工程管理专业 毕业论文文献翻译 中英文对照

中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译The Internet is Applicated in Real EstateThe Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Its convenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy.Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;ApplicatedThe number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million.This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions.Measuring the Spread of the WebThere are few reliable published statistics on Internet or Web use, and statistics reported by different analysts are often inconsistent. Our discussion of the Web and real estate is based on limited information from surveys and on examination of Web sites rather than on more comprehensive data. We have built our overview of the role of the World Wide Web and real estate by examining a variety of sources(including trade publications, existing Web sites, and our own survey of selected real estate firms)From E-mail to E-commerceBefore the advent of the World Wide Web, the Internet existed mostly for the purposes of e-mail, data transfers, newsgroups and bulletin boards, and its reach was limited primarily to the academic and the defense community. The technology itself was not particularly user-friendly, the network speed was not very high, the medium was limited to text and data, and accessing information was cumbersome and time-consuming. The browser technology greatly simplified usage, enabled multimedia information, and created interactive possibilities. The technology brought together TV entertainment, library information, news bulletins, communication and data in one desktop machine.Although initially the greatest patrons of the Internet were the academic community, the commercial sector quickly caught on to the potential of the Web. The private sector saw in the Web an opportunity to widen its marketing reach, lower costs of information dissemination, improve customer relations, and ultimately to conduct sales. Existing private sector Web sites can be roughly categorized into three types, as summarized. The most basic level is for simple information dissemination. The firm registers a Web site and develops a page giving basic company information. The second stage is an expansion of information, marketing goods and services or providing other customer information. The third stage is the addition of transactions tothe activities possible on the Web site.Most business sites at present are in Stage 2. The use of the World Wide Web for detailed information dissemination, and marketing has had several advantages. For the firm, marketing, information dissemination and customer services on the Web can be monitored and analyzed with some details unavailable from conventional methods of marketing using other media. Internet tools can now provide a firm with data on who accessed the site, which pages were visited most, heavily, from where and for how long. This information contributes to improved measures of the results of promotional efforts. The promotional costs associated with the Internet have also been very low. For example, in direct mail marketing, to send a one-page color brochure to 5,000 random addresses will cost upwards of $2,500. The cost of setting up a Web site could be one-tenth of this amount or less (although tracking and analysis can quickly add to the cost)?Many different sectors, including real estate, have found the Internet to be both efficient and cost-effective as a marketing device.The next logical step - a full-fledged office/store on the Web with transaction capability and commerce on the Internet is now being attempted in varying degrees depending on the firm's area of business. Retail sites selling products between $10 and $100, the kind that are traditionally part of a direct mail sales catalog, seem to be the ones having the greatest success(although 4% of sites sell products over $10,000 and another 13% sell products ranging from $100 to$9,999)?A number of retail sites have also harnessed a secondary revenue stream from advertising. Advertising revenues on the Web have crossed the billion-dollar mark and total Internet generated revenue will approach$100 billion this year.Consumers' Use of the WebSurveys of consumers using the Web suggest that a Web site does notsubstitute for the more traditional forms of business, but can greatly facilitate the run-up to the final transaction. The most common use of the Web is for information searching, closely followed by work-related uses, education, and entertainment. A significant majority of those that use the Web for shopping do so to carry out detailed research on product information（90%）and to do price comparisons（85%）. This more often leads to purchases through normal channels（67%）. Most of the online purchases tend to be of items that are standardized-four of the five top items bought on the Web, according to survey, are software, books, hardware and music (the fifth is travel). More than half of consumers who make purchases on the Web spend less than $500 in a six-month period.The demographics of Web users vary widely in age and income. Surveys by Georgia Tech, Active Media and Web indicate that the average age of Web users is 35 years, with average household income $67,000. Most are college educated (65%). A high proportion of the respondents (42%) has accessed real estate sites.Limits to the Web - Some "Catches" to the New Technology New technology is frequently a mixed blessing, and the World Wide Web is no exception. Apart from the teething troubles that any new technology faces and the time, as well as resources needed to learn, adapt and master it, the Web poses some unique issues and problems of its own. Consumers today are facing information overload of taxing proportions. It is not always easy, or even possible, to locate the relevant information on the Web, despite sophisticated search engines. Once the site is located, fancy graphics, complex linkages, labyrinthine routings, and a lot of irrelevant information may overwhelm the consumer - in short, poor and confusing site design can reduce the site's effectiveness.From the point of view of the business, there are two commonly heardcomplaints. First, the business may find that its site does not figure prominently on search results, limiting the number of customers reached. Second, for many firms, Web initiated leads are as yet few and far between. Real Estate Web SitesReal Estate firms and related businesses were among the early private sector pioneers of Internet use and have had a fast growing presence on the Web. presence on the Web. One example of the real estate sector's presence on the Internet in its pre-World Wide Web incarnation was the real estate classified bulletin board of Prodigy, the online service, which had listings for homes and other real estate. A few real estate related Web sites started in 1994 (generally regarded as the inaugural year of the Web). The New York City Real Estate Guide Web site, created in the summer of 1994, was one of the first to offer free access to the latest New York real estate information. By the summer of 1995, the site was receiving more than 100,000 inquiries a month.The real estate industry registered its entry on the Web in a dramatic way in 1995. By the end of that year there were close to 4,000 real estate Web sites. The content matter of the sites, as well as the mix of real estate related firms on the Web have changed over time. Initially, quite a few of the sites were residential real estate brokerages and listing guides, but fairly rapidly the list expanded to include commercial and retail listings, mortgage brokers,appraisers, architects, real estate attorneys, developers, construction firms, and suppliers. As investment vehicles for real estate expanded, REITs, publicly held firms, and investment advisors also added Web sites.The early real estate broker Web sites quickly took advantage of the unique features of the Web. Prospective customers could find out what properties were for sale or rent, look up detailed descriptions of each listing, view photographs and floor plans, and contact the broker by e-mail. Viewerscould also look up statistical and data reports on conditions in various geographical areas and on emerging macroeconomic trends.Ever since then, the real estate industry has been among the most enthusiastic users of the Web, by some measures accounting for 4% to 6% of commercial Web sites. A survey conducted by Real Estate Broker's Insider in early 1998 confirmed that nearly 95% of the respondents/brokers had a Web site, and more than 90% of the housing stock on sale at a given time is now listed on the Web. Indeed, because of the dispersed, localized nature of the role of information in real estate, the prospective gains from information dissemination, comparability, and Web links were particularly significant in real estate.For much of the real estate sector, the Internet generates not so much the actual transactions themselves, but creates initial leads that are later followed by transactions, purchases and sales. Web sites frequently lead to contacts that are then nurtured through telephone and person-to-person meetings. For residential real estate, Web activity includes residential searches, housing details, and pricing information (both on houses and mortgages), with follow-up contact with brokers. Real estate-related transactions are seen in the hospitality industry (making reservations for hotels and vacation homes and in online mortgage applications). Mortgage and home loan finance companies report both inquiries from mortgage shoppers who obtained initial information from their Web sites, as well as closing of loans through the Web, lead to great savings in time and overhead costs.It is not just the real estate professionals who are enthusiastic about their Internet presence, judging it to be as effective as print and radio advertising. Mortgage shoppers, homebuyers and vacation rental seekers as well applaud, in particular, the convenience it brings to the entire process of searching, researching, comparing, communicating and transacting business.Beyond these sectors, many other types of real-estate related firms are using the Web to broaden their market areas, increase the depth of their marketing, and to provide a range of services to existing customers. Commercial brokers provide not only information on available sites but also on market conditions for different locations and sometimes more in-depth economic analysis of a region. REITs and other investment firms provide detailed information on their products as well as background market or economic information. Public companies provide up-to-date stock quotes and quarterly and annual reports on the Web.Web Penetration and Use: The Experience of Leading Real Estate Firms We conducted a limited survey of a sample of leading real-estate related firms in the US and California. Responses from approximately 60 of these firms showed that over four-fifths had Web Sites by March 1999. 2 Of those with Web sites, one-third had inaugurated their sites by the end of 1996. Among the earliest with a Web presence were brokers, investment firms, lenders, business and financial services firms, law firms, residential developers, and a trade organization. Another third of the group were newcomers, with sites inaugurated in 1998 or early 1999. Commercial developers were prominent among this group, with residential developers, consultants and advisors, lenders, REITs and investment firms also among this group. Those without sites were more likely to be privately held firms with a relatively narrow base of activity (for example, a commercial developer centered in the San Francisco Bay Area)?Most with Web sites used their site to provide information about the company and to market services. In addition, about one-third marketed property from their site, providing detailed information on the characteristics of buildings available, surrounding communities, and other related data. Other Web site uses include employee recruiting, providing information formembers or investors, and disseminating related information on topics such as regulations or real estate markets.What does the Web specifically do for Real Estate?According to Activemedia, an internet research company, some of the sectors experiencing the greatest growth in terms of their presence on the Web in 1998 were computer hardware and software, real estate, publishing and information, finance and Internet services. A significant initial motivation for this rush for the Web is provided by, what can be termed, the "tiptoe" effect. The first ones on the Web had an additional advantage over those who did not; information on their services, products, home listings now be accessed conveniently by those with computers. The low setup cost, however, and the potential disadvantage of not having a Web presence has propelled others in the profession to set up their own sites.Real estate shares in some of the basic advantages of the Web mentioned earlier, such as ease of marketing, communication and feedback from clients, lowered costs of operations and convenience of customer service and support. In addition, the Web provides positive features specific to the real estate industry.Key elements include the following.1.Increased geographic reach.The Web has dramatically increased the geographic reach of both buyers and sellers. Although the "local" aspect of real estate will perhaps never be whittled away completely, there is no doubt that inquiries about properties can now emanate from far away to a much greater degree than before. This, in turn, potentially increases the size and "depth" of the market and makes it more efficient.2.Capability of visualization.In some sense, increased geographic reach has become possible due tothe other emergent feature of the Web, the capability of visualization. In its most state-of-the-art form, Web sites now allow prospective buyers to take virtual tours of homes, resorts, hotels and convention centers.3.Reduced transaction costs.The Web may reduce transactions costs. This has been particularly apparent in the case of mortgages. According to Fannie Mae, 1.5% of all mortgages were handled online this past year. The Web-attributable features that make this kind of a transaction possible are instantaneous comparability, interactive capability, online calculation, online applications, and continuous updating of the sites.4.Improved information dissemination.The Web offers broad opportunities for increasing the scope and depth of information provided by many different types of firms. A well constructed home page gives an overview of a firm's range of services or activities. Links allow the customer or client to learn much more detail about the selected items of most interest, while ignoring less relevant pieces of information. A number of sites take advantage of the ability to link to resources beyond the company's Web pages, linking customers and clients to related Web resources.Unlike retail sectors, such as books and computer hardware, the Web as yet has not become a threat to the "middle man" role of many real estate firms. Instead, it is more likely to be used as a means of expanding services offered or locations served. However, in the long term, the Web and related Internet technology have the potential to change the structure of business activity, which in turn will affect the demand for real estate in type if not in quantity. For example, some retailers already have closed stores while expanding sales on the Web. Also, the Internet has been seen as one factor allowing the decentralization of office space. These trends to date have notled to a decline, but rather to a redistribution in the demand for office, retail and warehouse space.These are summarized .Speculation on Potential Impact of Internet on Real Estate Industry.1.Shortening of Transaction Cycle2.Precise Market Targeting3.Transformed Competition4.Cost savings:a)Marketing,b)Sales,c)Operation5.Possibility of Disintermediation;Lowering of Commissionsbination of Comparison Shopping and Direct Sales7.Access to MBS Secondary MarketHow to Find the Real Estate Sector on the WebThere are a few key sites that can be used to access the broad range of real-estate related Web sites. These include:-Site sponsored by the National Association of Realtors, linking users to realtor, home sales and market information.-Site sponsored by the National Association of Home Builders, providing a wide range of market information.-Directory to commercial real estate sites, including brokers,developers, investors and analysts. and , two sites that provide users with information about mortgage rates, mortgage brokers and with the opportunity to submit an application online. (National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts) and (Real Estate Investment Advisory Council), two associations related to real estate investment trusts.-The California Association of Realtors site.the site for the Urban Land Institute, with information onthe organization, programs, conferences, and publications related to real estate and land use. has three online magazines including National Real Estate Investor, Shopping Center World, and Midwest Real Estate News. An additional real estate online magazine, can available at .Ashok Deo BardhanRESEARCH FELLOWCynthia A. KrollREGIONAL ECONOMIST互联网在房地产业的应用摘要：互联网，仅仅它的网页图形版本，就已经吸引了众多消费者和商家的目光。

