单位代码01学号分类号密级文献翻译高精度稳压直流电源院（系）名称信息工程学院专业名称电子信息工程学生姓名指导教师2013年3 月30 日高精度稳压直流电源文摘:目前对于可调式直流电源的设计和应用现在有很多微妙的,多种多样的,有趣的问题。
探讨这些问题(特别是和中发电机组有关),重点是在电路的经济适用性上,而不是要达到最好的性能。
当然，对那些精密程度要求很高的除外。
讨论的问题包括温度系数，短期漂移，热漂移，瞬态响应变性遥感和开关preregualtor型机组及和它的性能特点有关的一些科目。
介绍从商业的角度来看供电领域可以得到这样一个事实，在相对较低的成本下就可以获得标准类型的0.01%供电调节。
大部分的供电用户并不需要这么高的规格，但是供应商不会为了减少客户这么一点的费用而把0.1%改成0.01%。
并且电力供应的性能还包括其他一些因素，比如说线路和负载调解率。
本文将讨论关于温度系数、短期漂移、热漂移,和瞬态的一些内容。
目前中等功率直流电源通常采用预稳压来提高功率/体积比和成本，但是只有某些电力供应采用这样的做法。
这种技术的优缺点还有待观察。
温度系数十年以前，大多数的商业电力供应为规定的0.25%到1%。
这里将气体二极管的温度系数定位百分之0.01。
因此，人们往往会忽视TC（温度系数）是比规定的要小的。
现在参考的TC往往比规定的要大的多。
为了费用的减少，后者会有很大的提高，但是这并不是真正的TC。
因此，如果成本要保持在一个低的水平，可以采用TC非常低的齐纳二极管，安装上差动放大电路，还要仔细的分析低TC绕线电阻器。
如图1所示，一个典型的放大器的第一阶段，其中CR1是参考齐纳二极管，R是输出电位调节器。
图1 电源输入级图2 等效的齐纳参考电路假设该阶段的输出是e3，提供额外的差分放大器，在稳定状态下e3为零，任何参数的变化都会引起输出的漂移；对于其他阶段来说也是一样的，其影响是减少了以前所有阶段的增益。
因此，其他阶段的影响将被忽略。
以下讨论的内容涵盖了对于TC整体的无论是主要的还是次要的影响。
R3的影响CR1-R3分支的等效的电路如图2所示，将齐纳替换成了它的等效电压源E'和内部阻抗R2。
对于高增益调节器，其中R3的变化对差分放大器的输入来说可以忽略不计，所以前后的变化由R3决定。
如果进一步假定IB << Iz;从（1）可以得到同时，消除Iz，由（2b）可得并且现在，假设那么，方程式（2b）也可以写成例1：短期漂移短期漂移是由国家电气制造商协会（NEMA）提供，可以这样说“这段时间的输出与输入，环境和负载无关”。
在上一节中对温度系数的描述在这里也适用。
据试验测定，在电源里面和它附近的热空气极大地提高了短期特性。
流动空气的冷却效果是众所周知的，然而人们通常不会意识到就算空气在齐纳二极管和晶体管中移动的很缓慢，它对温度的影响也是很显著地。
如果提供比较大的TC，那么输出会有很大的变化。
会有低TC 实现补偿，也就是说，如果消除了了一些元器件相同或相反的影响，这些元器件的热时间常数仍会受到干扰。
一个常用的方法是使用第一个放大器来消除和平衡掉交界处冷却效果上的差异。
可以通过晶体管的固定或保持来近似模拟这个方案，将晶体管嵌入在一个共同的金属块中，等等。
笔者通过把输入级和参考齐纳放置到一个单独的机箱中取得了很好的效果。
如图4所示。
在图5中通过金属的覆盖，漂移得到了很好的改善。
图3 12V的电源晶体管具有百分之0.01的调节精度。
注：保护盒是用来给第一放大器和参考组件进行隔热保护。
图4电源晶体管的测试图图4和图3类似，电源提供了短期漂移，并且没有保护措施。
该元件是没有覆盖直到t1。
盒子里面的温度上升，电压随着时间t1而变化。
如果电位器用于输出地调节（例如R1），应该谨慎的选择价位和设计。
接触电阻的变化可引起漂移。
用有高精密线圈的元件来获得低漂移是没有必要的。
用低电阻的合金和低分辨率的元件可以轮流休息，来缩小范围可以达到同样令人满意的效果。
当然，还要考虑到线路的抗腐蚀性等问题。
有机硅润滑脂可以得到很好的效果。
接触臂的周期的运用对元件的腐蚀有很好的“疗效”。
热漂移符合NEMA定义的热漂移就是“由于不正常的环境的变化引起有关的内部环境温度的变化而照成在一定时间内输出的变化。
温漂通常与线路电压和负载有关”。
温漂与TC的供应以及整体散热的设计有关。
通过对关键部件妥善安置是有可能大大减少甚至完全消除影响。
百分之0.01（规定）的耗材有满负载的百分之0.05到0.15之间的漂移，这非常的罕见。
事实上，一个制造商曾经说过百分之0.15会更好。
减少热漂移除了提高TC以外还可以通过减少内部的消耗来解决。
比如说在关键的放大器和散热元件之间放置热障。
外表面最好位于通风良好处。
应该注意到，只能在百分之0.01和0.05之间索取。
瞬态响应大多数该类型的电源有一个还很受争议的负载端电容器。
这是出于稳定的目的，通常会决定主要的电源时间常数。
这个电容器会导致在遥感模式下短暂的电力供应不良的现象①。
通常情况下，晶体管电源会在很短的时间内作出反应，但是笔者曾经指出，在遥感时，反应会变得很小。
其等效电源如图5所示。
引线从电源到负载电阻R处引入，设备的感应电流Is是相对稳定的。
在平衡条件下，图6表明，一个突然的负荷变化会导致Ldi/dt的瞬间激增，我们称之为“尖峰”；以及线性放电时间越长时电容充放电的情况。
放电时间是，其中并且，①对于Is来说，通常它不会在放大器的最后阶段提供驱动，但是会出现限流现象。
遥感是指电源电压电感的直接负荷。
图5 远程输出传感的等效电路图6 瞬态响应，遥感。
图7 框图。
使用预稳压电源可以减少监测和控制的A型阶段电压的使用和损耗。
由于主要的调节器往往比预调节器响应更快，应该建立足够的储备来使这个阶段下降。
如果不这样可能会导致负载的饱和，那是前置稳压器在响应时间内产生的。
开关前置稳压器型机组传统类- A型晶体管电源供应变得相当笨重，昂贵，与传递阶段拥挤，作为供给增加电流和功率的水平。
要求输出调节范围更大,再加上电力的供应是远程可编程的,会极大地提高条件的要求。
正是由于这些原因,高效利用的开关调节器作为一种压力调节阀在商业和军事用品应用了许多年。
绝大多数的供应整流器可控硅使用与控制元件。
从60-cycle操作的系统压力调节阀响应来源,在20至50ms之间。
最近对高压、大功率开关晶体管的方法更具有吸引力。
该系统提供了一种低成本,发行量较小的方法,再加上一个submillisecond响应时间。
通常是独立的电源频率导致了高开关率。
开关频率就可能被固定的,一个被控制的变量或一个独立的自生自储（LC滤波器电路）参数。
更快的反应时间是非常可取的,因为它减少了在预备役电压值必须通过阶段或仓库(的数量)的电力需求在压力调节阀过滤器。
一个晶体管作为电源开关操作适合具有大电流，高电压等级低漏电流耦合。
不幸的是，这些特点是实现了热容量牺牲，同时使电压和电流的条件导致很高的峰值功率可能是灾难性的。
因此，它成为强制性的设计负荷高峰期间有足够的条件，也包含开关驱动电流限制或快速过载保护系统。
商业发展电力供应总是有输出电流限制,但这并不限制压力调节阀电流负载条件下,除了在稳态(包括短路)。
考虑一下,例如,一个电源工作在短路、短被删除突然叫起来。
指图8、9月的产量将会快速上涨,减少通过阶段电压,关闭开关晶体管。
由此产生的瞬态传达很多周期的交换率),这样电感的压力调节阀过滤变得完全不够的限制流量。
因此,当前将会上升直至稳态已恢复、电路电阻引起限制,或不足开车使开关出来的饱和度。
上述第二种情况导致开关失败。
其他营业状况会产生相似的瞬变包括输出电压编程和初始刺激的用度。
输入功率瞬间的中断也应首先要考虑的事。
一个解决这个问题的办法就是限制的电压变化的速率在可出现一值,通过舞台了压力调节阀可以遵循。
这能被做方便加上足够的输出电容。
这电容会同限流特性会产生一种最大的改变的比率其中C0 = output capacity.假设这个压力调节阀遵循这种变化和有滤波电容器,然后开关电流在电源在上,压力调节阀的参考电压上升也必须是有限的。
