语言学基本定义

语言学概论•绪论•一、语言学的概念•1、语言：是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具，是人类的思维工具。

•2、语言学：以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的本质、结构和发展规律。

•二、关于语言学课程•本课程是中文专业必修的基础理论课之一，主要内容：语言在社会中的地位和作用；语言的结成体系（语音、语汇和语义、语法、文字、修辞）；语言的发展变化；语言的应用。

•学生通过本课程的学习，能比较系统地掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基础知识，为提高语言理论水平、进一步学习和深入研究其他语言课程奠定必要的语言理论基础。

•三、语言学的三大发源地•中国、印度、希腊-罗马•1、中国古代的语言学•语文学：主要是为古代经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。

也是偏重从文献角度研究语言文字的学科总称，一般包括文字学、训诂学、音韵学、校勘学等。

中国由于古代文献丰富，文字比较特殊，语文学比较发达，广义的语文学也应该包括语言学，也就是语言学和文字学的总称，但现在由于国际学术分科中语言学是一大类，所以目前反而是语文学从属于语言学，成为语言学的一个分支。

•小学•2、印度的语言学成就•特点：不是重于理论，而是基于观察。

所讨论的理论基本上与文学研究与哲学争论有关。

词的性质和句子意义被经常讨论，句子与其所包含的词之间的语义关系，也是经常讨论的问题之一。

•贡献：A、区分了外显即时表达和内含永久主体。

认为语言有两种，一是具体场合说的话，一是抽象的语言原则。

B、语音学和音位学方面有突出成就。

认为语音是连接语言和话语之间的桥梁，语音描写分三部分：发音过程、语音的组成成分（元音，辅音）、语音在音位结构中的结合。

C、语法描写和分析方面有突出成就。

潘尼尼在著作中详细的描述了各种屈折变化、派生现象、组织结构和各种句法的用法。

•印度学者在词法研究方面取得了很大的成就：他们在分析词的构成时发现了¡°词根¡±、¡°后缀¡±与¡°词尾¡±三种主要造词单位。

《语言学概论》复习知识点——汇总一、语言学的定义与研究对象1.语言学的定义及与其他学科的关系2.语言的定义与特点3.语言学的研究对象：语言符号、语音、词汇、语法、语义、语用等二、语音学1.音素与音素的分类2.语音的基本概念：发音器官、发音过程、音素与音位等3.语音的分类与描述方式：音库、国际音标等4.语音变体：音位变体、变体规律等三、词汇学1.词的定义及词的层次结构：词汇、形态、语素等2.词的分类：实词与虚词、实词的分类等3.词的构成过程：派生、复合、转化等4.词义与词义关系：同义、反义、上下位、隐喻、类比等5.词的语法功能：词类、语法关系等四、语法学1.句子的定义与分类：从句、疑问句、陈述句等2.句法的基本概念：短语、成分、汉语的基本句型等3.句法关系与句法结构：并列、从属、修饰等4.句法规则与句法分析：形式语法、语义角度的句法分析等5.语法现象的分析与解释：形式语法与功能语法的对比、语法规则、语法的普遍性、语法的可及性等五、语义学1.语义的定义与特点2.词义的构成与分类：词汇意义、语法意义、逻辑意义、上下文意义等3.语义关系与语义角色：同义、反义、上下位、隐喻、类比、关联等4.语义现象的分析与解释：语义成分的划分与关系、语义的可及性、语义的派生与转化等六、语用学1.语用学的定义与研究领域2.语言交际与语言交际行为：意图、目的、合作原则等3.言外之意与言外之行：言外之意的表示方式、言外之行的示例等4.语用现象的分析与解释：语言行为、语用规则、语用的多样性等七、语言学研究方法与分支学科1.语言学研究的方法论：描述性研究、实证研究等2.语言学的分支学科：应用语言学、对比语言学、历史语言学、社会语言学等3.参考书目和领域动态：《现代语言学导论》、《实用语义学》、《语法学》等这些都是《语言学概论》中的重要知识点，希望以上内容对您的复习有所帮助。

第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性任意性是语言的核心特征，是指符号的形式或者声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。

虽然语言从本质上讲是任意的，但也不是完全任意的。

一些词语，例如一些拟声词的发音与其意义还是有一定联系的。

2．二重性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如 (鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言来源于人本能的情感声音，表达疼痛或喜悦。