工程管理论文中英文资料对照外文翻译The Internet is Applicated in Real EstateThe Real Estate Industry and the World Wide Web: Changing Technology, Changing Location.The Internet, in its Web based graphics version, has captured the imagination of both consumers and businesses. Its convenience, speed, low cost and versatility are being exploited on a daily basis in ever-changing ways. Together with its capacity to transform existing businesses, promote new businesses and facilitate exchange of information and data, its other striking attribute has been the speed with which this new technology has spread throughout the global economy.Keywords:The internet;Real Estate;ApplicatedThe number of computer hosts grew by more than ten-fold between 1995 and early 1999. The number of Web sites increased almost 100-fold, to over two million, between 1995 and 1998.Ｂy the year 2000, there will be approximately 400-500 million Internet users in the world, and the total number of Web sites will exceed five million.This new technology has the potential for affecting the real estate industry directly and indirectly. Directly, it may become a tool that allows a real estate business to expand its information and sales network. Indirectly, it may change the location equation where and how firms do business which in turn will affect the role of firms involved in real estate development, investment and transactions.Measuring the Spread of the WebThere are few reliable published statistics on Internet or Web use, and statistics reported by different analysts are often inconsistent. Our discussion of the Web and real estate is based on limited information from surveys and on examination of Web sites rather than on more comprehensive data. We have built our overview of the role of the World Wide Web and real estate by examining a variety of sources(including trade publications, existing Web sites, and our own survey of selected real estate firms)From E-mail to E-commerceBefore the advent of the World Wide Web, the Internet existed mostly for the purposes of e-mail, data transfers, newsgroups and bulletin boards, and its reach was limited primarily to the academic and the defense community. The technology itself was not particularly user-friendly, the network speed was not very high, the medium was limited to text and data, and accessing information was cumbersome and time-consuming. The browser technology greatly simplified usage, enabled multimedia information, and created interactive possibilities. The technology brought together TV entertainment, library information, news bulletins, communication and data in one desktop machine.Although initially the greatest patrons of the Internet were the academic community, the commercial sector quickly caught on to the potential of the Web. The private sector saw in the Web an opportunity to widen its marketing reach, lower costs of information dissemination, improve customer relations, and ultimately to conduct sales. Existing private sector Web sites can be roughly categorized into three types, as summarized. The most basic level is for simple information dissemination. The firm registers a Web site and develops a page giving basic company information. The second stage is an expansion of information, marketing goods and services or providing other customer information. The third stage is the addition of transactions tothe activities possible on the Web site.Most business sites at present are in Stage 2. The use of the World Wide Web for detailed information dissemination, and marketing has had several advantages. For the firm, marketing, information dissemination and customer services on the Web can be monitored and analyzed with some details unavailable from conventional methods of marketing using other media. Internet tools can now provide a firm with data on who accessed the site, which pages were visited most, heavily, from where and for how long. This information contributes to improved measures of the results of promotional efforts. The promotional costs associated with the Internet have also been very low. For example, in direct mail marketing, to send a one-page color brochure to 5,000 random addresses will cost upwards of $2,500. The cost of setting up a Web site could be one-tenth of this amount or less (although tracking and analysis can quickly add to the cost)?Many different sectors, including real estate, have found the Internet to be both efficient and cost-effective as a marketing device.The next logical step - a full-fledged office/store on the Web with transaction capability and commerce on the Internet is now being attempted in varying degrees depending on the firm's area of business. Retail sites selling products between $10 and $100, the kind that are traditionally part of a direct mail sales catalog, seem to be the ones having the greatest success(although 4% of sites sell products over $10,000 and another 13% sell products ranging from $100 to$9,999)?A number of retail sites have also harnessed a secondary revenue stream from advertising. Advertising revenues on the Web have crossed the billion-dollar mark and total Internet generated revenue will approach$100 billion this year.Consumers' Use of the WebSurveys of consumers using the Web suggest that a Web site does notsubstitute for the more traditional forms of business, but can greatly facilitate the run-up to the final transaction. The most common use of the Web is for information searching, closely followed by work-related uses, education, and entertainment. A significant majority of those that use the Web for shopping do so to carry out detailed research on product information（90%）and to do price comparisons（85%）. This more often leads to purchases through normal channels（67%）. Most of the online purchases tend to be of items that are standardized-four of the five top items bought on the Web, according to survey, are software, books, hardware and music (the fifth is travel). More than half of consumers who make purchases on the Web spend less than $500 in a six-month period.The demographics of Web users vary widely in age and income. Surveys by Georgia Tech, Active Media and Web indicate that the average age of Web users is 35 years, with average household income $67,000. Most are college educated (65%). A high proportion of the respondents (42%) has accessed real estate sites.Limits to the Web - Some "Catches" to the New Technology New technology is frequently a mixed blessing, and the World Wide Web is no exception. Apart from the teething troubles that any new technology faces and the time, as well as resources needed to learn, adapt and master it, the Web poses some unique issues and problems of its own. Consumers today are facing information overload of taxing proportions. It is not always easy, or even possible, to locate the relevant information on the Web, despite sophisticated search engines. Once the site is located, fancy graphics, complex linkages, labyrinthine routings, and a lot of irrelevant information may overwhelm the consumer - in short, poor and confusing site design can reduce the site's effectiveness.From the point of view of the business, there are two commonly heardcomplaints. First, the business may find that its site does not figure prominently on search results, limiting the number of customers reached. Second, for many firms, Web initiated leads are as yet few and far between. Real Estate Web SitesReal Estate firms and related businesses were among the early private sector pioneers of Internet use and have had a fast growing presence on the Web. presence on the Web. One example of the real estate sector's presence on the Internet in its pre-World Wide Web incarnation was the real estate classified bulletin board of Prodigy, the online service, which had listings for homes and other real estate. A few real estate related Web sites started in 1994 (generally regarded as the inaugural year of the Web). The New York City Real Estate Guide Web site, created in the summer of 1994, was one of the first to offer free access to the latest New York real estate information. By the summer of 1995, the site was receiving more than 100,000 inquiries a month.The real estate industry registered its entry on the Web in a dramatic way in 1995. By the end of that year there were close to 4,000 real estate Web sites. The content matter of the sites, as well as the mix of real estate related firms on the Web have changed over time. Initially, quite a few of the sites were residential real estate brokerages and listing guides, but fairly rapidly the list expanded to include commercial and retail listings, mortgage brokers,appraisers, architects, real estate attorneys, developers, construction firms, and suppliers. As investment vehicles for real estate expanded, REITs, publicly held firms, and investment advisors also added Web sites.The early real estate broker Web sites quickly took advantage of the unique features of the Web. Prospective customers could find out what properties were for sale or rent, look up detailed descriptions of each listing, view photographs and floor plans, and contact the broker by e-mail. Viewerscould also look up statistical and data reports on conditions in various geographical areas and on emerging macroeconomic trends.Ever since then, the real estate industry has been among the most enthusiastic users of the Web, by some measures accounting for 4% to 6% of commercial Web sites. A survey conducted by Real Estate Broker's Insider in early 1998 confirmed that nearly 95% of the respondents/brokers had a Web site, and more than 90% of the housing stock on sale at a given time is now listed on the Web. Indeed, because of the dispersed, localized nature of the role of information in real estate, the prospective gains from information dissemination, comparability, and Web links were particularly significant in real estate.For much of the real estate sector, the Internet generates not so much the actual transactions themselves, but creates initial leads that are later followed by transactions, purchases and sales. Web sites frequently lead to contacts that are then nurtured through telephone and person-to-person meetings. For residential real estate, Web activity includes residential searches, housing details, and pricing information (both on houses and mortgages), with follow-up contact with brokers. Real estate-related transactions are seen in the hospitality industry (making reservations for hotels and vacation homes and in online mortgage applications). Mortgage and home loan finance companies report both inquiries from mortgage shoppers who obtained initial information from their Web sites, as well as closing of loans through the Web, lead to great savings in time and overhead costs.It is not just the real estate professionals who are enthusiastic about their Internet presence, judging it to be as effective as print and radio advertising. Mortgage shoppers, homebuyers and vacation rental seekers as well applaud, in particular, the convenience it brings to the entire process of searching, researching, comparing, communicating and transacting business.Beyond these sectors, many other types of real-estate related firms are using the Web to broaden their market areas, increase the depth of their marketing, and to provide a range of services to existing customers. Commercial brokers provide not only information on available sites but also on market conditions for different locations and sometimes more in-depth economic analysis of a region. REITs and other investment firms provide detailed information on their products as well as background market or economic information. Public companies provide up-to-date stock quotes and quarterly and annual reports on the Web.Web Penetration and Use: The Experience of Leading Real Estate Firms We conducted a limited survey of a sample of leading real-estate related firms in the US and California. Responses from approximately 60 of these firms showed that over four-fifths had Web Sites by March 1999. 2 Of those with Web sites, one-third had inaugurated their sites by the end of 1996. Among the earliest with a Web presence were brokers, investment firms, lenders, business and financial services firms, law firms, residential developers, and a trade organization. Another third of the group were newcomers, with sites inaugurated in 1998 or early 1999. Commercial developers were prominent among this group, with residential developers, consultants and advisors, lenders, REITs and investment firms also among this group. Those without sites were more likely to be privately held firms with a relatively narrow base of activity (for example, a commercial developer centered in the San Francisco Bay Area)?Most with Web sites used their site to provide information about the company and to market services. In addition, about one-third marketed property from their site, providing detailed information on the characteristics of buildings available, surrounding communities, and other related data. Other Web site uses include employee recruiting, providing information formembers or investors, and disseminating related information on topics such as regulations or real estate markets.What does the Web specifically do for Real Estate?According to Activemedia, an internet research company, some of the sectors experiencing the greatest growth in terms of their presence on the Web in 1998 were computer hardware and software, real estate, publishing and information, finance and Internet services. A significant initial motivation for this rush for the Web is provided by, what can be termed, the "tiptoe" effect. The first ones on the Web had an additional advantage over those who did not; information on their services, products, home listings now be accessed conveniently by those with computers. The low setup cost, however, and the potential disadvantage of not having a Web presence has propelled others in the profession to set up their own sites.Real estate shares in some of the basic advantages of the Web mentioned earlier, such as ease of marketing, communication and feedback from clients, lowered costs of operations and convenience of customer service and support. In addition, the Web provides positive features specific to the real estate industry.Key elements include the following.1.Increased geographic reach.The Web has dramatically increased the geographic reach of both buyers and sellers. Although the "local" aspect of real estate will perhaps never be whittled away completely, there is no doubt that inquiries about properties can now emanate from far away to a much greater degree than before. This, in turn, potentially increases the size and "depth" of the market and makes it more efficient.2.Capability of visualization.In some sense, increased geographic reach has become possible due tothe other emergent feature of the Web, the capability of visualization. In its most state-of-the-art form, Web sites now allow prospective buyers to take virtual tours of homes, resorts, hotels and convention centers.3.Reduced transaction costs.The Web may reduce transactions costs. This has been particularly apparent in the case of mortgages. According to Fannie Mae, 1.5% of all mortgages were handled online this past year. The Web-attributable features that make this kind of a transaction possible are instantaneous comparability, interactive capability, online calculation, online applications, and continuous updating of the sites.4.Improved information dissemination.The Web offers broad opportunities for increasing the scope and depth of information provided by many different types of firms. A well constructed home page gives an overview of a firm's range of services or activities. Links allow the customer or client to learn much more detail about the selected items of most interest, while ignoring less relevant pieces of information. A number of sites take advantage of the ability to link to resources beyond the company's Web pages, linking customers and clients to related Web resources.Unlike retail sectors, such as books and computer hardware, the Web as yet has not become a threat to the "middle man" role of many real estate firms. Instead, it is more likely to be used as a means of expanding services offered or locations served. However, in the long term, the Web and related Internet technology have the potential to change the structure of business activity, which in turn will affect the demand for real estate in type if not in quantity. For example, some retailers already have closed stores while expanding sales on the Web. Also, the Internet has been seen as one factor allowing the decentralization of office space. These trends to date have notled to a decline, but rather to a redistribution in the demand for office, retail and warehouse space.These are summarized .Speculation on Potential Impact of Internet on Real Estate Industry.1.Shortening of Transaction Cycle2.Precise Market Targeting3.Transformed Competition4.Cost savings:a)Marketing,b)Sales,c)Operation5.Possibility of Disintermediation;Lowering of Commissionsbination of Comparison Shopping and Direct Sales7.Access to MBS Secondary MarketHow to Find the Real Estate Sector on the WebThere are a few key sites that can be used to access the broad range of real-estate related Web sites. These include:-Site sponsored by the National Association of Realtors, linking users to realtor, home sales and market information.-Site sponsored by the National Association of Home Builders, providing a wide range of market information.-Directory to commercial real estate sites, including brokers,developers, investors and analysts. and , two sites that provide users with information about mortgage rates, mortgage brokers and with the opportunity to submit an application online. (National Association of Real Estate Investment Trusts) and (Real Estate Investment Advisory Council), two associations related to real estate investment trusts.-The California Association of Realtors site.the site for the Urban Land Institute, with information onthe organization, programs, conferences, and publications related to real estate and land use. has three online magazines including National Real Estate Investor, Shopping Center World, and Midwest Real Estate News. An additional real estate online magazine, can available at .Ashok Deo BardhanRESEARCH FELLOWCynthia A. KrollREGIONAL ECONOMIST互联网在房地产业的应用摘要：互联网，仅仅它的网页图形版本，就已经吸引了众多消费者和商家的目光。

第 2 章项目生命周期与组织项目与项目管理都是在比项目本身更大的环境中进行的。

理解这个大环境，有助于确保项目的执行符合企业目标，项目的管理符合组织既有的实践方法论。

本章将介绍项目的基本结构和其他重要的宏观事项，包括项目如何影响持续性的运营，直接项目团队以外的干系人如何影响项目，以及组织结构如何影响项目的人员配备、管理和执行。

本章包括以下主要部分：2.1 项目生命周期——概述2.2 项目与运营2.3 项目干系人2.4 组织对项目管理的影响2.1 项目生命周期——概述项目生命周期是通常按顺序排列而有时又相互交叉的各项目阶段的集合。

阶段名称和数量取决于参与项目的一个或多个组织的管理与控制需要、项目本身的特征及其所在的应用领域。

生命周期可以用某种方法加以确定和记录。

可以根据所在组织或行业的特性，或者所用技术的特性，来确定或调整项目生命周期。

虽然每个项目都有明确的起点和终点，但其具体的可交付成果以及项目期间的活动会因项目的不同而有很大差异。

无论项目涉及什么具体工作，生命周期都能为管理项目提供基本框架。

2.1.1 项目生命周期的特征项目的规模和复杂性各不相同，但不论其大小繁简，所有项目都呈现下列生命周期结构（见图 2-1）：图 2-1 项目生命周期中典型的成本与人力投入水平通用的生命周期结构通常具有以下特征：成本与人力投入在开始时较低，在工作执行期间达到最高，并在项目快要结束时迅速回落。

这种典型的走势如图 2-1 中的虚线所示。

干系人的影响力、项目的风险与不确定性在项目开始时最大，并在项目的整个生命周期中随时间推移而递减（见图 2-2）。

在不显著影响成本的前提下，改变项目产品最终特性的能力在项目开始时最大，并随项目进展而减弱。

图 2-2 表明，变更和纠正错误的代价在项目接近完成时通常会显著增高。

在通用生命周期结构的指导下，项目经理可以决定对某些可交付成果施加更有力的控制。

大型复杂项目尤其需要这种特别的控制。

Concrete Construction matterT. Pauly, M. J. N. PriestleyAbstractViewed in terms of accepted practices, concrete construction operations leave much to be desired with respect to the quality, serviceability, and safety of completed structures. The shortcomings of these operations became abundantly clear when a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck northern Paki-stan on October 8, 2005, destroying thousands of buildings, damaging bridges, and killing an esti-mated 79,000 people. The unusually low quality of construction operations prevalent was a major cause of the immense devastation.Keywords: Concrete Placing Curing Construction TechnologyPlacing ConcreteIf concrete is placed in the surface, the sur-face should be filled with water sufficiently to prevent it from absorbing the concrete of its water. If fresh concrete is to be placed on or nearby to concrete that has solidified, the surface of the placed concrete should be cleaned absolutely, preferably with a high-pressure air or water jet or steel-wire brushes. The surface should be wet, but there should be no much water. A little quantity of cement grout should be brushed over the whole area, and then followed immediately with the application of a 1/2-in Layer of mortar. The fresh concrete should be placed on or against the mortar.In order to decrease the disintegration re-sulting from carriage after it is placed. The con-crete should be placed as nearly as probably in itsfinal point. It should be placed in layers to permit uniform compaction. The time interval between the placing of layers should be limited to assure perfect bond between the fresh and previously placed concrete.In placing concrete in deeper patters, a ves-sel should be used to limit the free fall to not over 3 or 4 ft, in order to prevent concrete disintegra-tion. The vessel is a pipe made of lightweight metal, having adjustable lengths and attached to the bottom of a hopper into which the concrete is deposited. As the patters are filled, sections of the pipe may be removed.Immediately after the concrete is placed, it should be compacted by hand pudding or a me-chanical vibrator to eliminate voids. The vibrator should be left in one position only long enough to reduce the concrete around it to a plastic mass; then the vibrator should be moved, or disintegra-tion of the aggregate will occur. In general, the vibrator should not be permitted to penetrate concrete in the prior lift.The mainly advantage of vibrating is that it permits the use of a drier concrete, which has a higher strength because of the reduced water content. Among the advantages of vibrating con-crete are the following:1.The decreased water permits a reduction in the cement and fine aggregate because less cement paste is needed.2.The lower water content decreases shrinkage and voids.3.The drier concrete decreases the cost of finishing the surface.4.Mechanical vibration may replace three to eight hand puddles.5.The lower water content increases the strength of the concrete.6.The drier mixture permits theremoval of some patters more quickly, which may reduce the cost of patters.Curing ConcreteIf concrete is to gain its maximum strength and other desirable properties, it should be cured with adequate moisture and at a favorable tem-perature. Failure to provide these conditions may result in an inferior concrete.The initial moisture in concrete is adequate to hydrate all the cement, provided it is not should replace the moisture that does evaporate. This may be accomplished by many methods, such as leaving the patters in place, keeping the surface wet, or covering the surface with a liquid curing compound, which comes being to a water-tight membrane that prevents the escape of the initial water. Curing compounds may be applied by brushes or pressure sprayers. A gallon will cover 200 to 300 sq ft.Concrete should be placed at a temperature not less than 40 or more than 80°F.A lower tem-perature will decrease the rate of setting, while ahigher temperature will decrease the ultimate strength.Placing Concrete in Cold WeatherWhen the concrete is placed during cold weather, it is usually necessary to preheat the water, the aggregate, or both in order that the ini-tial temperature will assure an initial set and gain in strength .Preheating the water is the most ef-fective method of providing the necessary tem-perature. For this purpose a water reservoir should be equipped with pipe coils through which steam can be passed, or steam may bedischarged directly into the water, several outlets being used to given better distribution of the heat.When the temperatures of the mixtures are known, some specific charts may be used to cal-culate the temperature of concrete. A straight line pass all three scales, passing through every two known temperatures, will assure the determina-tion of the third temperature. If the surface of sand isdry, the fact lines of the scales giving the temperature of concrete should be used. However, if the sand contains about 3 percent moisture, the dotted lines should be used.Specifications usually demand that freshly placed concrete shall be kept at a temperature of not less than 70°F for 3 days or 50°F for 5 days after it is placed. Some proper method must be provided to keep the demanded temperature when the cold weather is estimated.Reinforcing steels for concreteCompared with concrete, steel is a high strength material. The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing steels in tension as well as compres-sion, i.e., the yield strength, is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural con-crete, and well over 100 times its tensile strength. On the other hand, steel is a high-cost material compared with concrete. It follow that the two materials are the best used in combination if theconcrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and the compressive force, longitudinal steel reinforcing bars are located close to the ten-sion face to resist the tension force., and usually additional steel bars are so disposed that they re-sist the inclined tension stresses that are caused by the shear force in the beams. However, rein-forcement is also used for resisting compressive forces primarily where it is desired to reduce the cross-sectional dimensions of compression members, as in the lower-floor columns of multi-story buildings. Even if no such necessity exits , a minimum amount of reinforce- ment is placed in all compression members to safeguard them against the effects of small accidental bending moments that might crack and even fail an unre-inforced member.For most effective reinforcing action, it is essential that steel and concrete deform together, i. e., that there be a sufficiently strong bond be-tween the two materials to ensure that no relative movements of the steel bars and the surrounding concrete occur. This bond is provided by the rela-tively large chemical adhesion which develops at the steel-concrete interface, by the natural roughness of the mill scale of hot-rolled rein-forcing bars , and by the closely spaced rib-shap-ed surface deformations with which reinforcing bars are furnished in order to provide a high de-gree of interlocking of the two materials.Steel is used in two different ways in con-crete structures: as reinforcing steel and as prestressing steel .reinforcing steel is placed in the forms prior to casting of the concrete. Stresses in the steel, as in the hardened concrete, are caused only by the loads on the structure, except for possible parasitic stresses from shrinkage or similar causes. In contrast, in priestesses concrete structures large tension forces are applied to the reinforcement prior to letting it act jointly with the concrete in resistingexternal.The most common type of reinforcing steel is in the form of round bars, sometimes called rebars, available in a large range of diameters,from 10 to 35 mm for ordinary applications and in two heavy bar sizes off 44 and 57 mm these bars are furnished with surface deformations for the purpose of increasing resistance to slip be-tween steel and concrete minimum requirements for these deformations have been developed in experimental research. Different bar producers use different patterns, all of which satisfy these requirements.Welding of rebars in making splices, or for convenience in fabricating reinforcing cages for placement in the forms, may result in metal-lurgical changes that reduce both strength and ductility, and special restrictions must be placed both strength and ductility, and special restric-tions must be placed both on the type of steel used and the welding procedures the provisions of ASTM A706 relatespecifically to welding.In reinforced concrete a long-time trend is evident toward the use of higher strength materi-als, both steel and concrete.Reinforcing bars with 40ksi yield stress , almost standard 20 years ago , have largely been replaced by bars with 60ksi yield stress , both because they are more economical and because their use tends to reduce congestion of steel in the forms .The ACI Code permits reinforcing steels up to Fy=80ksi. Such high strength steels usually yield gradually but have no yield plateau in this situation the ACI Code requires that at the speci-fied minimum yield strength the total strain shall not exceed 0.0035 this is necessary to make cur-rent design methods, which were developed for sharp-yielding steels with a yield plateau, appli-cable to such higher strength steels. there is no ASTM specification for deformed bars may be used , according to the ACI Code , providing they meet the requirements stated under special circumstances steel in this higher strength range has its place, e.g., in lower-story columns of high-rise buildings.In order to minimize corrosion of rein-forcement and consequent spelling of concrete under sever exposure conditions such as in bridge decks subjected to deicing chemicals , galvanized or epoxy-coated rebars may be specified.Repair of Concrete StructuresReinforced concrete is generally a very du-rable structural material and very little repair work is usually needed. However, its durability can be affected by a variety of causes, including those of design and construction faults, use of inferior materials and exposure to aggressive en-vironment. The need for a repair is primarily dic-tated by the severity of the deterioration as de-termined from the diagnosis. Good workmanship is essential if any thing more than just a cosmetic treatment to the creation is required.1. performance requirements of repair systemHaving established the causes of the defect by carefully diagnosing the distress, the next step should be to consider the requirements of the re-pair method that will offer an effective solution to the problem (see fig.).①DurabilityIt is important to select repair materials that provide adequate durability. Materials used for the repair job should be at least as durable as the substrate concrete to which it is applied.②Protection of steelThe mechanism of protection provided to the reinforcing depends on the type of repair ma-terials used. For example, cementations materials can protect the steel from further corrosion by their inhibitive effect of increasing the alkalinity of the concrete, whereas epoxy resin mortars can give protection against the ingress of oxygen,moisture and other harmful agents.③Bond with substrateThe bond with the substrate must produce an integral repair to prevent entry of moisture and atmospheric gases at the interface. With most re-pair materials, the bond is greatly enhanced with the use of a suitable bonding aid such as an un-filled epoxy resin systems and slurry of Portland cement, plus any latex additives for a Portland cement-based repair system. Precautions should also be takento remove all loose and friable ma-terials from the surfaces to be bonded.④Dimensional StabilityShrinkage of materials during curing should be kept to a minimum. Subsequent dimensional change should be very close in the substrate in order to prevent failure⑤Initial Resistance to Environmentally In-duced DamageSome initial exposure conditions may lead to premature damage lo repairs. For example, partially cured Portland cement repairs can dete-riorate from hot weather preventing full hydration of the cement. To prevent this from happening extra protection during curing time may be nec-essary.⑥Ease of ApplicationMaterials should be easily mixed and ap-plied so that they can be worked readily into small crevices and voids. Ideally, the material should not stick to tools, and should not shear while being trowel led nor slump after placement.⑦AppearanceThe degree to which the repair material should match the existing concrete will depend on the use of the structure and the client' s re-quirements. A surface coating may be required when appearance is important or when cover to reinforcement is small.2. Selection of Repair MethodsA suitable repair counteracts all the defi-ciencies which are relevant to the use of the structure.The selection of tile correct method and material for a particular, application requires careful consideration, whether to meet special requirements for placing strength, durability or other short-or long-term properties. These con-siderations include:1. Nature of the DistressIf alive crack is filled with a rigid material, then either the repair material will eventually fail or some new cracking will occur adjacent to the original crack. Repairs to live cracks must either use flexible materials to accommodate move-ments or else steps must be taken prior to the re-pair to eliminate the movement.2. Position of the CrackTechniques which rely on gravity to intro-duce the material into the crack are more suc-cessfully carried out on horizontal surfaces but are rarely effective on vertical ones.3. EnvironmentIf moisture, water or contaminants are found in the crack, then it is necessary to rectify the leaks Repair to slop leaks may be further com-plicated by the need to make the repairs while the structure is in service and the environment is damp.4. WorkmanshipThe skill the operatives available to carry put the repairs is another relevant factors. Some-times this can mean the difference between a permanent repair and premature failure of the re-pair material.5. CostThe cost of repair materials is usually small compared with the costs of providing access, preparation and actual labor.6. AppearanceThe repair surface may be unsightly, par-ticularly when it appears on a prominent part of the building. In this case, the repair system will include some form of treatment over the entire surface.Reference[1]Philip Jodidio, Contemporary European Architecture, Taschen, Koln, pp.148-153[2]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, Waterfronts, McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, 1994, pp.297-300[3]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.118-120[4]Ann Breen & Dick Rigby, The New Waterfront, Thames and Hudson, London, 1996, pp.52-55[5]Robert Holden, International Landscape Design, Laurence King Publishing, London, 1996, pp.10-27[6] A new concept in refrigerant control for heat pumps ,J.R.Harnish,IIR Conference Pa-per,Cleveland,Ohio.May,1996[7]Carrier Corporation-Catalog 523 848,1997[8]Waste Heat Management Handbook, Na-tional Bureau of Standardc Handbook 121, Pub-lica-tion PB 264959, February,1997Ten design principles for air to air heat pumps,Allen Trask,ASHRAE Journal,July,1997重庆科技学院学生毕业设计（论文）外文译文学院建建筑工程学院专业班级工管103学生姓名李学号201044241附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土施工事项T.Pauly, M.J.N.Priestley摘要：根据一般承认的惯例看,巴基斯坦的混凝土结构建筑物在结构上的质量，效用和安全需要上都留下了很多值得关注的问题。