采取这一考虑,其中ER = passing stage voltageTl = time constant of reference supply.策略合作关系SCR的使用来代替电晶体的将是一个明显改善由于较高的增兵电流的收视率,却转身他们去了,需要大量的能源。
而门策略合作关系SCR讨厌似乎将为员工提供良好的折衷,全部的问题,严峻的限制,在当前的收视率现限制使用它们。
本文摘自：IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS VOL. IGA-2, NO.5 SEPT/OCT 1966附：英文原文Highly Regulated DC Power SuppliesAbstract-The design and application of highly regulated dc power supplies present many subtle, diverse, and interesting problems. This paper discusses some of these problems (especially inconnection with medium power units) but emphasis has been placed more on circuit economics rather than on ultimate performance.Sophisticated methods and problems encountered in connection with precision reference supplies are therefore excluded. The problems discussed include the subjects of temperature coefficient,short-term drift, thermal drift, transient response degeneration caused by remote sensing, and switchingpreregualtor-type units and some of their performance characteristics. INTRODUCTIONANY SURVEY of the commercial de power supply field will uncover the fact that 0.01 percent regulated power supplies are standard types and can be obtained at relatively low costs. While most users of these power supplies do not require such high regulation, they never-theless get this at little extra cost for the simple reason that it costs the manufacturer very little to give him 0.01 percent instead of 0.1 percent. The performance of a power supply, however, includes other factors besides line and load regulation. This paper will discuss a few of these-namely, temperature coefficient, short-term drift, thermal drift, and transient response. Present medium power dc supplies commonly employ preregulation as a means of improving power/volume ratios and costs, but some characteristics of the power supply suffer by this approach. Some of the short-comings as well as advantages of this technology will be examined.TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTA decade ago, most commercial power supplies were made to regulation specifications of0.25 to 1 percent. The reference elements were gas diodes having temperature coefficients of the order of 0.01 percent. Consequently, the TC (temperature coefficient) of the supply was small compared to the regulation specifications and often ignored. Today, the reference element often carries aTC specification greater than the regulation specification.While the latter may be improved considerably at little cost increase, this is not necessarily true of TC. Therefore,the use of very low TC zener diodes, matched differential amplifier stages, and low TC wire wound resistors must be analyzed carefully, if costs are to be kept low.A typical first amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 1. CRI is the reference zener diode and R, is the output adjustment potentiometer.Fig. 1. Input stage of power supply.Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of zener reference.Let it be assumed that e3, the output of the stage, feedsadditional differential amplifiers,and under steady-state conditions e3 = 0. A variation of any of the parameters could cause the output to drift; while this is also true of the other stages, the effects are reduced by the gain of all previous stages. Consequently, the effects of other stages will be neglected. The following disculssion covers the effects of all elements having primary and secondary influences on the overall TC.Effect of R3The equivalent circuit of CRI -R3 branch is shown in Fig. 