Octopamine Receptor Responsible for the Inhibition of Sex– pheromone Production in Plodia

NIEHS REPORT onHealth Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic FieldsPrepared in Response to the 1992 Energy Policy Act(PL 102-486, Section 2118)National Institute of Environmental Health SciencesNational Institutes of HealthDr. Kenneth Olden, DirectorPrepared by theNIEHS EMF-RAPID Program StaffNIH Publication No. 99-4493Supported by the NIEHS/DOEDEPARTMENT OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES Public Health ServiceNational Institutes of HealthNational Institute ofEnvironmental Health SciencesP. O. Box 12233Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 May 4, 1999Dear Reader:In 1992, the U.S. Congress authorized the Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination Program (EMF-RAPID Program) in the Energy Policy Act. The Congress instructed the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to direct and manage a program of research and analysis aimed at providing scientific evidence to clarify the potential for health risks from exposure to extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields (ELF-EMF). The EMF-RAPID Program had three basic components: 1) a research program focusing on health effects research, 2) information compilation and public outreach and 3) a health assessment for evaluation of any potential hazards arising from exposure to ELF-EMF. The NIEHS was directed to oversee the health effects research and evaluation, and the DOE was given the responsibility for overall administration of funding and engineering research aimed at characterizing and mitigating these fields. The Director of the NIEHS was mandated upon completion of the Program to provide this report outlining the possible human health risks associated with exposure to ELF-EMF. The scientific evidence used in preparation of this report has undergone extensive scientific and public review. The entire process was open and transparent. Anyone who wanted “to have a say” was provided the opportunity.The scientific evidence suggesting that ELF-EMF exposures pose any health risk is weak. The strongest evidence for health effects comes from associations observed in human populations with two forms of cancer: childhood leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia in occupationally exposed adults. While the support from individual studies is weak, the epidemiological studies demonstrate, for some methods of measuring exposure, a fairly consistent pattern of a small, increased risk with increasing exposure that is somewhat weaker for chronic lymphocytic leukemia than for childhood leukemia. In contrast, the mechanistic studies and the animal toxicology literature fail to demonstrate any consistent pattern across studies although sporadic findings of biological effects have been reported. No indication of increased leukemias in experimental animals has been observed.The lack of connection between the human data and the experimental data (animal and mechanistic) severely complicates the interpretation of these results. The human data are in the "right" species, are tied to "real life" exposures and show some consistency that is difficult to ignore. This assessment is tempered by the observation that given the weak magnitude of these increased risks, some other factor or common source of error could explain these findings. However, no consistent explanation other than exposure to ELF-EMF has been identified.Page 2Epidemiological studies have serious limitations in their ability to demonstrate a cause and effect relationship whereas laboratory studies, by design, can clearly show that cause and effect are possible. Virtually all of the laboratory evidence in animals and humans and most of the mechanistic work done in cells fail to support a causal relationship between exposure to ELF-EMF at environmental levels and changes in biological function or disease status. The lack of consistent, positive findings in animal or mechanistic studies weakens the belief that this association is actually due to ELF-EMF, but it cannot completely discount the epidemiological findings.The NIEHS concludes that ELF-EMF exposure cannot be recognized at this time as entirely safe because of weak scientific evidence that exposure may pose a leukemia hazard. In my opinion, the conclusion of this report is insufficient to warrant aggressive regulatory concern. However, because virtually everyone in the United States uses electricity and therefore is routinely exposed to ELF-EMF, passive regulatory action is warranted such as a continued emphasis on educating both the public and the regulated community on means aimed at reducing exposures. The NIEHS does not believe that other cancers or non-cancer health outcomes provide sufficient evidence of a risk to currently warrant concern. The interaction of humans with ELF-EMF is complicated and will undoubtedly continue to be an area of public concern. The EMF-RAPID Program successfully contributed to the scientific knowledge on ELF-EMF through its support of high quality, hypothesis-based research. While some questions were answered, others remain. Building upon the knowledge base developed under the EMF-RAPID Program, meritorious research on ELF-EMF through carefully designed, hypothesis-driven studies should continue for areas warranting fundamental study including leukemia. Recent research in two areas, neurodegenerative diseases and cardiac diseases associated with heart rate variability, have identified some interesting and novel findings for which further study is ongoing. Advocacy groups have opposing views concerning the health effects of ELF-EMF. Some advocacy groups want complete exoneration and others want a more serious indictment. Our conclusions are prudent and consistent with the scientific data. I am satisfied with the report and believe it provides a pragmatic, scientifically-driven basis for any further regulatory review.I am pleased to transmit this report to the U.S. Congress.Sincerely,Kenneth Olden, Ph.D.DirectorNIEHS EMF-RAPID P ROGRAM S TAFF Gary A. Boorman, D.V.M., Ph.D., Associate Director for Special Programs, Environmental Toxicology Program and Director, EMF-RAPID ProgramNaomi J. Bernheim, M.S., Biologist, Office of Special Programs, Environmental Toxicology Program and Program Assistant, EMF-RAPID ProgramMichael J. Galvin, Ph.D., Health Scientist Administrator, Division of Extramural Research and Training and Extramural Program Administrator, EMF-RAPIDProgramSheila A. Newton, Ph.D., Director, Office of Policy, Planning and EvaluationFred M. Parham, Ph.D., Staff Scientist, Laboratory of Computational Biology and Risk AnalysisChristopher J. Portier, Ph.D., Associate Director for Risk Assessment, Environmental Toxicology Program; Chief, Laboratory of Computational Biology and RiskAnalysis; and Coordinator, EMF Hazard EvaluationMary S. Wolfe, Ph.D., Associate Coordinator, EMF Hazard Evaluation, Environmental Toxicology ProgramA CKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis report would not have been possible without the concerted and generous help of literally hundreds of research scientists. Many of the scientists who wrote the articles, which are cited in this report, attended our science review symposia where their research was carefully evaluated and critiqued. Their