中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The significance of control construction costs manages on entireprocessFirst, The necessary of control construction costs manages on entire process Talk about the management and the control on construction costs, that the field we are just accustomed to is thought of is a project advance in final account. Indeed , right away at present system and reality,what the job of that the management and the control on construction costs is advance in final account. Be that in advance, the people who work on final account according that already be ascertaied of the working drawing to calculate project amounts，apply a quota mechanically, the meter mechanically fetching cost, or designing that according to the drawing sheet and construction organization after construction is over as well as the scene construction visa takes notes weaves the final account being completed. This is necessary , useful no doubt. But we must see that when pre-final accounts personnel weave working drawing budget or the final account being completed, the construction plan and thedesign paper already determined. But construction being to take according to picture as principle, so then in advance, job done by final account personnel is only the change secretly scheming against cost produced by design alteration and prevents upvaluation from calculating boldly. But suppose the project is unreasonable on economy, there is a fault in decision-making; suppose designing a scheme feasible or be not optimum on the technology; the final account personnel can do nothing for sb then in advance. Job of final account personnel does accounts in advance only under just saying system currently in effect, after the event , can only reflect already complete project amounts inactively , can only reflect design and be under construction passively. This evidently is single-faceted , insufficient , we must carry out the entire proceeding supervisory control on the construction costs of building a project.Concrete conditions of union our country, cost of construction manages have problems as follows:1、Be not enough to take investment decision into the stage of construction costs seriously charge indeed.Investment decision is to produce the construction costs headstream, This one stage blow the expense at take up the total investment forehead about 0.5%～3%,but that can have an effect to raise the project benefit of investment. That the project carries out rational choice on construction is that resource carries out direct , the most important optimization deploy means on economy , project benefit of investment affects efficiency and beneficial result to entire national economy. The developed country charges attach importance to control on investment decision stage construction costs,and costs not stinting big capital of money making the studies on the stage of carrying out investment decision energetically, make relatively comparatively accurate construction costs , go along the controlFor a long time, there is the grave phenomenon investing in swelling in engineering construction of our country,bring the limit for a project feeling longer and longer, construction costs is higher and higher. The cause of that is short of the effective basis of the building of earlier stage ascertaining construction costs, only basis the already completed according to the expert , decision-makers draw lessons to estimate the project construction costs. Because a lot of factor effects, the“three surpass " phenomenon very common, there are main cause as follows:(1) personal factor brings about rough estimate lessening(2) equipment composes in reply material price's not working out according to market quotations.(3) construction units bring forward the too high for exceeding a design criterion 2、The design stage of construction costs is not under the control of strictThe design stage is the faucet in that project construction costs controls. After the investment decision is be made rationally , that is the process of plan the technology and organic together economly . Effective control the cost of construction requires strictly and all-round in the enginee designing . Engineering design of current our country also puts move bidding system , fair competition into practice , cost of construction looks on control engineering effective to design stage as one of thestandard choosing main part being hit by the bid unit , cost of construction carries out the administration controlling on the entire proceeding .Our country major part design that the unit carries out thorough analysis lack on construction project technology and economy , big multiple technologies make light of economy in design but at present , design that the personnel is responsible seemingly only to design project mass , are concerned with the construction costs height not very. Optimize a design plan to such an extent as having no way to pass, the first step designs , the rough estimate gets to the effect controlling general cost of construction's establishment. Mass and depth that engineering design pursues etc. is also insufficient , amounts project mistakes in amounts project detailed lists calculates , misses and not calculating, can't arouse increasing by estimating a project momentary, the mass making a tender work is difficult to ensure that , have no way to have an effect to control construction costs asa result also.3、Has not adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being applied or used universally on the international all roundAdopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international , is that our country construction costs system reforms and cause the inevitable trend reforming to bid system in invitation to bid tender.One of important act carrying out project public bidding system being to build socialist market economy and to perfect construction market operating mechanism in construction field. After the construction project tender is carried out all round in our country, the effect is obvious in the respect of shortening the mass building a time limit for a project , ensuring a project , reducing construction costs , boycotting an unhealthy tendency. Have ensured the invitation to bid people and bidder's lawful rights and interests also effectively. With the socialist market economy uninterrupted growth,the original tender stage puts the budget quota valuation pattern into practice already doing not adapting , adopt the amounts project detailed list quoted price way being put into use commonly on the international to carry out a tender is an inevitable trend. Ministry of Construction has issued amounts project detailed list valuation method , amounts project detailed list valuation has been in construction project tender job , person has provided project quantity from invitation to bid according to national unification project amounts calculation regulation , quoted price, and classics have judged the reason bidder autonomously trying the at a low price middle bid construction costs valuation pattern.That carrying out amounts project detailed list valuation method is one important measure of item of construction costs deepen the reform, is standard tender behavior effective measure. This method is beneficial to changing over taking that "amounts" ", "price" are "quota-consuming" as dominant static state managing a pattern , make project amounts in detailed list not enter competition, competition being confined to price only; Beneficial to rightness appraises enterprise strength; Project mass beneficial to ensuring that, reduces construction costs; May cut down the physical labour complicated and overloaded repeating the amounts calculating a project; Facilitate the tender quoted price job; Argue with the dispute back and forth in cutting down project settlement; Receive a track step by step with the convention "controllingamounts , guiding price , competing for a fee's on" the international, deepen the reformation that project valuation manages mainly according to the marketplace changes development, taking one's place on the international market for our country contracts business creates condition.4、The stage being under construction controls lack to construction costsWant to have strict control design alteration too in the stage being under construction. Guard the pass though that working drawing appears in joint trial or are able to have all sorts of problems, but call for to design a branch in the process of construction hard to avoid is strict out of the construction works complexity, the situation changing after avoiding doing first, is also that the weight avoiding break a rough estimate , effective control engineering of construction costs cost of construction plays with a link. At the same time, the sharpening contract manages , ensures equality and mutual benefit issuing contract of method and contracting method.5、The construction costs being completed settling a stage's controls a project inefficientlyThat the final account being completed is that entire construction costs is under the control of the most important one is encircled by construction works. How the final account being completed can reflect actual entire project cost of construction honestly , have also reflected the ability issuing contract of method and contracting method to construction costs administration , have finished handling a project in time the final account being completed must collect , arrange settling a data , pursuing , designing the certificate material changing notice , various warning including that the project is completed and so on being completed. These data collecting must pay attention to whose validity with obtaining evidence, specimen seal impression having designing personnel's signature and being related to if the design alteration advice note must be made known to lower levels by plain design organ. Scene inspection and control visa must label seal and the ratification going on a punitive expedition to such that designing a personnel etc. having construction site person in charge of first party. Great majority our country construction projects are completed in the project being under construction when the final account, during the period of the final account being completed contracting method , are are under construction contracting method calculating commonly much in the book being completed winding up an account , are issue contract of haggie just inexhaustible in devices and schemes , are dispute over trifles phenomenon is grave , project settlement drags repeatedly , some confirmation having drug once and , greatly, affecting engineering construction project sigmatism and building construction costs.A construction project includes the following procedure from brewing , planning , designing that to establishing completion and commissioning: Be that the project letter of advice stage , feasibility appraise the stage , design stage , the stage being under construction , acceptance check stage and the queen being completed estimate that.Correspondingly, the construction costs ascertaining that and the project construction phase job look at and appraise the stage adapting to , several being allotted in general for the following: The investment studying stage establishment inthe project letter of advice and feasibility is estimated, design stage establishment designs a rough estimate in the first step, budget designing that the stage weaves working drawing in working drawing, budget builds ampere of construction costs face to face with working drawing for basis tender project engineering contract, price is also that the form ascertains that with the business contract; Project amounts putting stage into practice being going to be completed according to contracting reality in project, takes contract price as basis , considers cost of construction rise aroused by inflation of prices at the same time , considers the project and cost being difficult to estimate that to designing middle but happening in putting stage reality into practice , the example is ascertained estimating price; All-in cost costing in the reality being completed checking and accepting a stage , assembling into engineering construction process middle all round, weaves the final account being completed , embodies the actual cost of construction that a construction project according to the facts."Four guess that two-valence "is interrelated , the former restricts the latter , the latter supplements the former.What is called, build the construction costs administration and control, it is the occurrence contracting the stage and construction in the investment decision stage , design stage , construction project putting stage into practice with construction construction costs to control within the cost of construction quota O. K. , correcting the deviation happening at any time, to ensure that the project manages the target realization , get fairly good benefit of investment and social benefits in an attempt being able to use manpower and material resources, financial resources rationally in building a project one by one.Second, the importance of the investment decision-making stage of project cost controlConstruction projects in the investment decision-making stage, the project of the techno-economic decision-making, as well as the cost of construction projects completed and put into production after the project cost-effective, have a decisive impact on the construction project cost control is an important stage. Project cost management as a decision-making stage in the feasibility study report shall be prepared, and economic evaluation of the proposed project, select the technically feasible and economically the construction of example programs and to optimize the construction program on the basis of the preparation of high-quality items investment is estimated that the project construction so that the real control of the project has played the role of total investment.The impact of the decision-making phase of the project cost are the main factors: a, the determine level of construction standards; b, the choice of built-up areas; c, building location (site) selection; d, project the economic scale; e, technology selection f, equipment selection .Such as the choice of built-up areas, there is a basic principle, that is close to raw materials, fuel and consumer principles. This project completed and put into production, you can avoid the raw materials, fuels, and finished the long-haul transport, reduce costs, lower costs; transportation distance may be shortened to reduce the flow of time, speed up cash flow and is conducive to business. If theproject's economic size, economies of scale, product standard is a reasonable means of production volume, a number of products under certain conditions, was "increasing returns" of economic phenomena, that is, with the expansion of production volume, unit cost reduction, revenue increase.Therefore, in order to phase in the investment decision-making control over project cost effective, we must do a good job in the following areas:(1) the implementation of construction project legal person responsibility system, the construction project from planning to implementation of the whole process of the use of funds and repayment responsibilities to people and projects at the same time establish a system of matching corporate oversight mechanisms, by the competent authorities and supervision of the industry sector establishment of a monitoring group to oversee the use of project funds.(2) to conduct market analysis and seeking truth from facts, to avoid the blindness of the project decision-making, reduce risk and lower investment, give full consideration to construction projects in the future competitiveness of the market so that more scientific book design and reliability(3) Capital financial capital must be committed to a formal document, investment funds must be put in place the parties, there must be a funding document to ensure that projects are implemented on schedule after approval. Conditions of the loans should be carefully analyzed and compared to minimize the interest burden and repayment pressure.(4) Strengthening of engineering geology, hydrogeology, as well as land, water, electricity, transport, environmental protection projects such as the work of the depth of the external conditions, so that there is sufficient basis to estimate the investment. At the same time, extensive research should be to compare similar projects, a serious functional analysis, comparison and choice of multi-program, a full-scale technical feasibility studies and economic evaluation, the finalization of technologically advanced, reliable, economical and rational project construction program in order to estimate more accurate and realistic estimate of the amount of investment in order to make the project cost from the start position in a more reasonable level.Third, the design phase of the importance of project cost controlMake investment decisions in the project, the project cost control is the key to the design. Design is in the technical and economic implementation of the proposed project to conduct a comprehensive arrangement, is also planning the construction process. Technologically advanced, economical and rational design can reduce the project construction period, savings investment, to improve efficiency. According to expert analysis, design fee generally equal to the construction of the project life-cycle cost of less than 1%, which costs less than 1% of project cost accounts for the impact of degrees above 75%. Because of the general construction projects, selection of materials and equipment accounted for more than 50% of the cost of the project, and in the design phase of architectural forms, structural type, the selection of equipment and materials have been identified in the construction of post-implementation phase, the impact of the project cost a small (10 % or less). This shows that the design quality is crucial to the entire projectThe same construction project, the same single unit of work can have different programs, which have different costs, it is therefore necessary to meet the function under the premise of doing a number of options, through technical comparison, economic analysis and efficiency evaluation, selection of technology selection into the application of economic and rational design, that is, the process of design optimization. Often used to optimize the design of the program, also known as the value of value engineering analysis, that is, as far as possible in meeting the functionality or improve the function of the premise, as far as possible to reduce costs.Occurred in the cost of all parts of the application of value engineering, construction investment will require a lot of people, financial, and material, and thus the value of engineering construction works great. For a rather mature and effective management methods, value engineering in a number of works have been widely used in construction.In the engineering design phase correctly handle the technical and economic relationship between the unity of opposites, we can control the key to investment, design and cost management must work closely with staff to make a lot of the technical and economic comparison, in the reduction and control of project efforts, engineering Cost management in the design process should be timely investment analysis on the comparison, the cost of information feedback and dynamic impact on the design, in order to ensure effective control over investment.At the design stage to project cost control should focus on the following aspects.(1) to promote the design and the design of the bidding campaign optimization design approachThe assessment team of experts using scientific methods, in accordance with applicable, economic, aesthetic principles, as well as technologically advanced, well-structured to meet the building energy saving and environmental requirements, a comprehensive assessment of the merits of design, selection of the best in determining the successful program. Estimates of selected investment program in general to be close to the scope of construction projects. The design of these two methods both contract design choice and competition, to ensure selection of the design of technologically advanced, innovative and unique, adaptable, and help control project cost. Design units should strive to improve their own quality, clever engineering design ideas, great care, in order to reduce the project cost more than their brains in order to improve design quality, and strive to put at the design stage in the approval of project cost control within the investment limits.(2) actively pursuing the design limitThe so-called cap design, is in accordance with the approved design of the book and investment is estimated that in the guarantee under the premise of the functional requirements. Preliminary design and budget control, in accordance with the approved budget for the preliminary design and total control of the construction design. Through the ceiling design, every professional, every designer has a target investment limit. During the design process, designers should be more into the program to compare and optimize the design, Not only to ensure that technically advanced and reasonable design, innovative aesthetics, but also the investment limit is not exceededthe target in order to put an end to the design of the project to raise the factor of safety and design standards, or only consider the feasibility of technical solutions, rather than the phenomenon of economic rationality to ensure effective cost control.(3) the implementation of the design of reward and punishment systemIn order to limit the design of the implementation into practice, the limit should be set up and sound system designed to reward and punishment. To limit the design is done well, cost savings and control of investment there is the effectiveness of the project legal person should be given appropriate incentives and design units. Design to limit the development of the internal design of assessment and incentive methods to limit attention to the design, made to save investment and effective cost control offices and the significant achievements of individuals, should be rewarding. Do not attach importance to limit the design, do not take measures to save the investment, resulting in more than a design limit investment offices and individuals should be given to economic penalties. Do reward and encourage designers to design deep potential economic importance to design the control of a reasonable project cost will be a major breakthrough.Fourth、the cost control of the implementation phase of construction project1, the bidding process stageThe implementation of construction project bidding is effective means of construction projects to control the implementation phase of the project cost. If we want To do a good job for bidding, the first we should make sure that qualification is clearance, and resolutely put an end to bribery, such as all the Phenomenon about destruction of all bidding discipline; Secondly, we should strengthen the bid management, to ensure the accuracy and confidentiality of bid preparation; Third, make sure the method of Evaluation and Calibration are Scientific .when select the successful projects as a standard we should concern about the reasonable, short period, reputable companies, construction considerations such as experience. when we evaluation, the first is technical standard assessment, the follow is business assessment,this can ensure open, fair and just.2, the construction phaseIn the construction phase construction ,the goles based on project budget or contract price of Civil works and installation works and project cost control of Civil works and installation works. At this stage the scope for savings has been small, but it is likely to lead to waste,this make us give them adequate attention for the control of project cost.(1) strengthen the technical and economic comparison of construction programConstruction is an important work of the design of constructing orgnization. Reasonable constructing program can shorten the period of constructing, ensure the quality of the project and enhance economic efficiency. Comparing and analysing the constructing program from technical and economic view and comparing the three techno-economic index of the quality, duration and cost through qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis can take good use of manpower, material and financial resources, achieving better economic benefits. Consequently, good construction management is an important way of all-round cost management.(2) a sound system design change Examination and approval systemIf design subject need to be change, we should take action as far as possible in advance, because the sooner the change, the smaller loss; Second, before each design ofchanges we must analysis the quality of project and cost, and this should receive the consent of the original design. If it breakthrough the total project cost estimates after the change, this must be approved by the review of the relevant departments, we should prevent these things happened such as increasing design elements ,improving the design standards, increasing the project cost.(3) check strictly with visa procedures of the project site we should Construct project management system , establish the specialized departments,and through the use of specialized management of professionals for the project, to avoid the phenomenon that project management staff just care visa only, take no concern about the economic accounts, resulting the serious consequences such as investment is out of control.For Seriously changes of visa procedures we should make the building side, supervision side, the construction site together representatives signed a manner to ensure that the authenticity of the visa, the rationality of the economy of changes and to avoid the disputes caused by the phenomenon of fraud.(4) do a good job in the completion of the audit settlement priceClearing refers to the completion of construction enterprises in accordance with the terms of the contract completed by the contractor within the engineering, land quality experience, and in accordance with the contract, the construction units to carry out the final project settlement price. Completion of the project audited settlement is approved in accordance with the construction of the project cost. Therefore, the completion of settlement of the audit is a very important work, should focus on the following:① check the accuracy of the project quantity.the check of project Quantity is the most important and most complicated, the most detailed work in process of the settle of completed project, this must be based on completion of the project plan, changed design and construction of the scene .it strictly in accordance with the provisions of the rules one by one in terms of project review to prevent the units of construction to increase the volume of inflated project cost in the settlement on completion of the project.② examine whether the additional apply is right . check the sub-projects listed in the price in line with the fixed unit price, check whether the name, specification, measurement units and the content consistent with the units of the valuation table; for the unit price of conversion, the first step is to check if the conversion price was fixed allowed, followed check if the conversion price is correct.③ check if the standards for the admission fee In line with the cost of the fixed and the cost of policies and regulations of the project during the construction.Fifth, the thinking and outlook of project cost management system From a long time, we generally ignore the the project cost control of preparatory work for the construction phase, and control projects often focus on the cost of the construction phase - the budget review working drawings and reasonable settlement。