2. The zener ha's been replaced with its equivalent voltage source E/' and internal impedance R,. For high gain regulators, the input of the differential amplifier will have negligible change with variations of R3 so thatbefore and after a variation of R3 is made.If it is further assumed that IB << Iz; then from (1)Also,Eliminating I, from (2b),andNow, assuming thatthen,Equation (2b) can also be writtenSHORT-TERM DRIFTThe short-term drift of a supply is defined by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) as "a change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input, environment, or load."Much of the material described in the section on temperature coefficient is applicable here as well. It has been determined experimentally, however, that thermal air drafts in and near the vicinity of the power supply contributes enormously to the short-term characteristics. The cooling effects of moving air are quite well known, but it is not often recognized that even extremely slow air movements over such devices as zeners and transistors cause the junction temperature of these devices to change rapidly. If the TC of the supply is large compared to the regulation, then large variations in the output will be observed. Units having low TC's achieved by compensation-that is, by canceling out the effects of some omponents by equal and opposite effects of others may still be plagued by these drafts due tothe difference in thermal time constants of the elements.Oftentimes, a matched transistor differential amplifier in a common envelope is used for the first amplifier just to equalize and eliminate the difference in cooling effects between the junctions. Approximations to this method include cementing or holding the transistors together, imbedding the transistors in a common metal block, etc. Excellent results were achieved by the author by placing the input stage and zener reference in a separate enclosure. This construction is shown in Fig. 4. The improvement in drift obtained by means of the addition of the metal cover is demonstrated dramatically in Fig. 5.Fig. 5. Short-term drift of a power supply similar to the one shown in Fig. 4 with and without protective covers. The unit was operated without the cover until time tl, when the cover was attached. The initial voltage change following t, is due to a temperature rise inside the box.Fig. 5. Short-term drift of a power supply similar to the one shown n Fig. 4 with and without protective covers. The unit was operated without the cover until time tl, when the cover was attached. The initial voltage change following t, is due to a temperature rise inside the box.If potentiometers are used in the supply for output adjustment (e.g., RI), care should be used in choosing the value and design. Variations of the contact resistance can cause drift. It is not always necessary, however, to resort to the expense of high-resolution multiturn precision units to obtain low drift. A reduction in range of adjustment, use of low-resistance alloys and low-resolution units which permit the contact arm to rest firmly between turns, may be just as satisfactory. Of course, other considerations should include the ability of both the arms and the wire to resist corrosion. Silicone greases are helpful here. Periodic movement of contact arms has been found helpful in "healing" corroded elements.THERMAL DRIFTNEMA defines thermal drift as "a change in output over a period of time, due to changes