patience with our questions and their professional attitude in evaluating their own work was extraordinary and is greatly appreciated. We are also indebted to the many scientists from outside of the electric and magnetic fields (EMF) research community who participated in our symposia and spent time and effort evaluating these data on our behalf; this provides a clear example of the dedication of scientists concerned about health issues.Special thanks are extended to the 30 scientists who attended the Working Group Meeting in June 1998. Their hard work and conscientious effort led to one of the most concise and clear reviews of the extremely low frequency (ELF) EMF literature ever developed. The thousands of man-hours extended by this group in such a short period of time provided us with a background document on ELF-EMF health risks that made this report a much simpler task. We wish especially to thank Dr. Arnold Brown for attending our public meetings on the Working Group Report; his extensive experience and insightful comments helped to make these meetings a great success. We would also like to thank Dr. Brown and Dr. Paul Gailey for reviewing this report prior to its release and Mr. Fred Dietrich for advising us on exposure issues during the preparation of this document. Finally we would like to acknowledge the U.S. Department of Energy as our partner in the EMF-RAPID Program and its EMF program officer, Dr. Imre Gyuk.T ABLE OF C ONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY (i)I NTRODUCTION (i)NIEHS C ONCLUSION (ii)B ACKGROUND (iii)Program Oversight and Management (iii)ELF-EMF Health Effects Research (iv)Information Dissemination and Public Outreach (iv)Health Risk Assessment of ELF-EMF Exposure (v)INTRODUCTION (1)Funding (2)Oversight and Program Management (3)ELF-EMF Health Effects Research (3)Information Dissemination and Public Outreach (4)Literature Review and Health Risk Assessment (6)DO ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS POSE A HEALTH RISK? (9)S CIENTIFIC E VIDENCE S UPPORTING T HIS C ONCLUSION (10)Background on the Limitations of Epidemiology Studies (10)Childhood Cancers (12)Adult Cancers (15)Non-Cancer Findings in Humans (16)Animal Cancer Data (19)Non-Cancer Health Effects in Experimental Animals (23)Studies of Cellular Effects of ELF-EMF (25)Biophysical Theory (29)HOW HIGH ARE EXPOSURES IN THE U.S. POPULATION? (31)CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (35)Previous Panel Reviews (35)NIEHS Conclusion (35)Recommended Actions (37)Future Research (38)REFERENCES (41)E XECUTIVE S UMMARYIntroductionElectrical energy has been used to great advantage for over 100 years. Associated with the generation, transmission, and use of electrical energy is the production of weak electric and magnetic fields (EMF). In the United States, electricity isusually delivered as alternating current that oscillates at 60 cycles per second(Hertz, Hz) putting fields generated by this electrical energy in the extremely low frequency (ELF) range.Prior to 1979 there was limited awareness of any potential adverse effects fromthe use of electricity aside from possible electrocution associated with directcontact or fire from faulty wiring. Interest in this area was catalyzed with thereport of a possible association between childhood cancer mortality and proximity of homes to power distribution lines. Over the next dozen years, the U.S.Department of Energy (DOE) and others conducted numerous studies on theeffects of ELF-EMF on biological systems that helped to clarify the risks andprovide increased understanding. Despite much study in this area, considerabledebate remained over what, if any, health effects could be attributed to ELF-EMF exposure.In 1992, the U.S. Congress authorized the Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination Program (EMF-RAPID Program) in theEnergy Policy Act (PL 102-486, Section 2118). The Congress instructed theNational Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), National Institutes of Health and the DOE to direct and manage a program of research and analysisaimed at providing scientific evidence to clarify the potential for health risks from exposure to ELF-EMF. The EMF-RAPID Program had three basic components:1) a research program focusing on health effects research, 2) informationcompilation and public outreach and 3) a health assessment for evaluation of any potential hazards arising from exposure to ELF-EMF. The NIEHS was directedto oversee the health effects research and evaluation and the DOE was given theresponsibility for overall administration of funding and engineering researchaimed at characterizing and mitigating these fields. The Director of the NIEHSwas mandated upon completion of the Program to provide a report outlining thepossible human health risks associated with exposure to ELF-EMF. Thisdocument responds to this requirement of the law.This five-year effort was signed into law in October 1992 and provisions of thisAct were extended for one year in 1997. The Program ended December 31, 1998.The EMF-RAPID Program was funded jointly by Federal and matching privatefunds and has been an extremely successful Federal/private partnership withsubstantial financial support from the utility industry. The NIEHS received$30.1 million from this program for research, public outreach, administration and the health assessment evaluation of ELF-EMF. In addition to EMF-RAPIDProgram funds from the DOE, the NIEHS contributed $14.5 million for support of extramural and intramural research including long-term toxicity studies conducted by the National Toxicology Program.NIEHS ConclusionThe scientific evidence suggesting that ELF-EMF exposures pose any health risk is weak. The strongest evidence for health effects comes from associationsobserved in human populations with two forms of cancer: childhood leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia in occupationally exposed adults. While thesupport from individual studies is weak, the epidemiological studies demonstrate, for some methods of measuring exposure, a fairly consistent pattern of a small,increased risk with increasing exposure that is somewhat weaker for chroniclymphocytic leukemia than for childhood leukemia. In contrast, the mechanisticstudies and the animal toxicology literature fail to demonstrate any consistentpattern across studies although sporadic findings of biological effects (includingincreased cancers in animals) have been reported. No indication of increasedleukemias in experimental animals has been observed.The lack of connection between the human data and the experimental data (animal and mechanistic) severely complicates the interpretation of these results. Thehuman data are in the “right” species, are tied to “real-life” exposures and showsome consistency that is difficult to ignore. This assessment is tempered by theobservation that given the weak magnitude of these increased risks, some otherfactor or common source of error could explain these findings. However, noconsistent explanation other than exposure to ELF-EMF has been identified.Epidemiological studies have serious limitations in their ability to demonstrate acause and effect relationship whereas laboratory studies, by design, can clearlyshow that cause and effect are possible. Virtually all of the laboratory evidence in animals