土木工程质量管理毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献nThe success of civil engineering n projects depends on the quality of the work。

Therefore。

it is essential to ritize quality management in the n plan and process of n projects.XXX quality。

it is not XXX。

including engineering design。

n units。

building materials。

n processes。

XXX detail.Note: The original text had many format errors and unclear sentences。

which have been edited for XXX.XXX。

in our country's n industry。

there are still many XXX。

it is XXX。

management experience。

familiarity with policies and ns。

XXX design and process。

The management team can adjust and implement a compulsory system based on the XXX。

exceptfor new technology。

which may require more rule-based management。

However。

for special requests in civil building engineering。

quality management will be arranged to。

XXX usage and design。

本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clientsArchitects and contractorsThrough BIM文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-tectual Management文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：外文文献：Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIMRizal SebastianTNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The NetherlandsAbstractPurpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes. Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.Originality/value– This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planningPaper type General review1. IntroductionHospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complexdue to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management s trategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attemptfor establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problemsin practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility,end-user’s dissatisfaction, and energy inefficiency. It i s evident that the lack of communicationand coordination between the actors involved in the different phases o f a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008).There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite foran effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approachesA hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management o f hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government’s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will beincluded in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist c ontractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindsetof the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor tohave a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. Thed strategy effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also determined by the client’s capacity to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as wellas innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architectsory role instead of being the designer. In this case,can stand at the client’s side in a strategic advithe architect’s responsibility is translating client’s requirements and wishes into the ar values to be included in the design specification, and evaluating the contractor’s p this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequencesin the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect isusually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensivethe building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based onthe complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building,which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium.A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct thebuilding at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extrawork due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor isno longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method,all risks are placed with the client.In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractorhave a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked toa measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certainperiod of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If thebuilding actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client’sextra gain. The level of requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance t o the client’ｓtransparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses a n innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamiclife-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect,as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design untilthe project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply commonvalues and goals.3. Changing roles through BIM applicationBuilding information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support theintegrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation ofphysical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledgeresource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecyclefrom inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates timeand place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration bydifferent stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update ormodify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in itsultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability,can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes furtherthan an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integratedmodel in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actorsthroughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM,the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client’s re and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design processextend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clashdetection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, andas-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communicationbetween the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective andefficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combinationwith the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of thebuilding performance, including the life-cycle cost.To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according tothe type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, b ut his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication protocols, task planning, and risk management;and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification ofcommunication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.way Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPRin a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, incase of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIMwith authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of theIPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the onehand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in thecontract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confirms: ‘This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships orshifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per(ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand,the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments’　changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM willlead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in thedetailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means thatsignificant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the designcost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIMIn The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy,which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy.Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of thechanging roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method anda life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIMstructure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. Thepreceding sections have discussed t he conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the future; andthe roles and tasks of the model manager.The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building actors, and the user participation in design;facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a highconsistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation,and planning;interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and specifications;reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; andoptimising the management o f the facility through the registration of medical installations and equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC optedfor a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. U sing BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much。

外文文献：Project portfolio management –There’s more to it thanwhat management enactsAbstractAlthough companies manage project portfolios concordantly with project portfolio theory, they may experience problems in the form of delayed projects, resource struggles, stress, and a lack of overview. Based on a research project compromised of 128 in-depth interviews in 30 companies, we propose that a key reason why companies do not do well in relation to project portfolio management (PPM) is that PPM often only covers a subset of on-going projects, while projects that are not subject to PPM tie up resources that initially were dedicated to PPM projects. We address and discuss the dilemma of wanting to include all projects in PPM, and aiming at keeping the resource and cognitive burden of doing PPM at a reasonable level.Keywords：Managing programmes，Managing projects，Organisation resources，Strategy1.IntroductionAt any given point in time, most companies engage in many projects. Some of these projects may relate to product development and marketing, others relate to changes in work processes and production flows, while yet others relate to competency development, strategic turns, the implementation of new IT systems, environmental issues etc.A key managerial task is to dedicate resources across all of these projects (as well as do daily work) and consequently,management across projects (project portfolio management (PPM)) is critical to company performance.This paper is based on a large-scale qualitative study,which shows that many project-oriented companies do not perform well when it comes to PPM. This relates to the inability to accomplish projects that are initiated. In particular, we identify the following problems:(1) Projects are not completed according to plan (or they even peter out during their project life cycle);(2) Management and employees feel they lack a broad overview of on-going projects (especially when the number of on-going projects increases as more and more projects are not completedaccording to plan);(3)People experience stress as resources are continuously reallocated across projects in order to make ends meet.These observations are especially interesting because the companies were included in the research project because they were supposed to be especially,experienced in PPM, and because they actually engage in PPM according to the extant body of literature on PPM. For example, part of the companies‘ PPM included an effort to pick the best projects on the basis of explicit or implicit criteria, and an effort to allocate sufficient resources to these projects.However, despite efforts,to practice ‗good‘ PPM, these companies experience severe problems in relation to PPM – especially in letting enough resources go into the ‗right‘ pr ojects. The purpose of this paper is to confront PPM as advocated by normative theories with actual PPM practices. Hence, the purpose is to confront PPM theories with PPM as perceived by managers and other employees for whom PPM is part of, or affects, their work conditions.However, in this paper, we are more interested in PPM as enacted by companies than in universally true perceptions. Hence, we adhere to Weick‘s [1–3] notion of enactment as the preconceptions that are used to set aside a portion of the field of experience for further attention. In regard to PPM, enacted projects are thus the ones management sets aside for further attention (i.e. PPM). As such, we focus especially on ways actors define or enact projects [4] and make sense of how to manage the sum of the projects. Drawing on this perspective, we account for findings that suggest why companies that do engage in PPM still experience problems.2. Project portfolio theoryThis paper draws on Archer and Ghasemzadeh‘s [5, p.208] definition of p roject portfolios as ‗‗a group of projects that are carried out under the sponsorship and/or management of a particular organization‘‘. Henceforth, we define PPM as the managerial activities that relate to(1) the initial screening, selection and prioritisation of project proposals,(2) the concurrent reprioritisation of projects in the portfolio,(3) the allocation and reallocation of resources to projects according to priority.For quite some time researchers have suggested that low completion rates for new product development (NPD) projects and new product failure relate to resource deficiencies in key areas [6,7]. Furthermore, while a host of researchers [8–10] have focused on the dimension of PPM that concernsprocesses relating to selection of projects to be included in the portfolio, research e.g. [11] also increasingly focuses on the day-today management of the project portfolio.3. MethodologyOver a period of two years, we did empirical research on how companies manage their entire range of projects, e.g. renewal projects, strategic projects, IT projects, departmentally specific projects, and production based projects. In relation to the selection of companies to be included in the empirical study, a key criterion was that the study should cover a wide variety of industries. As a result, the empirical study covers 30 companies from industries as diverse as, e.g. mobile telephone communications, finances, energy, pharmaceuticals, toys, software, and foods.However, due to the fact that we were looking for companies, where the amount of on-going projects suggested they were engaged in PPM, the study is biased towards larger companies as well as companies that define at least a substantial part of their activities as projects. The degree to which the companies participated in the study varies. Hence, half of the companies are labelled ‗inner circle‘ companies due to the fact that we drew extensively on these 15 companies. For example, in these companies more interviews were conducted at various points in time and at various organizational levels. Hence, a longitudinal perspective characterizes the involvement of these companies.The remaining half of the companies are labelled ‗outer circle‘ companies because their participation in the study has included fewer top-management interviews, the purpose of which was to gain insight into ways in which (top) management defines the content of their project portfolios and manages them.4. Managerial implicationsA key finding is that the gap between required and available resources is very much attributable to the existence of a host of smaller projects that never become part of enacted project portfolios. Thus, at an aggregated level, the empirical study suggests smaller, un-enacted projects qualify as resources crunchers in so far they are not considered to be a part of enacted project portfolios. In order to overcome this crunch in resources, two solutions seem obvious:(1) Enacting more, i.e. having PPM embrace all projects.(2) Allocating more resources to a pool of loosely-controlled resources for the un-enacted projects to draw on.5. Research implicationsThe empirical study elaborates on the ‗‗significant shortage of resources devoted to NPD‘‘ that Cooper and Edgett argue is the fundamental problem ‗‗that p lagues most firms‘ product development efforts‘‘.Our work especially suggests that the shortage of resources devoted to enacted projects is not a problem that primarily arises in relation to top management‘s PPM. On the contrary, in-good-faith top management dedicates resources to enacted projects on the basis of sound PPM. However, what top managers do not do is take into account the host of smaller projects that individuals initiate and – more importantly – top managers ignore (or at least heavily under-estimate) the amount of resources that these smaller projects tie up. Hence, we argue that especially the crunch in resources may be attributable to the un-enacted competition for resources that smaller projects subject enacted projects to.Consequently, the key contribution of our empirical work to research is that it emphasises that if we wish to study PPM (and especially if we wish to relate PPM to project performance), we might be better off taking into account the entire range of projects that actual (not enacted) portfolios are comprised of. Thus, if we as researchers only enact the projects that are neatly listed by top management, then our research will neglect the host of projects that are not subject to PPM, projects that nonetheless take up valuable, and scarce, resources.The fact that the empirical study includes interviews with managers, i.e. those who do PPM, and interviews with personnel at lower organisational levels, i.e. those whose work is subject to PPM, is the reason why we were able to identify un-enacted projects. Thus, researchers interested in PPM should be careful not to rely too heavily on a management perspective.6. Conclusion and limitationsThe main conclusion is that as long as some projects are un-enacted, companies may experience a drain on resources that reduces the time and resources actually devoted to projects subject to PPM. Hence, each individual company should decide whether or not all projects should be part of PPM and if the end result of such a decision is not to make comprehensive project lists (i.e. lists that include all minor projects), then management should decide how many resources should be set aside for the plethora of small projects that do not appear on the project list.One way in which the crunch in resources can be reduced is by ensuring that smaller projects do not take up a critical portion of the resources that are – officially – set aside for the completion ofprojects subject to PPM. However, due to the exploratory nature of the study accounted for in this paper, our findings relate far more to what companies actually do (positive theory in Hunt‘s terms), rather than to what they ought to do (normative theory in Hunt‘s terms). Although generating positive theory is indeed a crucial first step – especially in relation to the future of PPM theory –positive theory cannot, and should not, stand alone. Hence, the key challenges for PPM theory in the future are to produce normative theory that offers sound suggestions as to how companies can improve their PPM.Another limitation of our study is that the empirical part was carried out in a Danish context as the 30 companies involved are located in Denmark, which may not be sufficiently representative for companies worldwide because Denmark has, to a larger extent, a bottom-up culture. Therefore, the portion of smaller un-enacted projects may be bigger here than in companies in other countries. We hope that our study will inspire other researchers to carry our similar studies in other countries.References[1] Aboloafia MY, Killduff D. Enacting market crisis: the social construction of a speculative bubble.Admin Sci Quart 1988;33(1): 177–93.[2] Archer NP, Ghasemzadeh F. An integrated framework for project portfolio selection.Int J Project Manage 1999;17(4):207–16.[3] Cooper RG. Benchmarking new product performance: results of the best practices study.Eur Manage J 1998;16(1):1–7.[4] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ. Overcoming the crunch in resources for new product development.Res Technol Manage 2003;46:48–58.[5] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. Best practices for managingR&D portfolios. Res Technol Manage 1998;41:20–33.[6] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. New product portfolio management: practices and performance.J Prod Innovat Manage[7] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. New problems, new solutions: making portfolio management more effective. Res Technol Manage 2000;43:18–33. 1999;16(3):333–51.[8] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. Portfolio management for new products.Cambridge MA: Perseus Publishing; 2001.[9] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. Portfolio management in new product development: lessons from the leaders – I. Res Technol Manage 1997;40:16–28.[10] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. Portfolio management in new product development: lessons from the leaders – II. Res Technol Manage 1997;40:43–52.[11] Cooper RG, Edgett SJ, Kleinschmidt EJ. Portfolio management for new product development: results of an industry practices study. R&D Manage 2001;31(4):361–80.中文译文：项目组合管理——远非现今管理所制定的方案摘要尽管公司一向致力于处理项目股份单与项目股份单理论，他们也许会经历在工程延迟，资源短缺，压力，缺乏整体概要的形式上遇到问题。