in internal ambient temperatures not normally related to environmental changes. Thermal drift is usually associated with changes in line voltage and/or load changes ."Thermal drift, therefore, is strongly related to the TC of the supply as well as its overall thermal design. By proper placement of critical components it is possible to greatly reduce or even eliminate the effect entirely. It is not uncommon for supplies of the 0.01 percent(regulation) variety to have drifts of between 0.05 to 0.15 percent for full line or full load variations. In fact, one manufacturer has suggested that anything better than 0.15 percent is good. Solutions to reducing thermal drift other than the obvious approach of improving the TC and reducing internal losses include a mechanical design that sets up a physical and thermal barrier between the critical amplifier components and heat dissipating elements. Exposure to outside surfaces with good ventilation is recommended. With care, 0.01 to 0.05 percent is obtainable.TRANSIENT RESPONSEMost power supplies of the type being discussed have a capacitor across the load terminals. This is used for stabilization purposes and usually determines the dominant time constant of the supply. The presence of this capacitor unfortunately leads to undesirable transient phenomena when the supply is used in the remote sensing mode①. Normally, transistorized power supplies respond in microseconds, but as the author has pointed out , the response can degenerate severely in remote sensing .The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 5. The leads from the power supply to the load introduce resistance r. Is is the sensing current of the supply and is relatively constant.Under equilibrium conditions,A sudden load change will produce the transient of Fig. 6. The initial "spike" is caused by an inductive surge Ldi/dt; the longer linear discharge following is the result of the capacitor trying to discharge (or charge). The discharge time iswhereandThe limitations of I,, are usually not due to available drive of the final amplifier stages but to other limitations, current limiting being the most common. Units using pre regulators of the switching type (transistor or SCR types) should be looked at carefully if the characteristics mentioned represent a problem.①Remote sensing is the process by which the power supply senses voltage directly at the load.Fig. 5. Output equivalent circuit at remote sensing.Fig. 6. Transient response, remote sensing.Fig. 7. Block diagram.Preregulated supplies are used to reduce size and losses by monitoring and controlling the voltage across the class-A-type series passing stage (Fig. 7). Since the main regulator invariably responds much quicker than the preregulator, sufficient reserve should always be built into the drop across the passing stage. Failure to provide this may result in saturation of the passing stage when load is applied, resulting in a response time which is that of the preregulator itself.SWITCHING PREREGULATOR-TYPE UNITSThe conventional class-A-type transistorized power supply becomes rather bulky, expensive, and crowded with passing stages, as the current and power level of the supply increases. The requirement of wide output adjustment range, coupled with the ability of thesupply to be remotely programmable, aggravates the condition enormously. For these reasons the high-efficiency switching regulator has been employed as a preregulator in commercial