4．“哟一嘿一吼”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by social group for communication.Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.Productivity:language is resourceful because of its duality and its reclusiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Displacement:human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present(in time and spare) at the movement of communication. Cultural transmission:language is not genetically inherited. Passed from generation to generation, it requires some learning. It is true human are born with language capacity, but a particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one, rather than a genetic one like the dogs’ barking system.Interchangeability:any human being can be both a producer and receiver of messages.Language function:informative: language is the instrument of thought, record the facts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. Interpersonal: by far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Performative: the performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of personsEmotive: to change the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.Phatic communion: we all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual contents.Recreational: the recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. Metalingual: our language can be used to talk about itself.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society. Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Important distinctions in linguistics: 规定性Prescriptive .描述性Descriptive /8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics /5.语言能力Competence 6.语言运用performance /9.语言langue 10.言语parole /speech, writing/ traditional grammar and modern linguistics第二章音系学1 Phonologyis the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2 international phonetic alphabetA set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart, designed by the international phonetic association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.3 consonants and vowelsConsonant are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing, which is so marked that air can not escape without producing audible friction.V owel is produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.4 cardinal vowelAre a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing language.5 anticipatory and perseverative co-articulationwhen such simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, we call the process co-articulation.If the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatoryco-articulation. If the sound shows the influence of the proceeding sound,it is perseverative co-articulation.6PhonemeThe smallest of sound which can distinguish two words7AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.8Minimal pairAre two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.9free variationif two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two words are in free variation. Chapter three 词汇学The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Word :A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.Lexeme: the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.Grammatical/Functional words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.Lexical/content words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Open-class words: a word group whose membership is in principle in finite or unlimited. New members can be added.Closed-class words: a word group whose membership is fixed or limited, new members are not regularly added.Morphology; the study of word formation, the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morphemes: the smallest unit language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes；those that can not occur aloneRoot: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional affixes and derivational affixes have been removed.Affix: the types of formative/morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.Base: any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word formation is applied.Stem: the part of the word form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.Inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes. Derivation: combination of an existing word and an affix to form a new word. Compounding/composition is word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, a compound word-An Introduction to Modern Linguistics.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, of same syntactic class as the whole the relationship of ‘a kind of’.Exocentric: there is no head, no elements is of the same syntactic class as the whole, so not a relationship of ‘a kind of ‘something.Derivation: is also called ‘affixation’. It is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base.Conversion: is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech to anther without the addition or deletion of any morpheme.Allomorph: some morphemes have a single form in all contexts. But a morpheme may have considerable variations, alternate shapes or phonetic forms called the allomorph.Blending: a process of word-information in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.Back-formation: a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.Acronym: words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or scientific term, etc. it differs from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequence of letter.Initialism: a type of shortening, using the first letter of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or phrase; an initialism is pronounced letter by letter.Analogical creation: It can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, I the conjugation of some English verbs.Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation. Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.Chapter 4 syntaxSyntax: the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences. Category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units.Phrase: is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.Word group is an extension of word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged.Clause: a constituent with its own subjects and predicate when it is included in a lager sentence.Syntagmatic is a relation between one item and others in a sequence or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.grammatical construction; any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction.An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to one of its constituents, which serves as the center or head of the whole.Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate construction, and the connective construction. Subordinate construction those in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent,Coordinate construction:there are more than one head, the head can stand for the original construction functionally.Deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a constructionSurface structure: the final stage in syntactic derivation of a construction.Chapter five SemanticsDenotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. Connotation-opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense be defined as the semantics relations between one word and another, or more generally between the one linguistic unit and another.Reference: is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to , or more generally between a linguistic unit and non-linguistic entity it refers to. Synonymy-refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaningAntonymy-oppositeness of meaning.Complementary antonymy-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.Converse/reversal antonyms/relational opposites-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, one presupposes the other.Hyponymy上下义-inclusiveness, a relation of inclusion Compositionality-the idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constitute words and the way they are combined-the principle of compositionality.Polysemy一次多义-the same one word may have more than one meaning. Homonymy同音同形异义-the phenomenon that words having different meaning have the same form.Conceptual meaning-leech defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.Linguistic semantics-the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particularPropositional logic-it is also know as propositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositionsProposition-is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.。

定义 1.语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S thearbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis,but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system.this showed that language is culturally transmitted.not by instinct.animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学的名词解释引言语言学是研究语言的结构、规律和变化的学科。