and humans and most of the mechanistic work done in cells fail tosupport a causal relationship between exposure to ELF-EMF at environmentallevels and changes in biological function or disease status. The lack of consistent, positive findings in animal or mechanistic studies weakens the belief that thisassociation is actually due to ELF-EMF, but it cannot completely discount theepidemiological findings.The NIEHS concludes that ELF-EMF exposure cannot be recognized as entirelysafe because of weak scientific evidence that exposure may pose a leukemiahazard. In our opinion, this finding is insufficient to warrant aggressiveregulatory concern. However, because virtually everyone in the United Statesuses electricity and therefore is routinely exposed to ELF-EMF, passiveregulatory action is warranted such as a continued emphasis on educating both the public and the regulated community on means aimed at reducing exposures. The NIEHS does not believe that other cancers or non-cancer health outcomes provide sufficient evidence of a risk to currently warrant concern.The interaction of humans with ELF-EMF is complicated and will undoubtedlycontinue to be an area of public concern. The EMF-RAPID Program successfully contributed to the scientific knowledge on ELF-EMF through its support of highquality, hypothesis-based research. While some questions were answered, others remain. Building upon the knowledge base developed under the EMF-RAPIDProgram, meritorious research on ELF-EMF through carefully designed,hypothesis-driven studies should continue for areas warranting fundamental study including leukemia. Recent research in two areas, neurodegenerative diseases and cardiac diseases associated with heart rate variability, have identified someinteresting and novel findings for which further study is ongoing.BackgroundProgram Oversight and ManagementThe 1992 Energy Policy Act created two committees to provide guidance anddirection to this program. The first, the Interagency Committee (IAC), wasestablished by the President of the United States and composed of representatives from the NIEHS, the DOE and seven other Federal agencies with responsibilities related to ELF-EMF. This group receives the report from the NIEHS Directorand must prepare its own report for Congress. The IAC had responsibility fordeveloping a strategic research agenda for the EMF-RAPID Program, facilitating interagency coordination of Federal research activities and communication to the public and monitoring and evaluating the Program.The second committee, the National EMF Advisory Committee (NEMFAC),consisted of representatives from public interest groups, organized labor, stategovernments and industry. This group was involved in all aspects of theEMF-RAPID Program providing advice and critical review to the DOE and theNIEHS on the design and implementation of the EMF-RAPID Program’sactivities.ELF-EMF Health Effects ResearchThe EMF-RAPID Program’s health effects research initiative relied upon accepted principles of hazard identification and risk assessment to establish priorities. All studies supported by the NIEHS and the DOE under this program were selected for their potential to provide solid, scientific data on whetherELF-EMF exposure represents a human health hazard, and if so, whether risks are increased under exposure conditions in the general population. Research efforts did not focus on epidemiological studies (i.e. those in the human population) because of time constraints and the number of ongoing, well-conducted studies. The NIEHS health effects research program focused on mechanistic, cellular and laboratory studies in the areas of neurophysiology, behavior, reproduction, development, cellular research, genetic research, cancer and melatonin. Mechanistic, cellular and laboratory studies are part of the overall criteria used to determine causality in interpreting epidemiological studies. In this situation, the most cost-effective and efficient use of the EMF-RAPID Program’s research funds was clearly for trying to clarify existing associations identified from population studies. The DOE research initiatives focused on assessment of exposure and techniques of mitigation.The EMF-RAPID Program through the combined efforts of the NIEHS and the DOE radically changed and markedly improved the quality of ELF-EMF research. This was accomplished by providing biological and engineering expertise to investigators and emphasizing hypothesis-driven, peer-reviewed research. Four regional facilities were also set-up where state-of-the-art magnetic field exposure systems were available for in-house and outside investigators to conduct mechanistic research. The EMF-RAPID Program through rigorous review and use of multi-disciplinary research teams greatly enhanced the understanding of the interaction of biological systems with ELF-EMF. Information Dissemination and Public OutreachThe EMF-RAPID Program provided the public, regulated industry and scientists with useful, targeted information that addressed the issue of uncertainty regarding ELF-EMF health effects. Two booklets, a question and answer booklet onELF-EMF and a layman’s booklet addressing ELF-EMF in the workplace, were published. A telephone information line for ELF-EMF was available where callers could request copies of ELF-EMF documents and receive answers to standard questions from operators. The NIEHS also developed a web-site for the EMF-RAPID Program where all of the Program’s documents are on-line and links are available to other useful sites on ELF-EMF. Efforts were made to include the public in EMF-RAPID Program activities through sponsorship of scholarships to meetings; holding open, scientific workshops; and setting aside a two-month period for public comment and review on ELF-EMF and the workshop reports. In addition, the NIEHS sponsored attendance of NEMFACmembers at relevant scientific meetings and at each of the public comment meetings.Health Risk Assessment of ELF-EMF ExposureIn preparation of the NIEHS Director’s Report, the NIEHS developed a process to evaluate the potential health hazards of ELF-EMF exposure that was designed to be open, transparent, objective, scholarly and timely under the mandate of the 1992 Energy Policy Act. The NIEHS used a three-tiered strategy for collection and evaluation of the scientific information on ELF-EMF that included: 1) three science review symposia for targeted ELF-EMF research areas, 2) a working group meeting and 3) a period of public review and comment. Each of the three symposia focused on a different, broad area of ELF-EMF research: mechanistic and cellular research (24-27 March 1997, Durham, NC), human population studies (12-14 January 1998, San Antonio, TX) and laboratory human and clinical work (6-9 April 1998, Phoenix, AZ). These meetings were aimed at including a broad spectrum of the research community and the public in the evaluation of ELF-EMF health hazards, identifying key research findings and providing opinion on the quality of this research. Discussion reports from small discussion groups held for specific topics were prepared for each meeting.Following the symposia, a working group meeting (16-24 June 1998, Brooklyn Park, MN) was held where a scientific panel reviewed historical and novel evidence on ELF-EMF and determined the strength of the evidence for human health