Construction Project Management——Value Engineering By:Fredrick E.Gould.Nancy.E.JoyceABSTRACTValue engineering is a kind of in the world proved very fruitful way of project management. In our country, with the improvement of socialist market economy, value engineering, whether in theoretical research or practical application aspects, obtained greater progress, and is gradually applied to engineering project management. Due to the construction of the project design stage investment is less, the owners often ignored this phase of the application of value engineering, but the practice proof, design phase is the possibility of managing investment the biggest stage. Therefore, this paper based on the design stage of a construction project, study the application of value engineering.Key Words:construction project; value engineering; design stageV alue engineering and cost reduction are often confused, so that the value engineering in the designer had a bad reputation, however, it is important that value engineering is a process, is to consider the cost of other factors, such as: life cycle cost, quality, durability and maintainability. On the other hand, reduce cost, think only reduced. At the same time they are in rely on a given standard role, we consider in the larger context of the standard, while the other reaction activity is only for budget problem. The project team should be very clear in their processes are involved in. Despite the tight budget reduces life cost, the owners need to know exactly what he or she buys. Value engineering in the process, should the owner to another system reference to buy items or equivalent value system to reduce the cost. In reducing cost in order to save money, he or she is of little value or range less.Value engineering is all designed products in the active part. Value engineering isnot done enough time, reduce cost becomes necessary. Value engineering provides a" better reduction mode", and reduce the cost can be reduced by engineering quality or quantity, save money.Value engineering is not limited to the construction industry, but in the business world to help analysis is to minimize the cost of the optimal value of object technology and products. The best value is not an intrinsic property of. For each project, it takes on a different meaning, often in other similar product comparison. In the construction which is comparable to many products, it is a complicated job. Therefore, value engineering is as one of the best team in good operation. Value engineering is one of the reasons for negative take designers sometimes feel, architecture is a measure of their work and suggestions, damage the item aesthetic quality. In the process if the designer is an equal partner, this feeling will be reduced. At the same time, the owners need to fully understand the design ideas to make the choice, when the time came, to a specific recommendations for proper balance, to accept or reject.Owners of professional designers and construction with the help of setting standards. In general, these standards are divided into several categories: best cost, the best optimal function and aesthetic value. Determining the optimal cost for life cycle cost analysis to the building, using the most effective play a role definition. The best aesthetic value, can be difficult to determine, but as with other important criteria. As an important emergency generator case, the team focused on cost and function, but they do not concern for aesthetic values, because the generator will be hidden from view. It takes the first consider the cost, durability, and reliability. Its role will be in accordance with safety requirements and the buildings within the residents needs to decide. In a curtain wall system, the owners pay attention to the cost, function and aesthetic value. Because the system will be the main architectural image, aesthetic value may cost more than the weight, exceeding even function. These are only the owner can decide to make the final.Including value engineering, all items are redundant. After all, is not a design team to put together the best solution, it finds the optimal solution will satisfy theowner's cost, functional, aesthetic standards. Of course, a good design team is doing. However, every design company established culture also needs to be questioned standard practice. In the value engineering in the process, he could do it. In addition, some teams may be dealt with as soon as possible in the design of the case. For example, the owner should accelerate the job to get the project started construction. Its purpose is to return to the previous fact and is not easy to make a decision before the state. Value engineering to ensure that such errors do not occur. Another possibility is that, the owners have vision, but does not fully explain to the designer. Designer response more complexity, to meet the needs of the owners. Value engineering process, this complexity will be questioned and clarification.Building professionals in their occupation career into contact with many design company. Specific design company may not know they brought other products and processes form information. In value engineering, these ideas will be checked, and where appropriate, set down. Building professionals can easily acquire about certain product availability information. If a product needs a very long distance transport, which can increase the cost of. Maybe there are local products, can also achieve the same standard.Although the value engineering in the project construction and even in the construction industry as a whole is pale, the maximum value is obtained in the earlier process: from one system to another, in the schedule have hardly any effect, and the amount of redesign and redraw is minimized. However, in the early stages of design, to produce any saving document is one of the most difficult, because there are usually no formal drawings or plan. The most recognizable effects occur in the schematic diagram of the final and the design and development stage of early. There is enough information on the idea of rational judgment system. Of course, most of these savings can be achieved. In construction drawing, macroscopical idea is already in place, and most of the ideas embodied in the file details.During the construction process, value engineering efforts continue. Because making changes to the project, design development should follow in the design phase to assess changes in the procedure. Contractors can also in the field of application ofvalue engineering principle, save money method, equipment or sequence of operations. Who achieve these fields generated by saving depends on the form of contract.Some value engineering operation is informal, though the team members in favor of the arrangements and procedures, the others follow a more formal by another person established standards, the following is a good value engineering project is the main component of:(1) Review the field identification. He could be performed separately, as each team member critically reviews the design drawings and specifications.The idea was conceived, concern in the design field in this period of time, can use the new product or process, material the use of different strengths, simplify the system, or to processing details.(2) Brain storm team members sitting together with idea list and tossing ideas let others to accept, the idea is to get as many ideas as possible on the desktop. As discussed in the context of members should be thought from the others and many have special ideas inspired.(3) Each of the proposed analysis. The Group determines the standards to evaluate each idea. Discussion of alternatives in the brainstorming sessions with standard test. Here the brainstorming session, costs are usually not considered first. Once a proposal in the functional requirements based on the merits, and then calculate the cost, involves a considerable amount of time and energy. It is a keeping brainstorming focus on functional outcome and reduce costs.(4) Report to management. The team will be all the idea of putting it all together. When presented with more and more information is available, some may be in other phases of the project carried out a detailed analysis. Some have been team provides a rationale for rejected, some instant recommendation. All the topics for discussion, whether to reject or approve, should keep some for later reference.When the cost of computing work begins, the team can have a look simple first cost, but also can view the life cycle cost proposal. If the proposal in first cost on the basis of sound words, life cycle cost, may not be complete, but the danger is, first costmay not be incorporated into the overall savings work during the life of structures. Therefore, it is best to consider the life cycle cost, figure 6.5 shows the first cost and life cycle cost differences between.Life cycle cost in building or construction system in the initial study life, operation and maintenance costs, and future interests. Prior to this analysis can be applied, assumptions are made about the under construction quality expectations, limitations of the procedure, as well as prospective predictors of cost of capital. Life cycle cost can help the design team decided to set system design, site, materials used in construction, and the investment of money. It can be used to build or rebuild project. In the project, the first problem is, whether the buildings were removed or retained. If you have decided to keep the building, the next question is how to scale renovation to meet expectations. These analyses can go through a life cycle cost analysis.The goal is to find, give some to meet the needs of customers alternatives, which cost at least over the life of the building. For example, a specific non traditional heating system can have a higher cost base. Basic cost includes direct related design, procurement costs, as well as system installation. However, such a system might be a longer life expectancy than traditional systems, can burn the fuel more efficiently, and may not require so much of the repair, and can use the cheap fuel source.建设项目管理——价值工程Fredrick E.Gould.Nancy.E.Joyce摘要价值工程是一种在世界各国被证明卓有成效的工程管理方法。

Study on Project Cost Control of Construction EnterprisesBy: R. Max WidemanAbstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system.Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost controlAfter joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control.1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control MethodsCost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of foreign projects)and company's cost-sharing.At present the main method for domestic construction enterprises to control project cost is to analyze cost, naming economic accounting, which is the major components of cost management and the analysis of economic activities. In accordance with its scope of target and deep-level of content, GM project cost analysis method can be divided into two categories, namely, comprehensive analysis of project cost and cost analysis of unit project Comprehensive analysis of project cost. It is carried in terms of budget and final accounts, cost reduction programs and construction installation costs. The methods used are as follows: (1) comparing the estimated cost and actual cost. Check the result to reduce cost, lower cost index and budget status. (2) comparing actual cost and project cost. Check cost reduction programs as well as the windage between the actual cost and plan cost. Inspect the rationality and implementation of techniques organizational measures and management plans.(3) comparing lower cost of the same period last year. Aanalyze causes and propose the improving direction. (4) Comparison between engineering units in cost-cutting. Identify the units cost-reducing, which finishes projects, with a view to further cost analysis.Cost analysis of unit project. Comprehensive analysis only understand project cost overruns or lower. If we want to get more detailed information, each cost item analysis of unit project is needed. Analysis mainly from the following aspects:(1) Materials cost analysis. From the view of material stock, production, transportation, inventory and management, we can analyze the discrepancy impact of material price and quantity, the cost-reducing effectiveness resulting from various technical measures, the loss from poor management.(2) Labor cost analysis . From the number of employment, hours of use, ergonomics, as well as wage situation, we can identify the savings and waste during labor use and fixed management.(3) Construction machinery cost analysis. From the construction options, mechanization degree, mechanical efficiency, fuel consumption, mechanical maintenance, good rates and utilization, we can analyze the yield and cost discrepancy of fixed-class ergonomics, the cost of poor classes, focused on improving mechanical utilization efficiency and waste caused by poor management.(4) Management cost analysis. From construction task and organizational staffing changes,non-production personnel changes, as well as other expenditure savings and waste, we can analyze management fees and justify the rationality of expenditure.(5) Technology organization measures implementing analysis. It can increase experience for future establishment and implementation of technical organization projects.(6) Other direct costs analysis. Focus on the analysis of second removal and water, electricity, wind, gas and other expenses situation during construction.2. The shortcomings of cost-control methodsAt present, domestic construction projects cost-control methods have played a significant role for Chinese construction industry and construction enterprises to reduce cost and gain sustainable development. However, we should be aware that these methods exist some shortcomings as follows:2.1 Lack of systemization.Presently, the cost control of construction enterprises is a simple control on cost. In fact, project cost control is closely related with project plans and progress, quality and safety. Therefore, cost control should include above-mentioned elements.2.2 Lack of real timeModern project management is increasingly tending real-time management and forward-looking management, paying more attention to "promptly identify and solve problems", emphasizing as much as possible to identify and solve problems before problems occur. The current control system is to control after problems occur, which can't avoid loss.In addition, current cost-control method is static. It can't monitor and reflect timely costs change, therefore, this method can't provide the support of decision-making for projects management under construction.2.3 Lack of error-checking and error-correcting mechanismThe current cost-control method is the single-class without error-checking and error-correcting mechanism. If mistakes occur in the future, we can't discover timely, or even impossible found. 2.4 Lack of compatibilityThere is lack of compatibility between project cost-control and project finance and corporate management system. The project budget is built on ration, but project financial item subjects are based on current financial general regulation. This is not consistent betweenmethods. Specific to the software, financial sector of domestic construction enterprises is generally adopting some general financial software, such as UF, IBM. The software is not specifically for the development of construction enterprise, not reflecting the special nature of construction enterprises. However, the budget software is also not considered financial aspect. The lack of compatibility leads to void labor and low management efficiency. At the same time, it increases the probability of error information and error decision2.5 Limitation on notions and quality of personnelThese days, most of construction enterprises are faced with the shortage of qualified personnel during improving cost-control system. It is difficult to find a suitable person with budget and financial knowledge and practical experience in project management.3. Suggestions for improving domestic cost-control methodsFrom the view of enterprises and projects, project cost control is a system engineering. It needs standardization and systematization, closely related to many factors. If current domestic construction enterprises want to establish a practical and efficient cost control systems, the cost-control methods must be improved as follows:3.1 Establish systemic cost-control systemAccording to the specific situation of enterprises, company's cost-control guiding documents should be developed. Based on current fixed budget, enterprises develop work breakdown structure of specific conditions. And on these base, along with progress, quality and safety factors, cost control system will be established ultimately, including the establishment of project cost real-time control (the first class by full-time staff in the execution of project cost control, reporting cycle for one week or fortnight), project cost integrated control (the second class, by financial officers in the execution of projects, reporting cycle for fortnight or a month) and corporate cost control (the third class, by company's financial sector, reporting cycle for a month or a quarter). Such three class cost control system resolve the problems of real-time and error-correcting mechanism.3.2 Develop specific control processesAccording to enterprises' specific circumstances, we should formulate specific control processes, identify levels for controlling reporting periods, and arrange specific persons to monitor. Throughout reporting period, two kinds of data or information need to be collected: (1)the actual execution of data, including the actual time for beginning or end, and the actual cost.(2) the project scope, progress plan and budget change information. These changes may result from the clients or project teams, or from some unforeseen things such as natural disasters, labor strikes or key project team members to resign. These changes should be included in project plan and obtained the consent of customers, then new baseline plan need to establish. The scope, progress and budget of new plan may be different from initial plan.Above-discussed data or information must be timely collected, so that it can become the base to update project progress and budget. For example, if the project reporting period is a month, data and information should be collected at the end of month as far as possible, which can guarantee progress in the updated plan and budget.3.3 Improve project financial subjectBased on work breakdown structure, enpterpries should improve project financial subjects so that projects match with real-time cost control, company's financial and cost control systems, which can solve the compatibility between cost control and finance. At the same time, financial system and cost control system using the same data format, similar forms and data-sharing can improve effectively. In the short term, construction enterprise can transform the existing software and statements to achieve cost savings and reduce the impact of system transformation. In the long-term, enterprises can adopt suitable management software and build company's integrated management system.3.4 Balance precision control and cost controlWhen improving project control system, we should pay attention to balance precision control and cost control. Cost control is through the whole process of project. Under normal circumstances, enterprises can take a fixed period report. If new problems will be detected, then enterprises should increase the reporting frequency until problems are resolved.3.5 Train current staffEnterprises should gradually train the existing staff for the future reserves. In any system, human element is always the first one. No matter how perfect and advanced a management system is, and it ultimately relies on people.3.6 Identify core contentsThe core contents for cost control are team spirit, technology and work process consistency,standard management methods, foreseeing difficulties and contradictions, fostering a challenging work environment and continuing improvement.研究建筑施工企业的项目成本控制马克斯.怀德曼摘要：随着建筑市场的日趋成熟,建筑施工企业之间的竞争变得激烈。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Construction stage safety civilization management1 Research content and purposeAt present China's production safety situation is still grim, especially the building area of the multiple casualties situation has not fundamentally reversed, construction safety is extremely stern; production safety foundation is weak, guarantee system and mechanism is not perfect; safety production supervision and management mechanism, team construction and supervision work also needs to be strengthened.With China's implementation of the "going out" strategy, the overseas engineering construction requirements of construction enterprises toward the safety and high quality fast and efficient direction, but the due to the overseas projects in surveying, design, competitive bidding system and construction exists some defects or mistakes, especially the construction environment and conditions for overseas and domestic different is formed many unsafe factors. Some governments of developed countries on safe and civilized construction management and supervision ineffective, at the same time, the security incident victimscompensation is relatively low, so as to project management are real will "safety first" self psychological suggestion and safe and civilized management psychological orientation proposed higher requirements. And in the preparation of the overseas project safety assurance program, sometimes due to lack of understanding in the engineering field, easy to cause the of dangerous source judgement is not accurate or not in place, and psychologically cannot accurately to ensure the safety of the positioning of the feasibility of the program.By exploring the harmful factors in the construction process and construction process was studied in unsafe, uncivilized between factors and employee of contradiction and the law of the unity of opposites, making better use of these rules to formulate a scientific, reasonable, effective all safe and civilized production tube system, to improve and perfect the measures of safety and technological civilization, to prevent and eliminate various harmful factors in the process of construction to the conversion of the casualty of a series of management work, to protect workers' safety and health, ensure safety in production. Due to the construction of the unsafe factor is relatively more, a little careless, it may occur accident. In recent years, occurred throughout the country in the construction work accidents and serious casualty statistics tells us that construction of the security situation is still very grim. However, construction safety problems with everything else, has its own objective law. It objectively resides in the entire construction activity. Since so, naturally, be it analysis to understand, master rules of it, take the organizational and technical measures to pre control, in order to achieve the purpose of construction safety. However, there are still many problems in the management of the security civilization.Therefore, we focus on the construction stage of the construction safety civilization management, the construction of the various aspects of the construction plan, the status quo of the safety and civilization management. Through the safety awareness of the management, the system of planning, to the project safety detailed analysis of the content. There are some unpredictable problems during the process of preparation, which is the main problem in the management of safety civilization.. Lay a good foundation for further implementation.. According to the occurrence of the settlement of the accident, there is no accident occurred, record the safety civilization management improvement measures, improve the safety and civilization management. As generally work arrangements properly was period of management is relatively lax, cross process serious and complicated, and safety problems inthis period is often risks and security alert frigidity, may not out of the big problem, but small problems and small risks constantly. So strengthen safety education and training, the unknown engineering safety civilization management summary, learning.Through the research on the safety civilization management of the construction stage, the danger identification, the risk assessment and the risk control of the modern safety civilization management are discussed in three aspects.. The aim is to better and more secure the work done. Do early work after the reduction of risk, and further strengthen the construction project risk management, and thus promote the faster development of China's construction projects.2 Status quo of safety civilization managementIn recent years, with the continuous improvement of the market economy and the common improvement of people's life, construction industry has become one of the fastest developing industries. The competition of the market is increasingly fierce, so that the benefit of the enterprise to compete in the target, so to the management to benefit has become the consensus of entrepreneurs. And safety is the premise of the benefit, because the safety results determine the size of the benefit. End over the years the party and the government attaches great importance to production safety work, determine the safety production policy of "safety first, prevention first", promulgated a series of production safety laws and regulations and standards, the purpose is to protect the safety and health of laborers, control and reduce all kinds of accidents, improve the level of safety management, promote the establishment of harmonious society.The construction industry is the risk of production activities, unsafe factors, is the accident prone industry. In recent years, the death rate of China's construction industry is the highest in all industries, after the mining industry, the loss is huge, distressing. Although the mandatory implementation of the construction enterprise safety production license system, strengthen the construction market access control, and to further strengthen the construction enterprise construction site safety inspections, but accidents still occur from time to time. I believe that the number of casualties mainly determined by the characteristics of the construction industry. The safety civilization management is a science, is a professional, policy, mass, and a very strong work. The safety civilization management of the enterprise is mainly embodied in the following aspects:(1) Safety awareness. Due to the leading enterprises for a long time the importance ofconstruction safety understanding does not reach the designated position, grasping safety formalism serious, disregard for workers in the production of the legitimate interests of labor and social security, is not equipped with the necessary labor protection supplies, arbitrary extension of working time, workers in the long run, the working state of the overload, high strength, will lead to accidents. In addition, the leadership of the security work seriously enough, the staff of the corresponding security awareness, it is easy to cause illegal command, illegal operations, violation of labor discipline and safety accidents caused by.(2) The weak base of security civilization management. The weak security and civilization management is mainly due to the weak safety consciousness of some people, the relationship between the safety and the speed, safety and the relationship between safety and benefit, security and stability.. The weak safety management is mainly reflected in the weak: first, the research work of building safety technology is weak, and the key technology of building safety production is relatively lagging behind. The wide application of safety scientific and technological achievements is lack of market-oriented policy guidance and economic incentive measures. Study on the construction of new technology, new products, new technology application and safety protection measures of synchronization; second, compared with the developed countries, our country security protection technology, protective equipment and machinery and equipment is still relatively backward. Standardization, stereotypes and industrialization degree is very low; three is the construction enterprise safety civilization management and construction team quality is generally low. The safety of the low quality of the cultural quality, safety and civilization management knowledge, safety and technical specifications, safety procedures, safety precautions and so on do not understand. Can't manage the construction team.(3) The construction safety laws and regulations system is not perfect. There are some limitations to implement its security responsibilities; terms of punishment for violations of the law is not specific enough, operability is not strong; laws and regulations are not perfect, there is a problem of duplication and overlapping management; safety rules and regulations of the responsibility is not clear, management objectives is not clear, resulting in production safety responsibility of implementation is not in place etc..(4) The mechanism of the construction safety supervision and production is not perfect. At present, the mechanism of the effective construction safety supervision and management inChina has not been formed, and there is a big gap compared with the international advanced security management mode.. The safety supervision mode and management means can't adapt to the growing scale of construction, and it is difficult to carry out the construction safety supervision work further.. Mainly in the following three aspects:Construction unit safety civilization management problemThe exploration, design, construction and supervision of the construction engineering to the entity or individual contractor who is not qualified or qualified or even illegal. Due to the layers of subcontracting, resulting in the construction management is not strict, security training is not in place and security investment or basic no. And it will also make lower profits, and contractors in order to pursue the maximal profit will reduce his all unnecessary amount of spending, leading to safety hazards and accidents continue to occur.Investigation, design, engineering supervision and other units of the major security issuesSurvey, design units not in accordance with the requirements were survey or design, or change the survey and design documents, laws, regulations and mandatory standards, to survey the design defects, can not guarantee the building and construction personnel safety engineering supervision units not to the construction unit safety technical measures or special construction safety program for careful review, in the engineering construction nor of construction units to implement security measures of supervision seriously, find the hidden accident, nor does it take decisive measures to be rectification and elimination; detection unit to produce a false report.Safety problem of construction unitWith the increasing investment in infrastructure, the construction enterprise access policy adjustment, making the number of construction enterprises continues to increase, the construction team continues to expand. Especially in recent years, the rapid development of individual construction industry, the construction enterprise has changed fundamentally. But because the construction unit is the main body and the core position in the construction safety activity, the construction safety problem is mainly in the construction unit body.2.1 Government laws and regulations(1) The lack of building safety and civilization management system for the market economyConstruction of China's investment system changes the original building a safe and civilized production management has not adapt to the current construction methods, so has been dominated by the government of safe and civilized management appeared many loopholes in management, coupled with the construction safety laws and regulations is not perfect, the low efficiency of government supervision, social supervision system is not perfect, resulting in a safe and civilized management is not in place, suited to the laws of market economy, legal and economic means parallel building a safe and civilized management system has not been formed. Therefore, the initiative construction safety civilization management initiative construction safety civilization management work first, early planning, early arrangement, do the whole process supervision and inspection. Before the construction we put the project in the province Shuangyou site as the target management, improving the safety management measures and system in the project, accomplish beforehand to prevent. Employees entering the construction site, the first production safety education and follow the operating rules of education; followed by a safety technical disclosure and each segment and sub engineering safety technical disclosure, so that all staff familiar with the rules and regulations, consciously abide by the safety regulations and operating rules, improve the sense of self-protection. Strengthen the intensity and extent of the supervision of the safety and civilization management objectives for effective control.(2) The law and regulations are more and more incomplete and the execution is not enoughOur country law "environment and health" is too weak. The emphasis on "environment and health" in the activity of architecture has become a common topic of international concern. The target system of engineering construction has been shifted from the traditional "cost - cost - quality - time - to - Project" system to "cost - quality - time - environment and health" system.. The international standard organization has also developed the environmental management system.(3) The functional changes of the management department are lagging behind and the management of the vacuum isWith the deepening of the reform of our political system, the reform of the national institution, the enterprise reform, the enterprise has gradually separated from the industry administrative management, and has become the independent action subject in the market.With this adaptation, Ministry of construction and local construction administrative departments to become the national construction safety special supervision of the performer, state production safety supervision and administration and the local production safety supervision and management institutions become discharger of the state production safety supervision functions.The unsafe state of the unsafe behavior and the unsafe state of the material are the direct cause of the accident, which are directly related to the management. So the management is the indirect cause of the accident.. The unsafe behavior of human can be reduced or even eliminated through safety education, safety production responsibility system and security mechanism. The unsafe state of the material can be controlled by improving the scientific and technological content of the safety, establishing the perfect equipment maintenance system, promoting the construction and safety of the civilization. To strengthen the safety inspection on the job site, we can find and stop the unsafe behavior and the unsafe state of the thing, so as to avoid the accident. One of the most common defect management system is not perfect, the responsibility is not clear, abiding by the law, the illegal command, safety education is not enough, punishment is not strict, safety technical measures are not comprehensive, security check enough.(4) The construction safety production management and professional construction safety production management separateAt present, China's construction safety civilization management is actually decentralized management, did not really do the industry management. This has formed the construction safety civilization management standard, the management pattern is different, the casualty statistics data distortion, the management work responsibility is not clear.Pay attention to safety behavior norms according to the laws of science organization construction, comply with construction safety rules and standards, as a code of conduct to organize the construction of construction site to be constrained, regulate their behavior from two aspects: one is to require managers to strictly implement the construction administrative departments of the state and local issued by the construction safety and civilized management regulations and standards the implementation of the management system of the enterprise, before the construction of the relevant technical requirements for the construction safety to the crew and workers in detail, and signed by both parties confirmed that security staff dailyinspections of implementation; two is to require the operation layer; safety protection for the outstanding construction site could cause accident.2.2 The characteristics of the construction safety civilization managementThe characteristics of construction are mainly determined by the characteristics of architectural products. Compared with other industrial products, building products is huge in size, complexity and diversity, overall hard, not easy to mobile, so that construction in addition to the basic characteristics of industrial production, but also has the following main features:(1) The fluidity of productionOne is the body construction with the buildings or structures located position change and the transfer of production sites; the second is in the process of the construction of a project construction personnel and all kinds of machinery, electrical equipment with the construction site and along the construction of the object up, down, left and right flow, continue to turn shift operation places.(2) The product form is diverseDue to the natural conditions and uses of the building, the structure, modeling and material of the building are also different, and the construction method will be changed, it is difficult to realize the standardization.(3) Construction technology complexConstruction often need according to the structure of the building for many types of work with the operation, multi unit (earthwork, civil engineering, hoisting, installation, transportation, etc.) cross tie construction, the supplies and equipment are different, thus the construction organization and construction technology management has a higher request. Most of the construction industry is still manual operation, easy to make people fatigue, attention dispersion, so improper operation or mistakes more prone to occur, Rong Yi lead to accidents security. This is manual labor and heavy manual labor and more.(4) Open and aloft operationsThe building product is huge, the production cycle is long, the construction is carried on frequently in the open air and the high place, is often influenced by the natural climate condition. According to the national standard "high job classification" provides that there are more than 90% of the construction of higher operations. The open operation of buildingsaccounts for about 70% of the total workload, and the impacts and hazards of natural conditions such as spring, summer, autumn and winter, and sunshine, wind, rain, snow and snow etc.(5) Low mechanizationAt present, the construction mechanization degree of our country is still very low, still depend on a lot of manual operation.. Construction machinery and machinery in the factory compared to the mechanical equipment is very different, its safety is much higher than the factory equipment, the probability of injury is naturally much higher. There are several aspects of the following features:A. Use of different environmental conditions;B. Operating object is different;C. Operating location and operator;Take the crane as an example to discuss the mechanization of safety civilization management.In our country, with the increase of the number of the heavy machinery, the proportion of the injury accidents in the total industrial accidents is also increasing year by year. The common accidents of hoisting machinery are: the hanging falls, the impact of extrusion, the accident, the electric shock accident, the body dump accident.. The total number of crane crashes accounted for about 33%, the impact of extrusion accounted for about 30%, electric shock accounted for about 10%, the accident accounted for about 8%, the body dumping accounts for about 5%. The total number of the total number of injuries from the accident of the highest percentage of falling accident analysis:A. Off the rope accidents: due to the load from a bundle of the hoisting rope shedding collapsibility casualties damage.B.Weight loss accident from heavy lifting rope or special sling from hook caused by prolapse.C. Broken rope accident: hoisting rope and hoisting rope broken down due to the weight loss accident.D. Hook broken accident: weight loss accident fracture caused by hook.E. Hoisting wire rope problem.2.3 The work content of the construction safety civilization managementConstruction enterprises to do a good job security construction should pay attention to do the following several work:(1)Thinking;(2) Establishment of a safety production management system;(3) Establishing the safety and professional bodies and with full-time safety technicians;(4) Ensure that the workers are safe and secure;(5) Take the targeted safety measures;Safety technical measures should be aimed at the engineering features, in depth investigation and study. Also do a good job of work safety technical disclosure.3 Security checkThe security check is found in time, eliminate hidden dangers of accidents, an effective way to nip in the bud. The construction product volume is huge, the height operation is high, and then combined with the construction period, the technology complex and other factors, to the construction production brings a lot of unsafe factors. Through the combination of leadership and mass security checks, can effectively find the problem, take measures to eliminate the accident before the occurrence of the accident. Safety inspection can also summarize the good experience of the exchange of safety production, establish a typical, to promote the level of safety and civilization management. Mobilize the masses for security checks, both to encourage the masses to participate in the enthusiasm of safety and civilization management, and can educate the masses to enhance awareness of the safety awareness of production, and consciously improve the safety of production. In addition, the safety inspection can often give the neglect of the safety of the idea of knocking the alarm, and promptly correct illegal command, illegal operations behavior.4 SummarySafety civilization management is a science, is a professional, policy, mass, and a very strong work. With the continuous development of the economy, the continuous improvement of people's living standards, employees in the construction industry and the whole society are on the construction process of safe and civilized management level proposed requirements more and more high, the traditional management mode has not adapted to the requirements of the times. It is now in need of scientific and modern enterprise security and civilization management mode, and continuously improve the level of safety civilization management, thereal safety civilization management work well. The scientific use of PDCA circulation method, the pair of leaders of all levels of safety education and construction plan possible accident, the implementation of safe and civilized management plan, make safe and civilized management is better in the construction of perfect embodiment. To inspect the construction process of the construction management plan, and find the problem that hidden and haven't met to solve, analyze and record, and put the security plan into the program. To reach a circular process. Therefore, as the construction enterprise, we should study the status quo of the construction industry safety civilization, establish the new idea of safety civilization management, and establish new accord with the.Construction safety management civilization is the first human management, to strengthen the safety education and training, continuously improve the quality of security business, enhance security awareness, and to take effective measures to regulate people's behavior, to implement standardized operation, in construction process due to the complexity of the construction site personnel, dynamic and frequent, in project management, to take admission to tertiary education and the change of production and construction, timely safety education; combination of production safety skills training, in order to enhance staff safety consciousness of responsibility and security capabilities.Through the safety civilization management education and training, strengthen the construction safety and the implementation of the guarantee. Safety education is the most effective method in the safety civilization management. Both time and greatly reduce the cost. On the construction enterprise personnel, from the leadership to the construction workers are admitted to the education and training, the whole aspect to strengthen safety awareness. A clear division of labor and management, the construction project without mistake, reduce the mistake. Building a safe and civilized management is a very complex system engineering, we must use of scientific management methods, management methods, the establishment of new safe and civilized management mode to improve worker safety execution. Only in this way, we can really make a safe and civilized management level to a new level.施工阶段的安全文明管理1.研究内容与目的目前我国的安全生产形势依然严峻，特别是建筑领域伤亡事故多发的状况尚未根本扭转，建筑施工安全极其严竣；安全生产基础比较薄弱，保障体系和机制不健全；安全生产监督管理机构、队伍建设以及监管工作还待加强。

