第二语言习得复习总结整理.doc

《第二语言习得研究》全书概要第一章绪论第一节第二语言习得的一般概念第二语言习得(second language acquisition)，简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。

也叫“二语习得”。

一、母语与目的语母语指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。

目的语，也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。

二、第一语言与第二语言第一语言指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。

三、习得与学习克拉申（Krashen）认为成人L2学习者有两种独立的语言获得方式，两者在获得方式、心理过程、所获得的知识类型、作用等方面都不同Krashen认为，习得的知识与学得的知识是相互独立的两种知识。

学得的知识无法转换成习得的知识。

即所谓“无接口观点”(non-interface position)。

自然习得研究的证据表明，在习得情况下并未发生学习的过程，有时候，学习者可以先学会某个规则，但是并没有习得这个规则。

也就是说学习过程并不一定导致习得过程的发生。

无接口观点的证据：Seliger（1979）的证据：他让在课堂上让学习者描述一些图片，然后分析这些学习者使用冠词a与an的情况；此外，他让这些学习者陈述关于冠词用法的相关规则。

调查分析表明，学习者的实际语言表达与其元语言知识不相关。

也就是说，“习得”与“学习”的确是彼此独立的。

第二语言习得是指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。

外语习得指学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且学习者所学的语言主要是在课堂上学习的。

五、自然的第二语言习得与有指导的第二语言习得：前者指在自然的社会环境下以交际的方式获得第二语言；后者指在课堂教学环境中以教学指导的方式获得第二语言。

语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。

语言表达指交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。

一、第二语言习得研究与语言学：语言学是一个古老的学科，第二语言习得研究则是一个年轻的学科。

第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。

2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。

三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。

3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。

不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。

不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。

2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。

3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。

2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。

2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。

语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。

3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。

3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。

1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。

Second Language Acqu isition /SLA第二语言习得（简称二语习得），通常指母语习得之后的任何其他语言学习。

人们从社会、心理、语言学等角度去研究它。

第二语言习得研究作为一个独立学科，大概形成于二十世纪60年代末70年代初，已有35年的历史。

它对学习者的第二语言特征及其发展变化、学习者学习第二外语时所具有的共同特征和个别差异进行描写，并分析影响二语习得的内部因素和外部因素。

与其他社会科学相比，二语习得研究是个新领域，大都借用母语研究、教育学研究或其他相关学科的方法。

概括地说，这一领域的研究是为了系统地探讨二语习得的本质和习得的过程，其主要目标是：描述学习者如何获得第二语言以及解释为什么学习者能够获得第二语言。

到目前为止，二语习得的研究范围远比20世纪七八十年代广，涉及语言学、心理学、心理语言学、语用学，社会语言学等众多方面。

早期的第二语言习得理论是教学法的附庸，为服务提高教学质量而存在，1967年Larry Selinke r在《语言迁移》这本专著第一次提出中介语理论，第二语言习得理论从此有了自己的研究领域而开始成为一门独立的学科。

现时的第二语言习得研究涉及三大领域，即中介语研究，学习者内部因素研究和学习者外部因素研究。

1994年美国费城Temple 大学教育学院二语英语教学教授Rod Ellis撰写巨著《第二语言习得研究》，成为该领域的经典教科书。

该书共分七个部分。

第一部分勾画了整本书的概念框架。

第二部分总结了有关学习者语言本质的主要理论，包括学习者错误，发展模式，语言变项和语用特征。

第三部分从外部因素解释第二语言的习得，主要阐述社会因素和输入/交互的作用。

第四部分从内部因素解释第二语言的习得，包括语言迁移、认知论解释和语言普遍性。

第五部分将讨论的重点从学习转移到学习者，论述了第二语言习得的个体差异和学习策略。

第六部分是关于课堂英语教学的论述，讨论了课堂交互和正规教学的有关理论。

第二语言习得研究第一章第二语言习得研究概述第一节第二语言习得研究的基本概念1.母语：通常是指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。