and biological effects. Stakeholders and the public attended this meeting and were given the opportunity to comment during the process. The Working Group conducted a formal, comprehensive review of the literature for research areas identified from the symposia as being important to the assessment ofELF-EMF-related biological or health effects. Separate draft documents covering areas of animal carcinogenicity, animal non-cancer findings, physiological effects, cellular effects, theories and human population studies (epidemiology studies) in children and adults for both occupational and residential ELF-EMF exposures were rewritten into a single book. The Working Group characterized the strength of the evidence for a causative link between ELF-EMF exposure and disease in each category of research using the criteria developed by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).The IARC criteria fall into four basic categories: sufficient, limited, inadequate and evidence suggesting the lack of an effect. After critical review and discussion, members of the Working Group were asked to determine the categorization for each research area; the range of responses reflected the scientific uncertainty in each area. A majority of the Working Group members concluded that childhood leukemia and adult chronic lymphocytic leukemia from occupational exposure were areas of concern. For other cancers and for non-cancer health endpoints, the Working Group categorized the experimental data asproviding much weaker evidence or no support for effects from exposure to ELF-EMF.Following the Working Group Meeting, the NIEHS established a formal review period for solicitation of comments on the symposia and Working Group reports. The NIEHS hosted four public meetings (14-15 September 1998, Tucson, AZ;28 September, Washington, DC; 1 October 1998, San Francisco, CA; and5 October 1998, Chicago, IL) where individuals and groups could voice their opinions; the meetings were recorded and transcripts prepared. In addition, the NIEHS received 178 written comments that were also reviewed in preparation of this report. The remarks that NIEHS received covered many areas related to ELF-EMF and provided insight about areas of concern on behalf of the public, researchers, regulatory agencies and industry.I NTRODUCTIONElectricity is used to the benefit of people all over the world. Wherever electricity is generated, transmitted or used, electric fields and magnetic fields are created. These fields are a direct consequence of the presence and/or motion of electric charges. It is impossible to generate and use electrical energy without creating these fields; hence they are an inevitable consequence of our reliance on this form of energy. Electrical energy is generally supplied as alternating current where the electricity flows in one direction and then in the other to complete a cycle. The number of cycles completed in a fixed period of time (such as a second) is known as the frequency and is generally measured in units of Hertz (Hz), which are cycles per second. In the United States, electricity is usually delivered as 60 Hz alternating current; 50 to 60 Hz cycles are generally referred to as the power-line frequency of alternating current electricity. Just as alternating current electricity has a frequency, so do the associated electric and magnetic fields (EMF). Thus, 60 Hz alternating current electricity will generate a 60 Hz electric field and a60 Hz magnetic field. EMF with cycle frequencies of greater than 3 Hz and less that 3000 Hz is generally referred to as extremely low frequency (ELF) EMF. In addition to magnetic fields associated with electricity, the earth also has a static magnetic field (frequency of 0 Hz) that varies by location from approximately 30 to 50 µT.Electricity has been used, to great advantage, for 100 years and with this widespread use, there has been limited awareness of any potential adverse health effects other than effects caused by direct contact such as electrocution or by faulty wiring such as fire. Research into potential health effects caused by the ELF-EMF resulting from indirect exposure to electrical energy has been underway for several decades. The catalyst that sparked increased study in this area of research was the 1979 report by Wertheimer and Leeper (1) that children living near power lines had an increased risk for developing cancer. Since that initial finding, there have been numerous studies of human populations, animals and isolated cells aimed at clarification of the observations of Wertheimer and Leeper and others. Despite this multitude of research, considerable debate remains over what, if any, health effects can be attributed to ELF-EMF exposure. In 1992, under the Energy Policy Act (PL 102-486, Section 2118), the U.S. Congress instructed the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences(NIEHS), National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to direct and manage a program of research and analysis aimed at providing scientific evidence to clarify the potential for health risks from exposure toELF-EMF. This resulted in formation of the EMF Research and Public Information Dissemination Program (EMF-RAPID Program). The EMF-RAPID Program had three basic components: 1) a research program focusing on health effects research primarily through mechanistic studies of ELF-EMF and engineering research targeting measurement, characterization and management of ELF-EMF; 2) information compilation and dissemination through brochures, public outreach and an ELF-EMF information line for communicating with the public; and 3) a health assessment including an analysis of the research data aimed at summarizing the strength of the evidence for evaluation of any hazard possibly arising from exposure to ELF-EMF. The NIEHS was directed to oversee the health effects research and evaluation and the DOE was given responsibility for engineering research aimed at characterizing and mitigating these fields. Under the Energy Policy Act, the Director of the NIEHS is mandated upon completion of the EMF-RAPID Program to provide a report outlining the possible human health risks associated with exposure to ELF-EMF. This document responds to this requirement of the law.FundingThe EMF-RAPID Program was funded jointly by Federal and matching private funds; through fiscal year 1998, authorized funding for this program was approximately $46 million. Administration of funding for the EMF-RAPID Program was the responsibility of the DOE with funds for NIEHS-sponsored program activities transferred from the DOE to the NIEHS. The EMF-RAPID Program has been an extremely successful Federal/private partnership with substantial financial support from the utility industry. The NIEHS received $30.1 million from this program for research, public outreach, administration and the health assessment evaluation of ELF-EMF. Of the funds received, the NIEHS spent the majority (89%) for research through grants and contracts. The remainder was used for public outreach/administration (2%) and the health risk evaluation (9%). In addition to EMF-RAPID Program funds from the DOE, the NIEHS contributed $14.5 million for support of extramural grants and contracts and intramural research as well as long-term toxicity studies conducted by the National Toxicology Program.。