本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：URBAN RENEWAL POLICY IN CHICAGO 文献、资料来源：期刊Journal of Urban Affairs 第31期文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.8院（部）：管理工程学院专业：工程管理班级：工管081姓名：李洪砚学号：2008021014指导教师：亓霞翻译日期：2012.6.3外文文献：Advanced Encryption StandardREGIME BUILDING, INSTITUTION BUILDING:URBAN RENEWAL POLICY IN CHICAGO,1946–1962JOEL RASTUniversity of Wisconsin-MilwaukeeABSTRACT:Urban regime analysis emphasizes the role of coalition building in creating a capacity to govern in cities. Through a case study of urban renewal policy in postwar Chicago, this articleconsiders the role played by political institutions. Conceptualizing this historical period as oneof regime building, I show how e xisting political institutions were out of sync with the city’s newgoverning agenda of urban renewal and redevelopment following World War II. Creating a capacityto govern in urban renewal policy required both coalition building and a fundamental reworking offormal governing institutions.I t was spring 1964, and Chicago was in the midst of its greatest construction boom since therebuilding effort following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. In the third of a series of articles on Chicago‘s postwar revit alization, the Chicago Tribune celebrated the accomplishments of the past 10 years: more than six million square feet of new office space constructed downtown; nearly 1,000 acres of ―blighted‖ land cleared for new development; a total of 27 urban renewal projects completed, under way, or approved for construction; a new convention center built on the lakefront; and the emergence of O‘Hare International Airport as ―the world‘s finest jet terminal‖ (Gowran, 1964). Under the leadership of Richard J. Daley, elected mayor in 1955, Chicago‘s massive urban renewal program would eventually rank first among U.S. cities in total federal dollars received (Chicago Tribune, 1968).The accomplishments of Chicago‘s urban renewal program during Mayor Daley‘s first decadein office are all the more remarkable when examined alongside the record of his predecessor as mayor, Martin H. Kennelly. Plans for urban renewal in Chicago, orchestrated largely by business leaders, were under way when Kennelly was elected mayor in 1947. Kennelly enthusiasticallyembraced the business community‘s redevelopment agenda and eagerly sought federal funding forslum clearance and public housing. However, urban renewal quickly became mired in controversy,stalling progress on numerous fronts. Of a total of eight slum clearance and redevelopment projectsinitiated during the Kennelly administration, none had been completed by the time Kennelly leftoffice in 1955. Downtown redevelopment was still largely at a standstill,with only one new officetower under construction..How was Chicago‘s urban renewal program transformed from its origins as a weak andconflict-ridden initiative into the political and economic steamroller it ultimately became underthe leadership of Richard J. Daley? Scholars of urban political development have identified thepost-World War II era as a period of regime building (Cummings, 1988; DeLeon, 1992; Ferman,1996; Levine, 1989; Mollenkopf, 1983; Spragia, 1989; Stone, 1989). In what Robert Salisbury(1964) called ―the new convergence of power,‖ city officials across the country formed sustained, multiissue alliances with local business leaders around urban renewal and redevelopment.Ac-cording to urban regime theorists, the success of postwar redevelopment efforts was determinedmore by the strength and cohesiveness of such coalitions—or ―regimes‖—than by the formalpowers of local government (Stone, 1989; Stone & Sanders, 1987). Effective governance in de-velopment policy was achieved when resources controlled by government and nongovernmentalactors (mainly business) were deployed around a shared agenda. What mattered most, in otherwords, was not the formal machinery of local government or local political institutions but theability of public and private actors to unite around a governing agenda commensurate with theresources at their disposal (Elkin, 1987; Stoker, 1995; Stone, 1989, 1993). Prospects were partic-ularly good when a resourceful and cohesive business elite was paired with a politically powerfulmayor such as Daley of Chicago.While a focus on informal governing arrangements—in particular, the mobilization of resourcesthrough regime building—explains much about how governing capacity was created in postwarcities, informal arrangements are not the whole story. As Skocpol (1992) has argued, policyoutcomes are determined in part by the ―fit‖ between the goals of politically active groups and existing political institutions. Governing institutions serve as ―staging grounds‖ or ―rules of thegame‖ for political action, favoring certain political actors and courses of action over others (Bridges, 1997, p. 14). According to Skocpol (1992, p. 54),The overall structure of political institutions provides access and leverage to some groupsand alliances, thus encouraging and rewarding their efforts to shape government policies,while simultaneously denying access and leverage to other groups and alliances . . . . Thismeans that the degree of success that any politically active group or movement achievesisinfluenced not just by the self-consciousness and ―resource mobilization‖ of that social forceitself.In general, the governing institutions of cities immediately following World War II wereill-suited to the task of large-scale redevelopment. Urban renewal and redevelopment required strongexecutive leadership and centralized planning and development authority. In many cases, however,the powers of city government were highly fragmented. Political machines, while typically indecline, were still a significant presence in many cities, dispersing power among ward bosses(Teaford, 1990). Even in nonmachine cities, the predominance of weak-mayor,strong-council citycharters left many mayors with little executive authority (Peterson, 1961). In both machine andnonmachine cities alike, planning and development functions were often carried out by numerousagencies with little coordination among them (Gottehrer, 1967; Mantel, 1970;O‘Connor, 1993;Salisbury, 1961).Urban regime theorists examining development politics in postwar cities have paid scant atten-tion to such institutional shortcomings. However, the architects of postwar urban redevelopmentwere clearly aware of them. In cities across the country, regime building was accompanied byefforts to reorganize city government and create new governing institutions more conducive tothe new redevelopment agenda. In Philadelphia, New York, St. Louis, Boston, Chicago, and else-where, new city charters, charter revisions, and other administrative reforms were proposed tostrengthen and centralize the administrative powers of city government.1Such reforms, frequently initiated or championed by business leaders and other proponents of redevelopment, were op-posed by machine politicians, certain city bureaucrats, and other political actors who stood tobenefit from the status quo.The political contests that surfaced over the institutional structures of postwar cities are con-sistent with Skowronek‘s (1982) observation that new or reformed governing institutions do not materialize simply because new governing demands produce a need for them. In Chicago andother cities, redevelopment efforts were mediated through institutional arrangements that becameobjects of struggle in their own right. The success of postwar regime builders was determined inpart by their ability to craft and successfully advance new institutional arrangements that favoredtheir objectives over those of their political rivals.In Chicago, the ―fit‖ between the city‘s governing institutions and politically active groupsin urban renewal policy initially favored neighborhood organizations, civil rightsgroups, wardpoliticians, and other opponents of urban renewal policy, allowing such groups to successfully playan obstructionist role. During the Richard J. Daley administration, however, changing political conditions created opportunities for institution building. Reworked governing institutions werecombined with Daley‘s informal powers as machine ―boss‖ to produce a new set of governingarrangements that favored proponents of redevelopment. The effectiveness of urban renewalpolicy was greatly enhanced.While the focus of this study is on regime building in postwar Chicago, Chicago‘s urbanre-newal experience provides lessons for modern-day reformers as well. Episodes of regime buildingare conceptualized here as politically contingent periods in which the breakdown of old alliancesand governing agendas has yet to be followed by the consolidation of new governing arrange-ments. The evidence from Chicago suggests that proponents of regime change in contemporarycities should consider more carefully the role of governing institutions in regime building, sinceproblems of fit between governing agendas and political institutions may surface with increasedfrequency during such episodes. If the fit between the goals of change-oriented groups and po-litical institutions is a poor one, as was initially the case in Chicago, then the mobilization ofresources accomplished through regime building may need to be accompanied by parallel effortsto bring institutions in line with new governing demands.REGIME BUILDING FOR URBAN RENEWALFollowing World War II, Chicago faced challenges similar to those of other cities around thecountry. Middle-class residents were moving to the suburbs in growing numbers, leaving behinda population that was increasingly poor and non-white. A semicircle of substandard housing and businesses covering roughly 15,000 acres extended outward several miles from the centralbusiness district (MHPC, 1946a). Property values were falling in many areas of the city, includingdowntown Chicago.From 1939 to 1947, the assessed valuation of property in the central businessdistrict fell from $552 million to $481 million, a drop of 13% (Teaford, 1990, p. 19).Downtown business leaders, alarmed about the implications of these trends for their corporateproperty holdings, took the lead in developing an action plan to address the growing crisis. Themost influential business organization at the time was the Metropolitan Housing and PlanningCouncil (MHPC), anorganization founded in 1934 to provide civic leadership in planning anddevelopment policy. Although officially governed by a board of 38 directors representing arange of interests, MHPC was dominated by a small group of downtown business executives(Meyerson & Banfield, 1955). The organization‘s president, Ferd Kramer, was also presidentof one of Chicago‘s largest real estate firms. Other prominent board members included MiltonMumford, an assistant vice-president of Marshall Field and Company, and Holman Pettibone,president of Chicago Title and Trust Company.In 1946, MHPC released a report containing a strategy for urban renewal that would ultimatelybe embraced by both city and state policymakers (MHPC, 1946a).2According to the report,Chicago‘s problems stemmed, above all, from the unchecked growth of blight. To reverse the tide,government would have to take steps to make inner-city locations attractive once again to privatenvestors. MHPC proposed that a public agency with eminent domain powers be charged withassembling parcels of land in inner-city locations and demolishing existing structures (Hirsch,1998). The cleared land would be sold to private developers at a reduced cost, while residentsdisplaced through ―slum clearance‖ would be rehoused in new public hou sing developments.MHPC announced its plans at an October 1946 luncheon whose guests included the publishersof the city‘s major newspapers, the presidents of the city‘s largest banks, and top real estateexecutives (Neil, 1952).During the following months, Milton Mumford, Holman Pettibone, and other members ofMHPC‘s inner circle worked with Republican Governor Dwight Green and Democratic MayorMartin Kennelly to secure bipartisan support for state urban renewal legislation (Hirsch, 1998).These efforts culminated in the passage of two bills, the Blighted Areas Redevelopment Actand the Relocation Act, in July 1947. The bills, which extended eminent domain powers toslum clearance projects and provided state funding for slum clearance and public housing,substantially embodied the program for urban renewal unveiled by MHPC less than a yearearlier.MHPC‘s efforts received a boost with the election of Martin Kennelly as mayor in 1947.Chicago had been governed since the early 1930s by a powerful Democratic Party machine. Bythe end of World War II, however, a series of scandals implicating current mayor Edward Kellyproduced growing support for reform (Biles, 1984; O‘Malley, 1980).In the national electionsof 1946, half of the Chicago area‘s congressional seats were won by Republicans (O‘Malley,1980). To preempt the growing reform wave, leaders of the city‘s Democratic organization choseKennelly as the party‘s nominee for mayor. A successful business executive with no previous ties to the machine, Kennelly was appealing to reformers. However, as the machine‘s candidate formayor with no political base of his own, he had little political leverage to assert his independencefrom the party organization (Biles, 1995).Kennelly was well known in business circles, serving as vice-president of the Chicago Asso-ciation of Commerce and Industry, chairman of the Red Cross fund drive, a trustee of DePaulUniversity, and a member of the Federal Reserve Bank‘s industrial advisory committee (Biles,1995). After assuming office in April 1947, he quickly made urban renewal a priority, appointing a 15-member Committee for Housing Action to develop proposals for housing and slum clear-ance. The committee, chaired by Holman Pettibone and including fellow MHPC board membersFerd Kramer and Milton Mumford, played a key role in the passage of the state‘s 1947 urban re-newal legislation (Hirsch, 1998). In July 1948, Governor Green announced Chicago‘s first urbanrenewal project to be carried out under the new law (Chicago Tribune, 1948). Groundbreakingfor the construction of new public housing units followed several years later.While progress on urban redevelopment during the early postwar years was heartening tocivic leaders and other proponents of urban renewal, problems soon began to surface. Landassembly, slum clearance, and public housing construction were all taking much longer thanoriginally expected, in some cases placing the completion of projects in jeopardy. The crux of theproblem, most civic leaders agreed, was the fragmentation of the city‘s a dministrative powers,which posed a barrier to quick, decisive action. Urban renewal policy was administered by severaldifferent agencies, with responsibilities for slum clearance, redevelopment, public housing, andother activities divided among them.3By the early 1950s, this structure had becomeunwieldy.Coordination was increasingly difficult to achieve, creating ―many points at which success [could]be blocked; but none at which it [could] be assured‖ (MHPC, 1956a, p. 3).A second and related problem was posed by the weakness of the executive branch of citygovernment. Formally speaking, Chicago was a council-governed city. City council held thepower of approval over mayoral appointments, it prescribed the duties and powers of most city officers, and it could create new city departments and agencies at will. It also exercisedvariousadministrative powers, including preparation of the city budget, awarding of city contracts, andapproval of zoning variances. For urban renewal projects, council approval was required fordesignation of project areas, site plans, the terms of sale of city-owned land todevelopers,rezonings, and street closings (Chicago City Council, 1953). A council majority could blockvirtually any action by the mayor (Banfield, 1961; Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1954).As a comprehensive program for urban redevelopment, urban renewal policy required acity-wide perspective on the part of local government officials. However, aldermen were frequentlyindifferent to planning and development issues that did not directly concern their wards.4In situ-ations where their wards were affected, the needs of ward constituents typically came first. If anurban renewal or public housing project was opposed by a substantial number of ward residents,the alderman representing that district was likely to oppose it as well (Meyerson & Banfield,1955). Without strong executive leadership, an uncooperative alderman or bloc of aldermencould derail plans for new development.In the past, the office of the mayor was strengthened informally through the fusion of politicaland administrative power (Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1972). Previous mayors such asEdward Kelly had dominated city council by forming alliances with party leaders or by servingjointly as mayor and machine boss. Mayor Kennelly, however, distanced himself from machineleaders and made no effort to bring city council under his control. As he put it early in his term,―Chicago is a council-governed city . . . . I don‘t think it‘s a function of the mayor to boss thealdermen‖ (quoted in Simpson, 2001, p. 107). With control over urban renewal policy lodged, bydefault, in city council, coordinated action was extremely difficult to achieve.Under these conditions, questions of ―fit‖ between the city‘s governing institutions and the goalsof urban renewal stakeholders became paramount, as illustrated by the following two examples.Chicago‘s first urban renewal project, announced by Governor Green in July 1948, was a proposed100-acre development in a black neighborhood on the ci ty‘s South Side (Hirsch, 1998).Planscalled for the construction of 1,400 new housing units on the site. While the project received the endorsement of Mayor Kennelly and strong backing from the city‘s business leadership, it wascontroversial. More than 2,000 families currently living in the area would have to be relocated(Buck, 1949). In addition, the developer, New York Life Insurance Co., insisted on the closureof a four-block stretch of Cottage Grove Avenue, a major South Side arterial that bisectedtheproject footprint.The project quickly encountered organized opposition. Residents of the area perceived thedevelopment as an effort to remove blacks from the South Side (Neil, 1952). A group of 23property owners filed suit in federal court to prevent the Chicago Land Clearance Commission,the agency charged with land assembly for urban renewal, from taking their homes (ChicagoDefender, 1950). When that effort failed, the Property Conservation and Human Rights Committeeof Chicago petitioned the federal government to withhold funding for the project (ChicagoDefender, 1951).5Residents of nearby white neighborhoods, fearing an influx of displaced blacks, also opposed the project (Hirsch, 1998). Finally, the Chicago Motor Club organized acampaign against the closing of Cottage Grove Avenue, arguing that the street was essential tomaintaining an adequate flow of traffic on the South Side (Neil, 1952).To the dismay of New York Life officials, the various city agencies and governing bodies witha stake in the project could not come to an agreement on how to proceed. The Land ClearanceCommission initiated efforts to gain control over the 100-acre site. However, the Chicago PlanCommission was ―unceasingly difficult,‖ debating the closure of Cottage Grove Avenue for more than a year before finally making a weak recommendation that the street be vacated (MHPC,1949; Sturdy, 1950).6Several other city agencies—including the Chicago Transit Authority,the Department of Streets and Electricity, and the Park District—registered their opposition to the street closure (Neil, 1952). Meanwhile, a group of South Side aldermen opposed theproject altogether, arguing it would create unacceptable hardships for current residents of the area(Chicago Tribune, 1950b).By spring 1950, New York Life had begun to lose patience. In a letter to Mayor Kennelly,company vice-president Otto Nelson warned that ―fatal delay and eventual failure will result if thevarious agencies of the city who are involved yield to the temptation to compromise and placateat every point where some individual or small group is affected adversely‖ (Nelson, 1950). Withthe fate of the city‘s first urban renewal project hanging in the balance, Kennelly made a rareappearance before city council to express his support for the development (Buck, 1950a). The following month, the council voted 31–12 to approve the project (Buck, 1950b). In February1952, nearly four years after the development was first announced, ground was finally broken onthe city‘s first renewal project. Although urb an renewal proponents celebrated this milestone, thelengthy delays experienced by New York Life sent a strong message to private investors that urbanrenewal in Chicago under the present political conditions would require tremendous patience.In another well-publicized case also illustrating theproblems of administrative decentralizationfor urban renewal policy, a West Side alderman persuaded the Plan Commission to reclassify hisward from a ―blighted‖ area to a ―rehabilitation‖ area over the objections of the Land Clearance Commission (New York Times, 1950). The change meant that renewal efforts would have to takeplace through rehabilitation of existing structures—a method preferred by ward residents—ratherthan through slum clearance. The Plan Commission‘s decision preempted the efforts of the Land Clearance Commission, which was in the process of surveying the West Side to determine itsselection of slum clearance sites. Commission Chairman John McKinlay urged the mayor todelay action on the matter until the survey was completed (McKinlay, 1950). MHPC PresidentFerd Kramer warned the mayor of the ―devastating effects of [the Plan Commission‘s] actionon the entire redevelopment program‖ (MHPC, 1950a). However, this time Kennelly declined tointervene, and the city council planning committee approved the Plan Commission‘s decision by a25-2 vote. According to a 1950 MHPC report, such actions by the Plan Commission to ―sabotage‖the city‘s slum clearance program ―have discouraged some of thetop-ranking planners who were persuaded to come to Chicago on the promise that ‗things were going to happen here.‘ Duringthe past two years, nine professionals have called it quits and gone elsewhere‖ (MHPC, 1950b,p. 3).GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION: PHASE IBy the early 1950s, urban renewal advocates in Chicago had identified the fragmentation ofthe city‘s urban renewal powers as a principal cause of Chicago‘s sluggish redevelopment efforts.As one civic group put it, ―It is obvious that Chicago has too many agencies working on differentsegments of its housing problem, and that this creates pointless rivalries, overall administrativeinefficiency, excessive costs and public confusion‖ (Citizens Committee to Fight Slums, 1954,p. 23).In 1951, the city council Committee on Housing commissioned a study of the organization andadministration of the city‘s urban redevelopment program. The study was initiated by committeechairman Robert Merriam, a reform alderman from Hyde Park who had served as MHPC‘sdirector from 1946 to 1947. Released in July 1952, the study reaffirmed what MHPC andother urban renewal proponents had been arguing for several years: Chicago‘s―bewildering‖administrative organizational structure had created a situation in which ―all agencieslocally involved in redevelopment and housing occupy compromised positions‖ (Public AdministrationService, 1952, p. 10).The study‘s principal recommendation was the creation of a new cityDepartment of Redevelopment and Housing, which would assume the duties of the HousingAuthority, the Land Clearance Commission, and several other existing urban renewal agencies,all of which would be abolished.7Response to the report was less than enthusiastic. During the housing committee‘s first day ofhearings on the report, representatives from the Housing Authority and other affected agenciesrepeatedly criticized the study findings, prompting one committee staff member to suggest thatnongovernmental groups be invited to testify at subsequent hearings (Siegel, 1952). As thisindividual observed, ―As lo ng as the recommendation of the report involves the doing away withexisting agencies and the transfer of power from others, we can anticipate that there will beconsiderable opposition.‖Yet civic groups responded cautiously to the report as well. In a lett er to the council‘s housingcommittee, the chair of MHPC‘s newly formed committee on administrative reorganization rec-ommended a gradual approach to administrative change (Pois, 1953). The proposal was ―a fineplan in theory, but utterly dangerous to attemp t at this time‖ because of the control city councilwould exercise over the proposed new department (MHPC, 1952a). To be successful, adminis-trative reorganization would have to be accompanied by a parallel reform effort to strengthen the executive branch of city government.Such an effort was, in fact, under way and gaining momentum at the time. In 1952, a reformgroup calling itself the Citizens of Greater Chicago launched an initiative to produce a new citycharter for Chicago (Chicago Tribune, 1953a). Unde r the organization‘s proposed charter reformbill, administrative functions exercised by city council, such as preparation of the city budget,would be transferred to the mayor‘s office (Chicago Tribune, 1953b). In addition, the size ofcity council would be reduced from 50 to 15 members, including five members elected at large.Aldermen were largely dismissive of the initiative. As one council member put it, ―This is justa reform group. They don‘t know what an alderman‘s job is all about. They all come fromri chwards where they never have to go to an alderman to get anything done‖ (ChicagoTribune,1953c).Business leaders were largely supportive of the Citizens of Greater Chicago. MHPC, whichviewed charter reform as a necessary prerequisite for consolidation of the city‘s urban renewalagencies, quickly developed a partnership with the organization (MHPC, 1952a,b).8In June 1953,the MHPC Board of Governors voted to endorse the organization‘s charter reform bill (MHPC,1953). Despite the backing of the city‘s busine ss leadership, however, charter reform faced anuphill battle in the state legislature. Opposition to the bill from Chicago Democratic legislatorswould have to be offset by strong support from downstate Republicans.9Republican supportfailed to materialize, however, and the bill was defeated in the state senate by a vote of 18 to 12.Chicago Democrats reportedly voted for a number of downstate bills in exchange for promisesfrom Republican legislators to oppose charter reform. By one account, roughly half thed ownstateRepublican delegation ―either sat silent or walked out of the senate chamber just before the rollcall‖ (Howard, 1953).While charter reform was being debated, Mayor Kennelly took steps of his own to reorganizecity government. Concerned that the Cit izens of Greater Chicago was ―moving too rapidly‖ in itsefforts to obtain a new charter for the city, Kennelly appointed a 15-member Home Rule Com-mission to study the organization of city government and provide recommendations for reform(Chicago Tribune, 1953f).10The commission, chaired by Chicago Association of Commerce andIndustry director Leverett Lyon, issued its findings in a 415-page report released in September1954 (Chicago Home Rule Commission, 1954). The report‘s recommendations for governmentreorganization were similar to those of the Citizens of Greater Chicago charter reform bill,advocating a ―strong mayor‖ system of government and a downsized city council.11Moreover,as a body with official standing, the Home Rule Commission commanded a degree of legitimacyand respect that the Citizens of Greater Chicago did not enjoy.The recommendations of the Home Rule Commission were enthusiastically endorsed by thecity‘s major newspapers and top businessorganizations (Chicago Tribune, 1954, 1955a).How-ever, as the city‘s experience with charter reform a year earlier had shown,assembling legislativemajorities around government reorganization in Chicago would be difficult without the cooper-ation of the city‘s Democratic Party regulars. Initiatives that served to strengthen the powers ofthe mayor seemed unlikely to attract the support of machine politicians as long as themayor‘soffice was occupied by a reformer. Implementing a strong mayor system would simply。