一般情况下，母语通常是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言。

因此，母语通常也被称作“第一语言”。

2.目的语：也称“目标语”，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言。

它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。

3.第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。

4.第二语言：相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。

强调的是语言习得的先后顺序，与语言习得的环境无关。

5.习得：指“非正式”的语言获得。

“习得”通常是指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得。

内隐学习是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识。

通过“习得”方式获得的是“隐性语言知识”。

6.学习：指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。

一般是指“有意识”的语言知识的获得。

外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习来获得语言知识。

通过“学习”方式获得的是“显性语言知识”。

7.第二语言习得：指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。

学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。

8.外语习得：学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且学习者所学的语言主要是在课堂学习的。

9.第二语言环境：指学习者所学的语言在语言习得发生的环境中作为交际语言。

10.自然的第二语言习得：指以交际的方式获得第二语言，而且语言习得通常是在自然的社会环境下发生的。

11.有指导的第二语言习得：以教学指导的方式获得第二语言，语言习得通常是在课堂教学环境中发生的。

12.语言能力：是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的。

语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。

母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断依据的就是这种隐性语言知识。

语言能力是关于语言的知识。

13.语言表达：交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。

第一章：语言习得和语言教学第一课：第一语言和第二语言第一语言是个人身份的标志，总体水平也高于第二语言。

第二语言可以在不同环境中获得。

外语环境和二语环境，它们的区分主要取决于课堂之外的目的与是否常用。

第一、而与环境和外语环境的对立，取决与目的与在社区中是否常用。

第二、外语环境和二语环境的区分，有时并不像认为的那么简单。

第三、随着科学技术的进步，特别是因特网的普及，二语环境和外语环境的区别可能变得不那么重要。

第二课：语言习得语言习得即指语言习得这一现象，也指对这现象的研究。

第一语言习得研究的是儿童学习母语问题，也称“母语习得”。

第二语言习得包括对母语之外的所有语言的习得研究，研究对象一般是成年人。

语言习得研究中，有两个基本问题：逻辑问题和发展问题。

逻辑问题研究的课题是：语言习得是如何成为可能的？发展问题指的是：语言习得遵循一定的发展顺序和步骤。

第三课：应用语言学科德是应用语言学的早期代表人物之一。

语言教学和第二语言习得仍然是应用语言学的两个重要领域，但是应用语言学的研究范学科。

与应用语言学相对的，是理论语言学。

理论语言学的目的是对语言系统本身进行理论描述，找出其规律。

第四课：语言教学第一语言教学（母语教学）语言教学母语环境中的第二语言教学（或二语教学）第二语言教学对外环境的第二语言教学（外语教学）上图说明第二语言教学在两个层面上出现即广义：第二语言教学是从基本性质角度进行的分类，与第一语言教学相对。

狭义：第二语言教学是从学习环境角度进行的分类，和外语教学相对。

研究重点：学习机制、学习者语言、语言环境和语言习得、学习者个体差异。

第二语言教学研究的重点是教师和教学过程，第二语言习得研究的重点是学习和学习过程，包括中介语。

第五课：教学理念反应的是对语言学习和语言教学的基本认识。

包括：学习什么、怎样学习、如何教授。

理念是从一个人所受的全部语言教育当中，从这个人的语言学习有关的全部经历当中感悟出来的。

比较系统，有比较深厚的理论基础。

第二语言习得研究第一章第二语言习得研究概述第一节第二语言习得研究的基本概念1.母语：通常是指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。

