. Image Schemata3. Cognitive MetaphorI. Stylistics (文体学)1. Definition (定义)It is a branch of linguistics studies the features of situationallydistinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征（即语言的多样性），并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解精研学习网-提供下载注册账号-免费试用-满意购买全国547所院校视频及题库全收集考研全套>视频资料>课后详解>历年真题>全部收录作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。
本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。
每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。
2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。
本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。
3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。
本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。
所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。
另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。
相对于第三版或第四版，对于在第五版新增加的知识点用“▼”标明，以便于使用不同版本教材的读者使用。
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解。
第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching语言学与语言教学之间的关系2. Grammar, input and language learning语法、输入与语言学习3. Interlanguage in language teaching语言教学中的中介语4. Linguistics and syllabus design语言学与教学大纲设计5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis对比分析与错误分析6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching语料库语言学与语言教学常考考点：语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of Applied LinguisticsII. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning1. Grammar and Language Learning2. Input and Language Learning3. Interlanguage in Language LearningIV. Linguistics and Language T eaching1. The discourse-based view of language teaching2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design1. Syllabus and curriculum2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design3. Types of syllabus(1) The structural syllabus(2) The situational syllabus(3) The communicative syllabus(4) The task-based syllabus4. Current trends in syllabus design(1) The co-existence of the old and the new(2) The emphasis on the learning process(3) The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus(4) The emergency of the multi-syllabusVI. Contrastive Analysis (CA) and Error Analysis (EA)1. Contrastive Analysis (CA)2. Error Analysis (EA)(1) Error vs. mistake(2) Different types of errors3. The procedure of error analysis(1) Recognition(2) Description(3) ExplanationVII. Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching1. Types of corpora(1) General corpora(2) Specialized corpora(3) Sample corpora(4) Monitor corpora2. Information provided by corpora(1) Frequency information(2) Context and co-text information(3) Grammatical information(4) Collocation and phraseology information(5) Pragmatics information▼VIII. Foreign Language Education PolicyI. Definition of Applied Linguistics (应用语言学的定义)Broadly speaking, applied linguistics refers to the study of language and linguistics in relation to language-related problems, such as lexicography, translation, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from linguistics with the aim to develop its own theoretical models of areas, such as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics etc. Narrowly speaking, applied linguistics refers to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, i.e. the study of language and linguistics in relation to language learning and teaching.从广义上讲，应用语言学是对语言、语言学与语言相关的问题的研究，例如词典编纂学，翻译等。
应用语言学运用来自语言学的信息来发展它自身理论模块部分，例如教学大纲设计，言语治疗，语言规划，文体学等。
从狭义上讲，应用语言学是指对第二语言和语言教学的研究，例如研究语言和语言学与语言教学的关系。
II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching (语言学与语言教学的关系)Language teaching is a section of applied linguistics and applied linguistics is part (or a branch) of linguistics. Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the nature of language, but also help them better understand how to teach language. Theoretical approaches of languageexplicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.【考点：语言学与语言教学对于语言的不同看法】语言教学是应用语言学的一个部分，而应用语言学又是语言学的一个分支。
掌握一些语言学的知识不仅有助于这些读者进一步认识语言本质，也有助于他们更加深入地理解如何教好语言。
语言学理论直接地或间接地影响着语言教学的途径和方法。
III. Linguistics and Language Learning (语言学与语言学习)Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. Actually, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they learn and what they learn ultimately. Therefore, linguistics has always played an important role in the studies of language acquisition and learning.许多语言学习理论都是基于某种语言学理论提出的。
事实上，语言学知识能够使我们真正理解学习者能够学习什么样的语言，怎样学习语言以及最终能够学到什么。
因此，语言学在语言习得研究和语言学习研究中一直起着十分重要的作用。
1. Grammar and Language Learning (语法与语言学习)(1) The discrete-point grammar instruction conducted by more traditionallanguage teachers has been widely criticized for focusing on forms and ignoring meanings. A recent movement called “focus on form” seems to be the outcome of the compromise between the “purely form-focusedapproaches” and the “purely meaning-focused approaches”. It has a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language teaching.很多传统的语言教师将语法割裂为孤立的语法知识点来分别讲解，这种做法已经受到广泛的批评，因为它仅仅关注语言形式而忽略了语言的意义。
作为“完全以语言形式为中心”和“完全以语言意义为中心”的折中途径，近年来出现的“关注语言形式”(focus on form)对语言学习中语法的作用采取了一种折中的态度。
(2) The relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and complexity language structuresare the two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 structure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low. In focus on form, different measures will be taken with a regard to whether the amenability of a form (structure) is high or low.主要有两个变量影响语言成分在“关注语言形式”中的顺从性，即普遍语法(UG)的相关度和语言结构的复杂度。