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：施工项目的成本控制文献、资料英文题目：The construction project cost control 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：工程管理班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14学生毕业设计（论文）英文翻译The construction project cost control1 IntroductionProject is a corporate image window and effectiveness of the source. With increasingly fierce market competition, the quality of work and the construction of civilizations rising material prices fluctuations. uncertainties and other factors, make the project operational in a relatively tough environment. So the cost of control is through the building of the project since the bidding phase of acceptance until the completion of the entire process, It is a comprehensive enterprise cost management an important part, we must organize and control measures in height to the attention witha view to improving the economic efficiency of enterprises to achieve the purpose.2 Outlining the construction project cost controlThe cost of the project refers to the cost and process of formation occurred, on the production and operation of the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restrictions, in a timely manner to prevent, detect and correct errors in order to control costs in all project costs within the intended target. to guarantee the production and operation of enterprises benefits.3 The cost of the construction enterprise principles of construction enterprises controlThe cost of control is based on cost control of construction project for the center, Construction of the project cost control principle is the enterprise cost management infrastructure and the core, Construction Project Manager in the Ministry of Construction of the project cost control process, we must adhere to the following basic principles.1）Principles lowest cost. Construction of the project cost control, the basic purpose is to cost management through various means, promote construction projects continue to reduce costs, to achieve the lowest possible cost of the objective requirements. The implementation of the principle of minimum cost, attention should be given to the possibility of reducing costs and reasonable cost of the minimum. While various mining capacity to reduce costs so that possibility into reality; The other must proceed from actual conditions, enacted subjective efforts could achieve a reasonable level of the minimum cost.2）Overall cost control principles. Cost Management is a comprehensive enterprise-wide, and full management of the entire process, also known as the "three" of management. The full project cost control is a system of substantive content, including the departments, the responsibility for the network and team economic accounting, and so on, to prevent the cost control is everybody's responsibility, regardless of everyone. Project cost of the entire process control requirements to control its costs with the progress of construction projects in various stages of continuous, neither overlooked nor time when, should enable construction projects throughout costs under effective control.3）Dynamic Control principle. Construction of the project is a one-time, cost control should emphasize control of the project in the middle, that is, dynamic control. Construction preparation stage because the cost is under the control of construction design to determine the specific content of the cost, prepare cost plans, the development of a cost-control program for the future cost control ready. And thecompletion of phase cost control, as a result of cost financing has been basically a foregone conclusion, even if the deviation has been too late to rectify.4）Principle of management by objectives. Management objectives include : setting goals and decomposition, the goal of responsibility and implementation of the aims of the inspection results of the implementation, evaluation of the goals and objectives that form the management objectives of the planning, implementation, inspection, processing cycle, PDCA.5）Responsibility, authority, in light of the profit principle. Construction of the project, project manager of the department, the team shouldering the responsibility for cost control at the same time, enjoy the power of cost control, project manager for the department, Teams cost control in the performance of regular examination and appraisal of implementation of a crossword punishment. Only to do a good job duties, rights, and interests combining cost control, in order to achieve the desired results.4 The construction cost control measuresProject Manager of the project cost management responsibility for the first, comprehensive organization of the project cost management, timely understand and analyze profit and loss situation and take prompt and effective measures; engineering technology department should ensure the quality, Regular tasks to complete as much as possible under the premise adopt advanced technology in order to reduce costs; Ministry of Economic Affairs should strengthen budget management contract, the project to create the budget revenue; Finance Ministry in charge of the project's financial, Analysis of the project should keep the financial accounts of reasonable scheduling of funds.Develop advanced economies reasonable construction program, which can shorten the period, and improve quality, reduce costs purpose; paid attention to quality control to eliminate redone, shorten the acceptance and reduce expenses; control labor costs, material costs, Machinery and other indirect costs.5 Strengthen project cost control practical significance1）Strengthen project cost control railway construction enterprises out of their predicament, the need to increase revenue. At present, the railway construction enterprises just into the market, to participate in market competition, will face a tough test of the market. Now the construction market liberalization, implement bidding system, and the strike has very low weight, To create efficiency is the only way to strengthen internal management and improve their internal conditions, internal efficiency potentials. Therefore, the strengthening of project cost control is a very realistic way.2）Strengthening Project Cost control is adapt to the market competition, and strengthening internal management to the needs of their work. With the railway enterprise's rapid development, construction increasingly fierce market competition. For a period of time, the railway construction enterprises will face the increasingly fierce market challenges Construction of the business environment difficult to be improved. Efficiency increases, effective cost control and claims will be strengthened in the future management focus. This requires the railway construction enterprises should respect the unity of the work to reduce costs and enhance efficiency objectives.6 Currently construction enterprise project cost control analysis of the current project cost6.1 Problems and the causes of the current project implementationIn summary, the current project of cost management, accounting only after the accounting, rather than advance the prevention and control things. The reasons are : lack of cost awareness. simply that the cost of management is the financial sector or the superior leadership, have nothing to do with them. only focused on the "production tasks are completed" and "contracting profit and loss," the groups have a "negative effect." Therefore, project to mobilize the full participation of the Ministry of cost control, deepening of the project cost management imperative.6.2 Project Department analysis of the reasons for the losses as a project of building productsCommodities direct producers, both under the contract and construction drawings, self-regulating organizations of the construction authority, but also by contracting, design, Enterprises and other projects related to the construction of the units affected and constrained. In addition, geological and climate changes, Design changes, but on objective factors of the construction projects have a significant impact, and all of the above factors will affect the cost of project expenditures.6.2.1 Lost control of the cost of the so-called subjective reasons,Subjective reasons refer to the project, can not dispose of any external influence on the control of the costs, As mentioned above the project with the Ministry of Construction for the autonomy of the cost. mainly include the following aspects :1）No strict cost control of the overall goal or no cost control goals. Most of the loss items Department head, there is no cost control goals. Although some but not strictly enforced, thus the cost of the project is out of control.2）Materials, spare parts planning, procurement, inspection, custody, out of the reservoir, consumption of the system is not sound. the loss of the item, the purchase of materials and accessories unplanned phenomenon abound. procurement lies in the number of project managers even material, the result is bound to lead to a backlog of material, cost overruns.3）Serious quality problems. serious losses Project Department, almost all relatively serious quality problems, resulting in rework, repair, It seems a repetition of construction, increase the costs of construction. For example, in the bridge construction, there is the basis sank, Pier deflect such phenomena.4）Unreasonable arrangements. During the construction process, the project was not in a reasonable allocation of manpower, materials, equipment and other resources. lead to a waste of sabotage work; Construction of the manufacturing arrangements unreasonable to step in to complete the actual conduct of the second, three complete, the resulting redone, and so on.5）More accidents. the loss of the item, Most of the projects have occurred in the Department of varying degrees of security incidents and minor injuries affected employees work injuries have affected staff work, Also the cost of medical expenses, but can also enable the staff of physical and skills decline, reduced labor and labor efficiency; fatal accidents resulting in huge pension costs to be incurred, directly increasing costs, and may also affect sentiment reduce production efficiency.6）Contract management confusion. the loss of the item, Most of the projects the Ministry failed contract management awareness, knowledge of the contract, and have little do not understand the basic elements of the contract, contract management led to confusion, enterprises suffered huge economic losses.6.2.2 The influence of objective factors of the project is to increase the total cost of a connection so-called objective factorsProject Department is unable to control its own and must take place or because there are things or phenomena, such as contracting, design, enterprises in terms of the contract for the project outside the Ministry of Construction issued the directive, geological and climate changes, Design changes such. These factors for the emergence of the cost incurred, Project Department is not the objective to control costs. These factors are :1）Costs. Some enterprises in order to gain access to a particular market in the qualifications, thereby meeting the quality of construction projects built on the premise that right to take the tender bid price is lower than the cost of bidding strategy for the final bidding process, in the operating strategy is bound to happen, but projects are concerned, no matter what steps are taken it will be difficult to make these projects profitable.2）Geological and Climate changes. the geological conditions are inconsistent with the design, Projects will be forced to change the construction method, thus affecting the construction period, so that the total project costs. the same time will also cost breakdown of a larger change. Winter, Construction of the rainy season andthe number of days of sandstorms construction increase, the Ministry will allow the project to increase various fees.3）Design changes. various engineering design changes so that the project will cost changes affect the total project cost. For example, contracting unit to increase the number of extend or shorten the construction period. changes in construction plans and projects to improve the quality of grading, etc..4）Construction design less reasonable. As a construction site with the actual difference individual projects in construction design at the time of the existence of irrational phenomena, such as the personnel, materials, equipment arrangements and plans for the accuracy of individual projects or processes of the time, the lack of quality considerations. Projects can make the cost increase.5）Sabotage work of the project. As work on the link between tasks or for other reasons, Projects have some sabotage work, in this period sabotage work needed to meet various costs, such as wages or basic living expenses. fixed asset depreciation charges, indirect costs of the project. Projects6.3 Containment measures for the lossContainment measures for the loss of containment for a variety of reasons over the project losses, in accordance with the requirements of clear responsibilities, Projects should control the cost of the project is able to cost control measures were taken. for a project to control the cost of the project by the Ministry of control; and the project beyond the control of the costs or losses, by the enterprises should take measures to control it.6.3.1 Construction projects to the Ministry of the so-called cost control measures to the Ministry of Construction of the project.Construction projects to the Ministry of the so-called cost control measures to the Ministry of Construction of the project.refer to enterprises directly organized by the staff and farmers contract workers, temporary workers and the labor force composedof the internal construction team, mixed construction team and construction services sub-teams composed of Construction Projects.1）Determine the total project cost targets and the profit and loss targets. Every one of the successful projects, in a formal pre-construction, identify the project and sub-project for the dates, materials, equipment and identify the project and sub-project of the labor, materials, machinery and indirect costs. On this basis, The project will determine the profit or loss targets.2）Implemented material bidding procurement. Projects must thoroughly change the past, piecemeal purchase goods, the enterprises of all projects, including the main material to build on all the tender for the procurement, Obviously choice of material suppliers. Meanwhile, we should fully consider the time value of money. choose a suitable form of payment.3）Controllable according to the principle of cost control. The Ministry of Construction of the project team and staff, In accordance with the principle of cost control and distinguish the project department, the construction team and the staff of the costs of monovalent responsibility, including dates Price, Materials Unit, select the unit and units, or fixed rates. We must strictly enforce the internal inspection system for pricing, timely construction team and staff honored economic interests.4）Enhance safety, and quality management. Projects must establish security, Quality is the major benefits of efficiency. actively prevent and avoid possible security, quality accidents, for the accident-prone regions of constant surveillance. to strictly implement the responsibility for the accident the penalty system so that all staff clearly establish the safety, quality consciousness.5）Strengthen contract management. All of the projects, In particular, the main sub-projects of the need for a designated person responsible for contract management, In addition to the timely settlement or deal with the things, with the other units or individuals from the economic, technical, labor matters, must sign the formal contract, not with the verbal agreement. at the contract process, should act in strict accordance with the relevant provisions of the contract for disposal.6）Improve the management system, establish a cost-control mechanism. Projects must connect with reality, the development and control of the cost to draw up rules and regulations, such as material procurement, custody, inspection, warehousing, consumption system, the labor remuneration management systems, equipment management, financial management, accounting, security, quality management approach, the post-mortem valuation methods, and to establish the cost of the project department of internal control and supervision mechanisms.6.3.2 Construction of the sub-item of cost control measures in the so-called sub-Construction Projects1）Determined in accordance with the assembly The objectives of the sub-projects to determine the price.2）Allocated in strict accordance with the requirements of the project and the clearing. Projects must be in accordance with the provisions of the contract settlement price of the project, completion of the sub-units of qualified engineering post-mortem will be conducted on a monthly basis for the valuation and then clearing projects, sub-units will not be allowed to advance baiting, and for projects.3）Strictly prohibited construction of external units link . Projects must be in accordance with the requirements of enterprises, prohibit external units linked to various forms of external construction enterprises. Any item shall not allow the Ministry of External units to enterprises in the name of contractor carry out projects, the post-mortem pricing and settlement payments.7 On how to conduct effective cost control7.1 Segmentation project costOptimal allocation of project resources project allocation of resources is directly related to cost control methods and extent of For many of the ongoing state-controlled construction of large enterprises, Basically, the cost of the project is a subcontractor costs and cost of the construction team, and the enterprises is the main source of economic control subcontractor costs. Team Construction costs are often difficult tocreate cost-effective. both how the mix, the cost of the project into how, This enterprise is the key to cost control problems.7.2 The development of a cost planA cost of the complete dynamic control costs and responsibilities of sub-division and the initial cost of the two identified some of the costs, To work out the total cost of the scheme, the total cost of the scheme is in addition to covering the costs and responsibilities of sub-cost, should also consider funding the project site, the higher management fees, taxes and other factors. The total cost will be divided into two parts :1）Uncontrollable cost of the project : it refers to taxes, the higher management fees can not be subjective project management control;2）Controllable cost of the project : the total cost of the scheme, apart from the uncontrollable costs other than the full cost, such as subcontracting costs, responsibility for the cost, on-site expenses.Controllable costs are focused on cost control, controllable cost of the project is planned prior to the commencement of the construction time, construction, construction design based on. Along with the progress of works and that will happen if the construction program improvement works to change, to build factors such as rising price changes. So for the cost of plans to conduct timely adjustment, the cost of the scheme is to ensure that the guidance and control, in the adjustment should pay more attention to analysis of the different factors changes to the original cost of the scheme is the extent of the effect.7.4 Conduct a cost analysis, improve enterprise cost management level after the end of constructionAccording to the total cost of the scheme and controllable cost plan and the final actual cost comparison analysis, cost analysis charts available in various forms, such as comparative analysis not only to the total cost, but also to process cost analysis, but mainly to process analysis, process reached higher or lower cost reasons.1）First analyze the conditions for the construction, Construction programs, materials price changes caused by changes in the unit price for the process, collecting the introduction of new technology, new techniques, and new materials processes cost information;2）Followed by the subjective determination of the cost comparison part of the process the price analysis by the enactment of the unreasonable result of the high or low price processes, while accumulation of written information, for the future development of similar projects the cost of the scheme;3）Sub-units of information collection and evaluation of sub-contractors, prepared, "the roster of qualified sub-contractors" for future similar projects to choose subcontractors and sub-development costs;4）Summary subcontracting costs and responsibility cost data, after screening analysis for enterprise Bidding reference.8. Summary of the construction project cost controlSummary of the construction project cost control is a complicated systematic project. the application needed to be applied with flexibility the actual operation be adapted to local conditions, different sizes, different construction firms and different management systems have differences, But in any case are the construction of the production and operation of enterprises in the amount of human resources, material resources and expenses, guidance, supervision, regulation and restriction. Therefore, "increases production and economize, to increase revenues and reduce expenditures" is a common construction enterprises, This requires constant practice in the review and improve cost control, ways and means to ensure that the project cost goals.施工项目的成本控制1 引言项目是企业的形象窗口和效益源泉。