as well as military supplies for many years. The overwhelming majority of the supplies used silicon controlled rectifiers as the control element. For systems operating from 60-cycle sources, this preregulator responds in 20 to 50 ms.Recent improvements in high-voltage, high-power switching transistors has made the switching transistor pproach more attractive. This system offers a somewhat lower-cost, lower-volume approach coupled with a submillisecond response time. This is brought about by a high switching rate that is normally independent of line frequency. The switching frequency may be fixed, a controlled variable or an independent self-generated (by the LC filter circuit) parameter. Faster response time is highly desirable since it reduces the amount of reserve voltage required across the passing stage or the amount of (storage) capacity required in the preregulator filter.A transistor suitable for operating as a power switch has a high-current, high-voltage rating coupled with low leakage current. Unfortunately, these characteristics are achieved by a sacrifice in thermal capacity, so that simultaneous conditions of voltage and current leading to high peak power could be disastrous. It therefore becomes mandatory to design for sufficient switch drive during peak load conditions and also incorporate current-limiting or rapid overload protection systems.Commercial wide-range power supplies invariably have output current limiting, but this does not limit the preregulator currents except during steady-state load conditions (including short circuits). Consider, for example, a power supply operating at short circuit and the short being removed suddenly. Referring to Fig. 7, the output would rise rapidly, reduce the passing stage voltage, and close the switching transistor. The resulting transient extends over many cycles (switching rate) so that the inductance of the preregulator filter becomes totally inadequate to limit current flow. Therefore, the current will rise until steady state is resumed, circuit resistance causes limiting, or insufficient drive causes the switch to come out ofsaturation. The latter condition leads to switch failure.Other operating conditions that would produce similar transients include output voltage programming and initial turn-on of the supply. Momentary interruption of input power should also be a prime consideration.One solution to the problem is to limit the rate of change of voltage that can appear across the passing stage to a value that the preregulator can follow. This can be done conveniently by the addition of sufficient output capacitance. This capacitance in conjunction with the current limiting characteristic would produce a maximum rate of change ofwhereC0 = output capacity.Assuming that the preregulator follows this change and has a filter capacitor Cl, then the switch current isDuring power on, the preregulator reference voltage rise must also be limited. Taking this into account,whereER = passing stage voltageTl = time constant of reference supply.The use of SCR's to replace the transistors would be a marked improvement due to黄河科技学院毕业设计（文献翻译）第20页higher surge current ratings, but turning them off requires large energy sources. While the gate turn-off SCR seems to offer a good compromise to the overall problem, the severe limitations in current ratings presently restrict their use.from：IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS VOL. IGA-2, NO.5 SEPT/OCT 1966。