小学上册英语第四单元真题(含答案)考试时间：90分钟（总分:140）B卷一、综合题(共计100题共100分)1. 选择题：What is the largest land animal?A. RhinocerosB. GiraffeC. ElephantD. Hippopotamus答案:C2. 听力题：The solid formed from a chemical reaction is called a ______.3. 听力题：The atomic number tells you the number of ______ in an atom.4. 听力题：Plants can grow in both _______ and dry conditions.5. 选择题：What do we call the process of a caterpillar turning into a butterfly?A. MetamorphosisB. EvolutionC. TransformationD. Development答案:A6. 听力题：The ______ helps us learn about science.7. 填空题：The first Olympic Games were held in ________ (古希腊).8. 听力题：The symbol for lanthanum is _____.9. 填空题：My favorite thing to do on a rainy day is _______ (阅读).10. 选择题：What is the name of the famous statue in Rio de Janeiro?A. Christ the RedeemerB. Statue of LibertyC. DavidD. Moai11. 选择题：What is the name of the famous street in New York City known for shopping?A. Rodeo DriveB. Fifth AvenueC. Wall StreetD. Broadway答案:B12. 选择题：What is the name of the famous ancient monument in Egypt?A. ColosseumB. Great WallC. PyramidsD. Stonehenge13. 选择题：What do we call a vehicle that flies?A. CarB. BoatC. AirplaneD. Train14. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in bread?A. SugarB. FlourC. RiceD. Salt答案:B15. 填空题：I like to write ______ (诗).16. 听力题：A chemical reaction can occur in _____ solutions.17. 听力填空题：I think it’s essential to take breaks. Taking time to relax helps recharge our minds and bodies. I like to __________ during my breaks to unwind.18. 填空题：The __________ (科学教育) promotes critical thinking.19. 听力题：The substance that is dissolved in a solution is called the _______.20. 填空题：I enjoy watching the _______ (小动物) in the park.21. 听力题：The girl is very ________.22. 选择题：What is the primary color of the sky on a clear day?A. GreenB. BlueC. GrayD. White答案: B23. 填空题：My favorite teacher knows how to _______ (动词). 她教我们 _______ (名词).24. 填空题：A horse can gallop very ________________ (快).25. 填空题：The _______ (蜗牛) leaves a slimy trail.26. 听力题：The ant builds a home called an _______.27. 听力题：The chemical formula for sodium sulfide is ______.28. 选择题：What is the name of the famous landmark in the USA?A. Statue of LibertyB. Washington MonumentC. Golden Gate BridgeD. All of the above答案: D. All of the above29. 填空题：A snail moves very ______ (慢).30. 选择题：What is 5 - 2?A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 531. 填空题：________ (叶片) can be broad or narrow.32. 选择题：What do we call the largest organ of the human body?A. HeartB. LiverC. SkinD. Brain答案：C33. 听力题：A bat uses ______ to navigate in the dark.34. 听力题：I like to collect ______ (stamps) from different countries.35. 选择题：What is the name of the famous ocean surrounding Antarctica?A. Atlantic OceanB. Arctic OceanC. Indian OceanD. Southern Ocean答案：D36. 填空题：The flowers smell _______ (甜美).37. 选择题：What is the capital of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines?a. Kingstownb. Arnos Valec. Calliaquad. Georgetown答案:a38. 填空题：A ________ is a fun stuffed animal.39. 听力题：Many stars are part of binary ______.40. 听力题：A chemical equation must be _______ to show that mass is conserved.41. 听力题：Many _______ lose their leaves in the fall.42. 听力题：I want to _____ (become/learn) an artist.43. 选择题：What is the name of the ocean between Africa and Asia?A. AtlanticB. IndianC. ArcticD. Pacific答案:B44. 选择题：What is the name of the fairy tale character who left a glass slipper?A. Snow WhiteB. CinderellaC. Sleeping BeautyD. Little Red Riding Hood答案: B45. 填空题：I love to play outside with my ________.46. 填空题：I enjoy _____ (discovering) new plants.47. 填空题：I feel _______ when I read.48. 听力题：A chemical reaction can produce _____ and heat.The _______ of a wave can change when it enters a new medium.50. 选择题：What is the color of a typical peach?A. GreenB. YellowC. PinkD. Orange答案:D51. 听力题：The _____ (汽车) is red.52. 选择题：What color is an orange?A. BlueB. OrangeC. GreenD. Red53. 听力题：A polymer is a large molecule made of many ______.54. 选择题：What is the opposite of "north"?A. EastB. WestC. SouthD. Up答案: C. South55. 填空题：My favorite character from a book is ______.56. 填空题：I like to help my ______ (父母) at home.57. 听力题：The _____ (花) smells good.58. 填空题：The writer, ______ (作家), creates amazing stories.59. 听力题：The bear catches a fish with its _____ strong paws.What is 5 + 7?A. 11B. 12C. 13D. 14答案:C61. 听力题：The ______ teaches us about international relations.62. 填空题：I like to __________ (动词) my __________ (玩具名) with friends after school.63. 填空题：My brother loves to __________ (玩耍) with his friends.64. 选择题：How do you say "yes" in Russian?A. DaB. NetC. OuiD. Si65. 选择题：What is the term for a baby kangaroo?A. JoeyB. CalfC. KitD. Cub答案:A66. 选择题：What do we breathe?A. WaterB. AirC. FoodD. Fire答案:B67. 听力题：The process by which plants make their food is called ______.68. 填空题：A flamingo's diet consists mainly of ________________ (浮游生物).What do we call the study of the human body?A. AnatomyB. BiologyC. ChemistryD. Physiology答案：A70. 填空题：My _______ (狗) likes to play fetch.71. 听力题：The ________ (research) provides valuable insights.72. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in sushi?A. NoodlesB. RiceC. BreadD. Pancakes73. 选择题：What do you call a person who creates art?A. ArtistB. ScientistC. EngineerD. Writer答案:A74. 填空题：The _______ (猪) is known for its intelligence.75. 听力题：The city of Nur-Sultan is the capital of _______.76. 听力题：The _______ is the center of an atom.77. 填空题：I enjoy playing ______ outside.78. Age is characterized by the use of ______ (石头) tools. 填空题：The StonI like to visit the ______ (农场) and see all the animals. Feeding the chickens is always a fun activity.80. 听力题：I like to ________ new things.81. 听力题：I love to ________ new things.82. 听力题：The chemical formula for undecanoic acid is ______.83. 填空题：A ______ (种子库) preserves genetic diversity in plants.84. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in salad dressing?A. OilB. VinegarC. WaterD. Milk85. 填空题：I enjoy watching ________ (动画) on Saturday mornings.86. 听力题：A compass helps us find ______ (direction).87. 听力题：The Earth is the _____ planet from the sun.88. 听力题：The capital of Ghana is __________.89. 填空题：The ancient Romans established ________ to govern their territories.90. 选择题：What is the capital of Lesotho?A. MaseruB. MaputoC. MbabaneD. Gaborone答案:AThis ________ (玩具) is great for developing skills.92. 听力题：Spectroscopy helps scientists determine the composition of _______.93. 选择题：What do we breathe?A. WaterB. FoodC. AirD. Fire94. 选择题：What is the hottest planet in our solar system?A. VenusB. MercuryC. MarsD. Jupiter答案:A95. 听力题：Rust is formed when iron reacts with ______.96. 听力题：The ______ is a popular author.97. 填空题：A ________ (鸽子) can be seen flying in the sky and often symbolizes peace.98. 填空题：The __________ (历史的传承) shapes our narrative.99. 选择题：What is the capital of Greece?A. AthensB. SpartaC. ThessalonikiD. Corinth100. 选择题：What is the capital of Tanzania?A. Dar es SalaamB. DodomaC. ZanzibarD. Arusha答案: B. Dodoma。