一般情况下，母语通常是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言。

因此，母语通常也被称作“第一语言”。

2.目的语：也称“目标语”，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言。

它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。

3.第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。

4.第二语言：相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。

强调的是语言习得的先后顺序，与语言习得的环境无关。

5.习得：指“非正式”的语言获得。

“习得”通常是指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得。

内隐学习是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识。

通过“习得”方式获得的是“隐性语言知识”。

6.学习：指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。

一般是指“有意识”的语言知识的获得。

外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习来获得语言知识。

通过“学习”方式获得的是“显性语言知识”。

7.第二语言习得：指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。

学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。

8.外语习得：学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且学习者所学的语言主要是在课堂学习的。

9.第二语言环境：指学习者所学的语言在语言习得发生的环境中作为交际语言。

10.自然的第二语言习得：指以交际的方式获得第二语言，而且语言习得通常是在自然的社会环境下发生的。

11.有指导的第二语言习得：以教学指导的方式获得第二语言，语言习得通常是在课堂教学环境中发生的。

12.语言能力：是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的。

语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。

母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断依据的就是这种隐性语言知识。

语言能力是关于语言的知识。

13.语言表达：交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。

第⼆语⾔习得复习资料★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development. Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )6. Language acquisition和Second Language Acquisition之间的关系7.(1) Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. These arise when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to specific responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors.(2) The habit-formation theoryThe association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.Two important characteristics of habitsObservable: the true basis for psychological enquiry existed only in objects that could be touched and actions that could be observed. (Watson)Automatic:habits were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built.Two means: imitation and practiceImitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit- formation, because the behaviorists maintained that imitation will help learners identify the associations between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the associations and help learners to form the new linguistic habits.Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general.The process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation. (The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit.)8. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.Attitude towards errorErrors should be avoided and should be corrected if they have been made, because they are indication of non-learning and have the danger of becoming bad linguistic habits.Errors could be avo ided by comparing the learner?s native language with the target language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential error.Where are the means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists?The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.9. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)10. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.11. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.12. Contrastive Analysis Assumptions1. Language learning = habit formation2. L1 is major source of error in L2 production/reception3. Errors are accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L24. The greater the differences, the more errors will occur5. Focus on dissimilarities in learning; similarities require little new learning6. Difficulty and ease in predicted by differences and similarities between L1 and L213. Steps for contrastive analysis①Describing L1 and L2②Selecting a linguistic feature③Marking an L1-L2 comparison on this feature④Using the results to predict or explain err ors in learner?s L2 performance.14.The Validity of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(正确性)Over-simplification to think that comparing two languages is a straightforward comparison of structures.Other factors such as innate principles of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known, and so forth. In the 1960s, the behaviorist theory of language and language learning was challenged. Language came to be seen in terms of structured rules instead of habits. Learning was nowseen not as imitation but as active rule formation.Another criticism of the role of CA had to do with the concept of difficulty. Differences are based on formal descriptions of linguistic units –those selected by a linguist, a teacher, or a textbook writer. It is not a real measure of difficulty. (Difference=difficulty=error)too negative about borrowing from L1Ignoring the conditions of interference.Empirical study found that not all actually occurring errors were predicted; not all predicted errors occurred.15.Theoretical Criticisms（批评）Chomsky?s attack on behaviorismRelationship between “difficulty” and “error”Problems concerning the linguistic basis of contrastive analysisNeed to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting errors16.“Difficulty” and “Error”There were objections to the validity of equating …difference? with …difficulty? on the hand and …difficulty? with …error? on the other.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psy chological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.17. Definition of EAError analysis:--the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).--A type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners? interlanguage and the target language;--A methodology of describing L2 learners? language systems (Corder, 1981)The Purpose of EATo discover the processes learners make use of in learning & using the target language,To identify the causes of learner errors,To obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learningBasic AssumptionsHuman learning is fundamentally a process involving making errors;Language learning is like any other human learning;Errors made by L2 learners can be observed, analyzed, classified, and described ( Brown,1987: 169-171) Procedure of Error AnalysisIdentification of ErrorsDescription of ErrorsExplanation of errors: determine the sources of errors Comapararison:18.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one?s L1, or the negative transfer of one?s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners? transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules19. Sources of ErrorsIn language learning, learner?s errors are caused by s everal different processes, including--Interlingual transfer--Intralingual transfer--Transfer of training or context of learning--Cognitive & affective factors20. Levels of ErrorsSubstance errorsText errorsDiscourse errors21. Implication & ApplicationError Analysis is significant theoretically and practically.--Theoretica l: it is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process--Practical: it has direct relevance to the improvement of language teaching materials and methods★22. Differences of error analysis Between EA and CA1.Interest in errors ：EA interested in errors resulting from interference from L1CA interested in the totality of the errors of a L2 learner2.Classification of errors :EA classifies only errors resulting from interference of L1CA classifies all errors3.Source of errorsEA: errors are the result of negative transferCA: errors are a learner?s hypotheses in relation to the new language and considered to be a natural part of L2 learning4.Position of errorsEA: errors are harmful and it seeks to correct themCA: takes no position on errors5.When CA/EA beganEA:begins with Fries and LadoCA: a type of study that has existed for a long time6.PerformanceEA. interested in learner?s performance and correlates it to L1CA: interested in the learner?s performance and correlates it to L1 and the developing L222. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.23. DefinitionStrategy VS. technique Stern (1983)Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, while techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.Strategy : conscious , behavioral24. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy 学习策略Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy 交际策略25. Classifications (Cohen 2006)By goal; By function; By skill; Others(1) By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies(e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies).(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.(4) Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.O?Malley & Chamot (1990)MetacognitiveCognitiveSocial26.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one?s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Organize/plan your own learningManage ……..Monitor………Evaluate……….Importance of meta-cognitive strategiesStudents without meta-cognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.27. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.RepetitionResourcingDirected physical responseTranslationGroupingNote-takingDeductionRecombinationImageryAuditory representationKey wordContextualizationElaborationTransferInferencing27. social/affective strategiesSocial strategiesstrategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.协作（cooperation）提问澄清（question for clarification）Affective strategies:strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.28. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamicsattitudes to the teacher and course materialslearning techniquesGeneral factors:ageaptitudecognitive style field dependence / independencemotivationpersonality29. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits: professional advancement, study in the target language, business.Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential constructMotivation= effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes★Integrative motivation 融合型动vs. Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机(p94)★30. Definition –interlanguage★Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner construct for use incommunication through the target language.The term“interlanguage” , coined by Selinker(1972), refers to the language system constructed by second language learners on their way to the target language.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the targetlanguage. (Larry Selinker)Nemser calls it“approximative system”Corder (1971) called learners? language an idiosyncratic dialect .These terms suggest that learners? language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.错误发⽣的原因：Interlingua interference (语际⼲扰)⒈Positive transfer⒉negative transferIntralingua interference（语内⼲扰）★31. Characteristics of interlanguage systempermeable ;dynamic; systematic; fossilization★32.Definition of fossilizationIt has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, such an IL may reach one or more temporary restricting phases during which the development of the IL appears to be detained (Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972; Schumann, 1975).A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972).33. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:暂时性⽯化:Temporary fossilization refers to stability of language acquisition or the plateau phenomenon of learning, at the moment language parameter is steady and static, the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions .Permanent fossilization永久性⽯化：This means the learner?s language stops evolving for ever. Because most of the students? interlanguage is in the temporary and stable stage, no permanent fossilization. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Fossilization appears through five central processes:Language transfer; transfer of learning; learning strategies; communication strategies; overgeneralizationInternal Causes of fossilizationMotivationCommunicative needsAcquisition deviceExternal Causes of fossilizationCommunicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don?t understand you” )34. Linguistic basis for SLAContrastive analysis (pre-Chomskyan structuralism)Universals and contrastive analysisUniversals and SLA★35. Definition of UGUG is a term used by Chomsky to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of learning their native language, and which constrains the shape of the particular grammar they are trying to learn. It consists of various principles which govern the form grammatical rules can take. Some of these principles are parameterized ( i.e. are specified as consisting of two or more options).DefinitionCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines …universal grammar? as …the properties inherent in the human mind?. Un iversal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.Definitiona set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages36. Principles refers to highly abstract properties of grammar which apply to language in general and which, therefore, underlie the grammatical rules of all specific languages.Parameters refers to principles that vary in certain restricted ways from one language to another. That is, they take the form ofa finite set of options which individual languages draw on and which define the variation possible between language36. UG also provides a basis for determining markedness. The degree of markedness depends on whether a feature is part of the …core? or the …periphery?.Core grammar: unmarked, that is, they accord with the general tendencies of language. Periphery rules: marked, that is they are exceptional in some way.core rules (UG) are unmarkedMarkednessperiphery rules are markedUniversals and contrastive analysisMarkedness: refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are …special? or …less natural? or …less basic? than others. Markedness differential condition: marked features are more difficult to learn than unmarked.37.The role of universals in L1 acquisition1. Grammar construction is constrained by the operation of Universal Grammar, which regulates the options the child has to choose from. That is, hypothesis formation is constrained by innate principles.2. Regularities in the order of development can be explained only by considering both Universal Grammar and channel capacity.A distinction can be made between …development' actual progress) and …acquisition' the idealized learning that results from universal Grammar)3. Universal grammar may unfold as a maturational schedule, as suggested by Felix (1984), or it may be activated piecemeal in accordance with the data that the child perceive at different developmental stages, as suggested by White (1981).4. The child is likely to learn unmarked rules before marked rules; he constructs a core grammar before a peripheral grammar.5. The child possesses a projective capacity. This enables one rule to trigger off other rules withwhich it is implicationally linked, and also enables rules to be acquired when no direct evidence for them has been supplied by the input.38. Access to UG1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access39 Linguistic universals and L1 transferThe transfer of L1 unmarked formsUnmarked setting of parameters will occur in interlanguage before marked settings, even if the L2 provides evidence of a marked setting.The non-transfer of L1 marked forms40.Krashen?s Input Hy pothesis ModelKnown by various names--Monitor hypothesis--Input model--Comprehensible input model--Natural modelAll these names refer to the one and the same model★Five hypotheses1. Acquisition – learning distinction hypothesis2. Natural sequence/order hypothesis3. Monitor hypothesis4. Comprehensible input hypothesis5. Affective filter hypothesis. (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the unconscious processes that also takes place in first language acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is responsible for the construction of grammar rules or knowledge about the second language through teaching or error correction.. Acquisition LearningSubconscious – implicit learningA distinct process – can never become learningThe way children learn the languageMeaning focusedInductiveNaturalistic settingsConscious – explicit learningA distinct process –can neverbecome acquisitionThe way adults learn the languageGrammar (form) focusedDeductiveFormal settingsImplications of Acquisition-Learning Distinction HypothesisContent based language teaching – total immersion is preferable.Provide meaningful contexts for understanding languageProvide meaningful communication activities such as information gap activities.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis: SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners? first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting). Implications of natural order hypothesisErrors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis claims a move along the developmental continuum byreceiving comprehensible input.Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learne r?s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner?s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.“i+1”We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Implications of input hypothesisEmploy teacher talk along motherese or foreigner talk(4) The affective filter modelAffect refers to:Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in L2 acquisition.Self-confidence:Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in L2 Acquisition.Anxiety:Low anxiety appears to be conducive to L2 acquisition.Affective filter hypothesisLearners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.The significance of affective filter hypothesisAccounts for individual variationAccounts for the differences between adult and child language acquisition processesImplications of affective filter hypothesisCreate a non-threatening teaching/learning atmosphere in the classroom.Provide a risk-safe environment.Students should not worry about being criticized.Capitalize on what students already know.Create teaching/learning environment in such a way that students encounter success rather than failure.Provide positive and constructive feedback.Analyze your classroom behavior for any hidden agenda(5) Monitor hypothesisThree conditions:Knowledge of grammarFocus on grammarAvailability of timeGrammar focused learning leads to grammar focused productionChildren do not monitor so why should adults?Learning language is different from learning about language.监控假设图⽰(p57)Implications of monitor hypothesisModel language and do not teach grammar explicitly.Krashen?s VariablesFor Krashen, there are only two variables for language acquisition to take place:Abundant comprehensible inputLow affective filterKrashen – An evaluationMajor strength – intuitively appealingAble to be translated into pedagogical modelsHybrid model and so draws strengths from various theoriesFor the first time, somebody was able to say that grammar teaching was not goodHumanistic in its approachImpreciseNot verifiableKrashen?s dogmatic adherence to his hypotheses is the major weakness★41. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.Negative transferPositive transferAvoidanceOveruse★/doc/11a403d433d4b14e85246836.html D(language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★43.critical age period(p100)★44.field independent vs. field independent(p77)★45.distinction between qualitative and quantitative research(p143)★46.input vs. output(p32-33)★47.intellence vs. aptitude(p85-88)。