作为一门学科，语言学涉及广泛的领域，涵盖了词汇、语法、语音、语义等多个方面。

在语言学研究中，有许多重要的名词需要解释，这些名词有助于我们理解语言学的基本概念和理论。

本文将介绍几个语言学中常用的名词，并对其进行解释。

语音学1. 语音语音是指人类使用声音来进行交流和表达意思的能力。

在语音学中，语音是指语言的声音单位，包括语音的产生、分类和描述等方面。

2. 语音学语音学是研究语音的学科。

它研究语音的产生、传播、感知和分类等问题，对语音的音素、音节、音系等进行描述和分析。

3. 音素音素是语言中最小的音位单位。

一个音素可以通过替换使一个音与另外一个音有所区别。

音素可用于建立音位对比，对研究语音的差异和系统性做出描述。

4. 音节音节是语言中的基本语音单位。

它由一段连续的声音组成，包括一个或多个音素。

音节在构成词语时具有重要的作用，不同语言对音节的组合和结构有不同的规律。

语法学1. 语法语法是描述语言结构和规则的学科。

它研究语言中单词和句子之间的关系，以及语言的句法规则。

语法可以分为句法、词法、句子成分等多个层面。

2. 句法句法是语法学中研究句子结构和组织的分支。

它研究句子的成分和关系，包括主谓结构、宾语、修饰语等。

3. 词法词法是语法学中研究词汇和词法规则的分支。

它研究词汇的构成和分类，包括词根、词缀、词义等方面。

4. 句子成分句子成分是组成句子的不可再分的最小单位。

在句子中，包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等多个句子成分，它们各自具有不同的语法功能。

语义学1. 语义语义是研究词义和语言意义的学科。

它研究词汇和句子的意义，以及语言表达的信息和引申。

2. 语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科。

它研究语言中的词义、句义、语境等方面的问题，揭示词语和句子的真正含义。

3. 词义词义是一个词所具有的意义。

在语义学中，词义可以通过定义、例句和语境等方式来解释和理解。

一、定义：什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.二、语言学研究的核心（下面的术语要尽量全都认识，不然做题时可能看不懂选项）1、Phonetics 语音学2、Phonology 音位学3、Morphology 形态学4、Syntax 句法学5、Semantics 语义学6、Pragmatics 语用学三、语言（Langue）和言语（Parole）这个考过的。

Parole这个概念是F. de Saussure（索绪尔）提出的。

Langue指语言系统的整体，“所有（语言使用）个体头脑中存储的词语-----形象之总和”，这个整体相对较为稳定；Parole指某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语，它是随时间和地点变化的一个动态的实体。

四、语言的功能Functions of Language（这个也考过的。

考过the informative function，就是高速公路指示牌的那道题）1、The instrumental function2、The regulatory function3、The heuristic function4、The interactional function5、The personal function6、The imaginative function7、The informative function五、语言的普遍特征Design Features这个也考过的，这五个特征由美国语言学家Charles Hockett提出。

弱弱地说一句：如果真的在临时抱佛脚，那就不要管这五个术语的具体含义了，只要能强行记下来应付考试就是了。

>_<1、Arbitrariness 任意性2、Productivity 多产性3、Duality 双层结构4、Displacement 移位性5、Cultural Transmission 文化传播性六、语音学和音位学（一）语音学Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language.1、三大分支（1）Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学（2）Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学（3）Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学2、辅音和元音（这个考过的，考过二者的区别）（二）音位学Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.1、三个术语（1）Phone音素（2）Phoneme音位（3）Allophone音位变体2、Suprasegmental Phonology超音段音位（考过的）包括Stress重音、Tone音调、Intonation语调七、形态学Morphology: refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.（一）两类词汇1、Closed class words封闭性词汇2、Open class words开放性词汇（二）Morpheme词素1、Free morpheme自由词素2、Bound morpheme粘着词素3、Stem词干4、Root词根（三）Word-formation构词法（四）Inflection屈折变化八、句法学Syntax: studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.九、语义学Semantics: is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.1、Synonymy同义关系2、Polysemy一词多义3、Homophones同音异义&Homogragh同形异义&Complete homonyms同形同音异义4、Hyponymy上下义关系5、Antonymy反义关系6、Analysis of meaning语义分析（1）Componential analysis成分分析（2）Predication analysis述谓分析7、 Two-place predicate二向谓词、one-place predicate一向谓词、no-place predicate 零向谓词8、 Sense relations between sentences（1）Entailment（2）Presupposition十、语用学1、Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (Or it refers to the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings.)2、区分语义学和语用学的最本质因素是：是否考虑了语言使用过程中的语境。