试卷名称：生理学基础知识测试考试时间：120分钟满分：100分一、选择题（每题2分，共40分）1. The process of converting nutrients into energy is called:A. MetabolismB. PhotosynthesisC. DigestionD. Respiration2. Which of the following is the primary function of the heart?A. To produce energyB. To transport bloodC. To regulate body temperatureD. To produce hormones3. The part of the nervous system that is responsible for controlling involuntary actions is known as:A. Central nervous systemB. Peripheral nervous systemC. Autonomic nervous systemD. Somatic nervous system4. The main function of the kidneys is to:A. Produce insulinB. Filter waste products from the bloodC. Produce antibodiesD. Store oxygen5. Which of the following is a type of connective tissue?A. Muscle tissueB. Nervous tissueC. Epithelial tissueD. Cartilage6. The process by which cells receive oxygen and nutrients is called:A. DiffusionB. OsmosisC. AbsorptionD. Peristalsis7. The primary function of the liver is to:A. Break down proteinsB. Store glucoseC. Produce bileD. Regulate blood pressure8. The part of the brain responsible for processing sensory information is:A. The cerebellumB. The hypothalamusC. The thalamusD. The brainstem9. Which of the following is a component of the endocrine system?A. The pituitary glandB. The heartC. The liverD. The kidneys10. The process by which the body regulates its temperature is known as:A. HomeostasisB. MetabolismC. PhotosynthesisD. Respiration二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）11. The ______ system is responsible for transporting blood throughout the body.12. The ________ is the main organ responsible for the excretion of waste products.13. The _______ is a type of connective tissue that provides support and structure to the body.14. The ________ is the part of the brain that controls involuntary actions and is involved in the regulation of bodily functions.15. The _______ is a process by which cells receive oxygen and nutrients.三、简答题（每题10分，共30分）16. Briefly explain the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the food chain.17. Describe the function of the kidneys in the human body and how they contribute to homeostasis.18. Discuss the role of the nervous system in the regulation of body temperature.四、论述题（20分）19. Write an essay on the importance of the circulatory system in maintaining the health of the human body. Include the functions of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.---注意事项：- 答题前请仔细阅读题目，确保理解题意。