XXX大学本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译译文学生姓名: XXX院（系）: 经济管理学院专业班级: 工程管理0601指导教师 : XXX完成日期 : 2010年3月31日要求1、外文翻译是毕业设计（论文）的主要内容之一，必须学生独立完成。

2、外文翻译译文内容应与学生的专业或毕业设计（论文）内容相关，不得少于15000印刷符号。

3.外文翻译译文用A4纸打印。

文章标题用3号宋体，章节标题用4号宋体，正文用小4号宋体，20磅行距；页边距上、下、左、右均为2.5cm，左侧装订，装订线0.5cm。

按中文翻译在上，外文原文在下的顺序装订。

4、年月日等的填写，用阿拉伯数字书写，要符合《关于出版物上数字用法的试行规定》，如“2005年2月26日”。

5、所有签名必须手写，不得打印。

招标项目评价和关键因素的确定Identifying key factors in the evaluation of tendersfor projects and servic es作者：D.J. Watt，B. Kayis，K. Willey起止页码：250-260出版日期（期刊号）：2009年27期出版单位：International Journal of Project Management作者D.J. Watt 新南威尔士大学，新南威尔士州2052号，澳大利亚学院B. Kayis雅各布澳大利亚，堪培拉ACT 2601号，澳大利亚K. Willey 科技大学，百老汇新州2007号，澳大利亚摘要：客户对投标商的选择和评价标准建立在评价影响承包商因素重要性的基础上，例如经验、知识、过去的表现和成本。

本文介绍了最近的一项研究，试图找出一个代表套房的投标评价和今后的研究中承选择包商的标准。

该研究包括对承包商的选择和评标管理文献的研究，以及探索性调查。

对于每一个承包商我们开发一个单独的列表，并对所有承包商确定了一个标准控制值测试，用于确定共同的和独特的因素类别，用它进行绝对差异测试，以确定投标书的评价所采用的标准。

土木工程质量管理中英文资料外文翻译文献On civil engineering construction project quality management1 IntroductionCivil engineering building project success lies in the quality of quality, separate, other everything is out of the question. Therefore, to take civil engineering construction quality management in the construction project implementation plan and implementation process.In practice, no more than the use of engineering quality of care. But to ensure the construction quality, using the party there is a need for the organization experienced professional quality management team, design of the wholeconstruction process, including engineering design, construction units, building material, construction process and supervision and other aspects of the management, but also guide the construction unit of the construction personnel to timely and effectively encourages training. This article from the above several aspects to discuss.2.construction of the effective surveillance on the use of unit, design unit as a design once, is the work of supervisors, why should I organize the quality surveillance team? Because our country construction there are still many unsatisfactory objective or objective aspects, the unit is necessary to hire have the sense of responsibility, have management experience, familiar with the policies and regulations, have good communication ability quality management, set up quality management team, the construction design and construction process for effective management monitoring. The management team, can according to the engineering build pause status stop adjustment, implementation of compulsory system. On ordinary civil construction, quality management is relatively easy, with the possible exception of new information on the use of new technology, the whole quality management more rule-based. On special request of civil building engineering, quality management will be arranged to stop.First of all, on the quality of project design management. This stage, mainly for the design units in strict accordance with the unit can the fundamental request stop design, to check whether reasonable design plan, design intent can and thesurrounding geographical environment as well as local humane environment of harmony, in the technology and the budget is feasible, can be advanced technology, reliable structure can safely, whether the unit in charge of construction appropriate technology request etc..These aspects of the management and inspection, in relation to the whole building after project completion, in the use of function, quality, human physical performance and other aspects whether can reach certain degree of satisfaction of the big issue.At this stage, management personnel more to listen to designers to design the idea", a lot of advisory application unit in macroscopical and microcosmic staff views on initiative, make design to perfection.In addition, to check the design drawings can correctly reflect the design plan, calculated correctly, drawing dimensioning can have mistakenly, selection of materials and construction request whether reasonable, the overall design of various departments such as can harmonious design. Because our country is in the design and supervision work still is lacked very much, in the aspects of management and examination must be careful, in order to prevent subsequent quality disputes.Secondly, to the construction supervision supervision.Construction supervision is the key to guarantee the construction quality. Quality management departments should promptly to supervision departments to key local construction quality monitoring report, implement supervision duty. At the same time, but also in a timely manner, sampling test, certain constructiontechnology can fit design request. On construction supervision departments, to check its supervision can improve the supervision work procedure, to check whether supervision report specification, not in conformity with the requests of construction operation can be corrected in a timely manner.Again, on the construction equipment and construction personnel basic quality supervision and inspection construction can stop, with safe and reliable, can satisfy the design request and to complete construction; construction team consisting of whether reasonable, the construction of the technical staff to whether accord with basic request, especially on special request link, can have the equivalent level technical personnel in charge of participating in the construction process. Pay attention to the quality of construction unit, it progresses to the legal view. On raw materials procurement and construction of test procedures are detailed records.In addition, to stop the construction effect of sampling, discover a problem, timely and inspect manage personnel contact, stop the rectification, to prevent the engineering dispute, avoid engineering quality formation of waste.3construction of the various communication quality management work is not a design and construction method for cubic, but the entire project important constituent, it is designed with all relevant units of the divergent interests of. Present quality problems, the parties involved have the duty, have loss. At this point, the quality management must communicate with relevant parties, won the understanding and support. In addition, in the process of construction, also oftenencounter the construction side of the design request of doubt problem. The generation of these problems, sometimes due to the use of units of detailed request, some are the result of the design concept and design thoughts of the reasons, some due to the construction process the request of different caused. These problems cannot be ignored, should be promptly to communicate, understand the request, the timely adjustment. Not conscious construction, so that the practical results and design request is betrayed, and the use of units of the basic request of betrayal, unnecessary disputes and losses.4construction personnel training and encourage civil engineering building operators is worker of a gleam of. From the present situation, the construction team of individual technical quality is also very important. Some construction unit, construction personnel activity, the construction of personnel practice degree no true assessment, making the construction quality to sell at a discount greatly.Then, is it right? A start to construction personnel examination, request to high level? At least from the now situation, which is not ideal. First, each building project on the detailed construction technology has different request. In the organization of the construction process, request a certain proportion of with some degree of worker technician, another local can have initial operation skills of construction workers. During the construction process, to guide the construction of a reasonable distribution of work, make the workers work in practice to further mature some basic types of operational procedures and technical requirements, andon this basis, the organization staff to stop training, make the understanding of the new technology, become established during the construction of the backbone. Then let them in the work of a scheme to other construction personnel to impart technical.In this respect, the construction unit according to the detailed status of layout. There has been a reasonable training mechanism, the construction personnel to understand the practical operation level, and improve their technical level of power. In the long run, the overall quality of the progress of the construction unit is also very important.On the other hand, effective encouragement and improve construction worker job enthusiasm and learning enthusiasm of the necessary measures. Frontline workers mostly from rural, energy consumption, the low pay, the mood is stable. Therefore, to establish effective encouraging mechanism. To ensure that the wage Qing month, labor safeguard measures, management of human nature, care workers and Ankang. In addition, to organize the workers involved in the construction management and technology research, fully adjustable open invention enthusiasm of workers. Technology progress leads to an increase in income, so as to promote the stable construction team, the construction quality is very important. It is hard to imagine that a majority of people full of grievances of the construction team can achieve the task.5ConclusionIt is often said, should be " a matter of expediency in construction, quality first", however, the quality problem is emerge in an endless stream. If in the construction process of some links, quality difference, these difference basically from accumulated will change the whole engineering quality. Therefore, do not let every link of the quality monitoring, on the problem of construction promptly corrected, is to use units, design units, as for as to construction unit as, namely to society as. With such a sense of duty, our engineering degree will gradually progress, can form the good work habits. Constitute the benign development of building construction environment. On the other hand, quality management can't think of what to do what, to systematic, procedural, design the whole management process, all the data, project compilation record, best to establish a computer database, stored in the computer. Management of examination conclusions, text, image, and correcting the situation chart problem timely records. This is the construction quality management informatization is the inevitable trend of development. This is my civil engineering construction quality management shortcomings, to be further developed.译文：关于土木工程施工工程的质量管理1.引言土木工程建立工程的成败在于质量，分开质量，其他一切都无从谈起。

Unit 1 the owner's perspective 第1单元业主的观点1。

2 Major Types of Construction 1.2大建筑类型Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them [1]. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However ,many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities。

It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive。

Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because，by their individual actions，they can provide incentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction ［2］。