一、名词解释1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。

一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。

也被称作“第一语言”。

2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。

这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。

它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。

美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。

如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。

对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。

3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。

第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。

在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。

Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。

因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。

4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。

对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。

5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。

6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克（）于1969年提出来的。

中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。

7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。

这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。

8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。

对学生学习第二语言过程中所犯的偏误进行分析，从而发现第二语言学习者产生偏误的规律，包括偏误的类型，偏误产生的原因，某种偏误产生的阶段性，等等。

《第二语言习得理论》复习纲要附参考答案《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。

但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。

这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。

因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。

2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。

8、什么是foreigner talk？31当本族语者与非本族语者交谈时，所采用的简化的语言表达形式，可能会不符合语法规范。

9、人们一般认为学习者影响其学习效果，但Hermann提出了相反的看法，他提出的Hermann’s Resultative Hypothesis指什么？32一般认为，学习者对所学语言以及讲该语言的社会的态度会影响他学习该语言成功与否，但Hermann提出了另一个看法，称之为Hermann’s resultative hypothesis，认为可能恰好相反，学习者如果学习成功，就能促进他对该语言和讲这种语言的社会的正面态度，如果学习失败或者不太成功，他的态度会是消极的。

10、什么是语言规划？3211、人们一般把英语分为哪几个环？34-35我们一般把英语分为三个环，即inner circle，outer circle和expanding circle。

Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。