果蝇对不同食物的觅食决策的分子基础果蝇是一种常见的小昆虫，在科学研究中常被用作模型生物。

相信很多人都见过一些飞舞在水果旁的小黑苍蝇，它们就是果蝇。

这种小昆虫在繁殖力、食性、肢体运动等方面都拥有非常独特的特点，是许多生物学家、生物医学研究者所钟爱的实验对象。

本文将讨论果蝇对不同食物的觅食决策的分子基础。

1. 果蝇的觅食行为觅食是生物中最基本的生存行为之一。

作为一种典型的果食性昆虫，果蝇的食性不仅限于水果，还会吃肉、蛋白质和蔗糖等。

果蝇通常会通过视觉、嗅觉、味觉和触觉等感官来识别不同的食物，做出觅食决策。

2. 觅食决策的分子基础果蝇的觅食决策是由很多基因和神经途径控制的。

许多果蝇基因对于行为决策的过程至关重要。

其中一个典型的例子是Octopamine受体gene（Octopamine Receptor Gene，OAR）。

OAR通常被表达在果蝇中枢神经系统的许多区域，包括脑、视觉神经元和嗅觉感受器。

该基因参与了果蝇的觅食行为、记忆和学习等过程。

此外，许多神经元也被发现与果蝇的觅食决策有关。

在食欲刺激的处理中，神经元会释放多巴胺和钟乳素等神经递质，并促进食欲。

而在饱食感的处理中，其他神经元则会发射饱和信号。

嗅觉和味觉信号也被证明在觅食决策中扮演重要角色，这些信号通常由神经递质释放，影响果蝇的食欲。

3. 不同食物在觅食决策中的作用不同食物在果蝇的觅食决策中扮演着重要角色。

研究表明，果蝇通常会在搜索食物时选择糖分较高的食物。

水果、奶制品和蔗糖等能够迅速增加果蝇的食欲，而其它食物则对果蝇并没有这种促进作用。

研究人员使用葡萄糖和葡萄糖－果糖混合物来模拟果蝇在自然环境中的觅食过程，发现果蝇普遍更喜欢葡萄糖－果糖混合物。

这是因为葡萄糖含有更高的能量，在食量和能量摄入方面都会给果蝇更好的体验。

此外，研究还发现对于富含脂肪的食物，如腰果，果蝇的食欲也相当高。

因为越高脂肪食物的觅食行为会促进对这种食物的记忆和学习。

而纯蛋白质的食物对果蝇则有抑制作用，对其食欲不具有促进作用。

医学统考英语试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. Which of the following is not a symptom of influenza?A. FeverB. CoughC. FatigueD. Acne答案：D2. The primary function of the spleen is to:A. Produce red blood cellsB. Filter bloodC. Store bileD. Regulate blood sugar答案：B3. What is the most common cause of heart failure?A. High blood pressureB. DiabetesC. ObesityD. Smoking答案：A4. The hormone responsible for the regulation of blood calcium levels is:A. InsulinB. Thyroid hormoneC. Parathyroid hormoneD. Adrenaline答案：C5. Which of the following is a risk factor for developingtype 2 diabetes?A. Regular exerciseB. Healthy dietC. Family history of diabetesD. Low stress levels答案：C6. The process of cell division that results in two identical cells with the same genetic material is called:A. MitosisB. MeiosisC. ApoptosisD. Cytokinesis答案：A7. Which of the following is not a type of autoimmune disease?A. Rheumatoid arthritisB. LupusC. Multiple sclerosisD. Parkinson's disease答案：D8. The main function of the liver is to:A. Produce insulinB. Filter bloodC. Detoxify the bodyD. Regulate body temperature答案：C9. The most common type of cancer in men is:A. Lung cancerB. Prostate cancerC. Colon cancerD. Skin cancer答案：B10. The hormone that stimulates the uterus to contract during childbirth is:A. OxytocinB. EstrogenC. ProgesteroneD. Cortisol答案：A二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of _______ and _______.答案：oxygen, carbon dioxide2. The largest organ in the human body is the _______.答案：skin3. The process of digestion begins in the _______.答案：mouth4. The hormone that stimulates the growth and development of the female reproductive system is _______.答案：estrogen5. The most common type of cancer in women is _______.答案：breast cancer6. The heart is divided into four chambers: two atria and two _______.答案：ventricles7. The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the _______ nervous system.答案：peripheral8. The primary function of the kidneys is to _______ the blood and produce urine.答案：filter9. The hormone that regulates blood sugar levels is _______. 答案：insulin10. The most common cause of liver cancer is chronic _______. 答案：hepatitis三、简答题（每题10分，共20分）1. Explain the role of the lymphatic system in the body.答案：The lymphatic system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's fluid balance and immune function. It is responsible for the circulation of lymph, a fluid containing white blood cells, throughout the body. This system helps to remove waste products, bacteria, and other foreign substances from the tissues and returns the excess fluid to the bloodstream. Additionally, the lymphatic system is integral to the immune response as it contains lymph nodes that filter out harmful substances and produce lymphocytes, which are essential for fighting infections.2. Describe the process of blood clotting.答案：Blood clotting, also known as coagulation, is a complex process that prevents excessive bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. It involves several steps: First, the damaged blood vessel constricts to reduce blood flow. Platelets, small cell fragments in the blood, adhere to the site of injury and aggregate to form a plug. Meanwhile, a series of clotting factors in the blood are activated in a cascade, leading to the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin. Thefibrin forms a mesh that traps the platelet plug, creating a stable clot. Finally, once the blood vessel has healed, the clot is dissolved by the action of plasmin, an enzyme that breaks down fibrin.。

分析果蝇的遗传规律果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)作为实验动物，在遗传学研究中发挥了重要的作用。

其短寿命、容易繁殖和遗传特性的可观察性使它成为研究遗传规律的理想模型生物。

本文将从果蝇的基本遗传模式、发育遗传学和行为遗传学等方面来分析果蝇的遗传规律。

首先，果蝇的基本遗传模式是显性、隐性和杂合优势。

果蝇基因的显性和隐性表现在單雄配子型上，具体来说，当一个等位基因显性时，只要一个等位基因是显性的，个体就会表现出相应的特征。

而当一个等位基因为隐性时，必须同时存在两个隐性等位基因，才会表现出相应的特征。

此外，杂合优势表现为在杂合子的个体中，两个等位基因相互作用会导致杂交体比纯合体更有生存优势。

其次，果蝇的发育遗传学是研究果蝇个体生命周期中各个阶段的遗传变化和表达的学科。

果蝇的发育过程可分为卵、幼虫、蛹和成虫四个阶段。

通过对果蝇发育过程中的突变体进行观察和研究，科学家发现了许多与发育相关的基因，并揭示了这些基因在果蝇生命周期中的重要作用。

第三，行为遗传学是研究果蝇行为特征的遗传变异机制。

果蝇的行为包括飞行、觅食、繁殖行为等。

通过遗传交叉和基因突变实验，科学家们发现了与果蝇行为相关的基因，例如控制果蝇觅食行为的基因Octopamine receptor Octβ2和控制果蝇繁殖行为的基因fru。

这些研究揭示了果蝇行为的遗传基础。

此外，果蝇的遗传规律还涉及到遗传连接、遗传连锁和遗传映射等方面。

遗传连接表示基因的遗传相互关系；遗传连锁是指两个或多个基因的遗传单位存放在同一染色体上，通过连锁互不分离的传递；遗传映射是通过测量基因间的连锁判断它们在染色体上的位置。

综上所述，果蝇作为实验动物，具备短寿命、容易繁殖和遗传特性可观察性的特点，成为研究遗传规律的理想模型生物。

通过对果蝇的基本遗传模式、发育遗传学和行为遗传学的研究，科学家们深入理解了果蝇遗传的基本规律。

果蝇的遗传规律不仅对果蝇本身的生物学研究具有重要意义，也为人类遗传学的发展提供了重要的参考。

音标栏以有道词典英式音标为准，英文单词的音标之间空两格。

若有道词典查阅不到，请在备注栏标注出处，并用蓝色字体显启动型caspase initiator caspase器质性肾功能衰竭parenchymal renal failure前列腺素E prostaglandin E前列腺素类prostaglandins，PGs前维生素D previtamin D3前向衰竭forward failure羟苯乙醇胺octopamine清道夫受体scavenger receptor，SR躯体性应激physical stress去甲肾上腺素norepinephrine，NE全身适应综合征general adaptation syndrome全身性水肿anasarca全身炎症反应综舍征systemic inflammatory response syndrome，SIRS全心衰竭whole heart failure缺血一再灌注损伤ischemia-reperfusion injury缺血后适应postconditioning缺血性脑血管疾病ischemle cerebrovascular disease缺血性欢氧ischenmic hypoxia缺血性缺氧期ischemic anoxia phase缺血预适应preconditioning缺氧hypoxia缺氧相关基因hypoxia related gene缺氧性肺动脉高压hypoxic pulmonary hypertension，HPH缺氧性肺血管收缩hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction，HPR缺氧诱导因子-1hypoxia inducible factor 1，HIF-1TTol1样受体Toll like receptor ,TLR“梯”状ladder pattern调定点set point肽聚糖peptidoglycan碳酸酐酶carbonic anhydrase，CA碳氧血红蛋白carboxyhemoglobin，HbCO糖蛋白glycoprotein，gp糖尿病diabetes mellitus糖尿病肾病diabetic nephropathy糖皮质激素glucocorticoid，GC糖皮质激素受体glucocorticoid receptor，GR糖原合成酶glycogen synthetase，GS糖原合酶激酶-3glycogen synthase kinase-3，CSK-3体液因子humoral factor条件性更新conditional renewing铜蓝蛋白ceruloplasmin酮症酸中毒keto-acidosis脱水dehydration脱髓鞘性疾病demyelinating diseaseW外致热原 exogenous pyrogen外周型苯二氮革受体peripheral type benzodiazepine receptor，PTBR外周阻力 peripheral resistance，PR完好状态state of complete well-being完全康复complete recovery危险因素risk factor微血管病性溶血性贫血microangiopathic hemolytic anemia微循环 microcirculation微循环衰竭期microcirculatory failure stage维持还原型谷胱甘肽reduced glutathione hormone,CSH未折叠蛋白反应unfolded protein response，UPR稳定斑块stable plaque稳态homeostasis稳态更新steady-state renewing沃-弗综合征Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome无复流现象no-reflow phenomenon病理学注栏标注出处，并用蓝色字体显示。