现代建筑与建筑材料
许多古代建筑的大型建筑物现仍存在着，而且仍在使用。其中又罗马的万神庙和大圆形竞技场，伊斯坦布尔的圣索非亚教堂，法国和英国的哥特式教堂，和带有巨大的穹隆顶的文艺复兴式教堂，象佛罗伦萨的大教堂和罗马的圣彼得大教堂。它们都是些厚石板的庞大建筑。这种厚石墙能抵抗建筑物本身巨大重量所形成的推力。推力是建筑物各部分作用于其他部分的压力。
所有这些建筑物及其他许多建筑物都是工程技术解决复杂问题的典型。罗马人之所以广泛的使用拱，是为了更均匀的分布推力，从而有可能使跨间大些。罗马人以前的建筑师和工程师大都采用有两个垂直柱子支撑着一个水平过梁的简支梁柱结构。如果过梁太长，或者需要承受过大的重量，他就容易受剪切。剪切即沿着应力线断裂或破裂的趋势。应力是能引起建筑物或它的各个部位产生应变或变形的力或压力。
在哥特式教堂里，石柱（柱间有较薄的墙）能建筑得很高。法国博韦市的大教堂高达157英尺，大约与现代的十五层大楼一样高。在初次尝试建筑到这样的高度时，穹顶曾坍塌，后又重建，并耸立至今。哥特式大教堂的大石拱肋由飞券扶壁支撑。
飞券扶壁承担向外或向下的推力。在大穹顶建筑物中，如圣索亚教堂或圣彼得大教堂，用一系列的拱或半拱来分布推力，而这些拱则由巨柱（垂直支撑物）所支撑。
这些大型建筑物并非物理或数学知识的结晶。它们都是依据经验和观察而建造起来的，往往是反复试验出来的结果。它们所以能存留下来的理由之一是因为它们建造的强度很大——多数情况下超出所需要的强度。可是古代的工程师也失败过。例如在罗马，大部分人民都居住在公寓中，这种公寓通常是一排排的有石层高的出租大楼。其中有许多建造的很简陋，并且有时会倒塌，使许多人丧生。
但是，现在的工程师具备很多有利的条件，不仅有经验资料，而且有供他预先做详细计算的科学数据。一个现代工程师当他设计一座建筑物时，他要考虑这座建筑物所有组成材料的总质量，这就是所谓的静荷载，即建筑物自身的重量。他还必须考虑到动荷载，即在建筑物投入使用时他要承受的人﹑车辆﹑家具﹑机械等等的重量。对于象桥梁这种需要承担高速汽车交通的构筑物，他必须考虑到冲力，即附加的承载能力，以使建筑物的承载能力比上述三个因素结合起来还要强些。
现代工程师还必须了解建筑物所用材料要承受的各种应力，其中包括压力和拉力这两种相反的力。在压力下，材料被压紧或推拢到一起；在拉力下，材料象一个橡皮筋那样被拉开或拉长。在旁边的图中，顶面是凹面，或向内弯曲，其内部材料是受拉的。当用锔毫不费地锯开一块木头时，木头时受拉的，当锯开始被夹住时，木头是受压的，因为木头的纤维被挤到一起了。
除了拉力和压力之外，还有一种称为剪力的力在起作用，我们给他下定义为：使材料沿应力线断裂的趋势。剪力可能发生在垂直面上，担他也可能沿着梁的水平中心线——中和面——作用，中和面上即没有拉力也没有压力。
总的说来，有三种能作用于建筑物的力：垂直的――那些向上或向下作用的力；水平的――那些侧向作用力；以及那些以一种旋转或转动的运动作用于建筑物上的力，成一个角度作用的力使水平力和垂直力的合力。因为土木工程师设计的建筑物总是力求使他们静止或稳定，因此这些力必须保持平衡。例如，各垂直力必须彼此相等。假如一个梁支撑上面的一个荷载，梁本身必须有足够的强度去抗衡这个重量。水平力必须彼此相等，才能不出现过多的向左或向右的推力。并且，那些可能推动建筑物转动的力必须由向反方向推动的力去抵消。
现代最引人注目的工程事故之一――1940年塔科马海峡大桥的倒塌，就是由于没有非常仔细的考虑这些因素中的最后一个因素。在一场暴风雨中，当每小时高达65公里的强劲
狂风冲击这座桥时，狂风引起了沿桥面方向的波动，同时还产生了一种使路面塌落的横向运动。幸亏工程师们从错误中汲取了教训，所以现在的通常做法是将按比例缩小的放在风洞中检验他们的空气动力学抵抗力。
早期的主要建筑材料是木材和土亏工材料――砖、石或瓦，以及类似材料。砖行或砖层之间，用灰浆或沥青（一种象焦油的物质），或者别的粘结剂粘结在一起。希腊人和罗马人有时还用铁条或铁夹子去加固建筑物。例如，雅典的帕提农神庙的圆柱上就由原来安装铁棍的钻孔，现在铁棍已经锈蚀尽竟。罗马人还使用一种叫白榴火山灰的天然水泥，这是用火山灰制成，在水中能变的和石头一样坚硬。
现在的两种最重要的建筑材料，钢材和水泥，都是十九世纪才采用的。直到那时为止钢（基本上是铁和少量炭的合金）一直是要经过很复杂的工艺过程才能制成的，这就使钢只限用在剑刃这类特殊的用途上。1856年发明贝色麦法以后，人们才能以低价大量的使用钢。钢的极大优点是它的抗拉强度，即：在特定程度拉力――就像我们知道的那种会把许多材料拉断的力――的作用下，它的强度不会降低。新的的合金进一步增强了钢的强度，并且还消除了它所存在的一些问题，如疲劳。疲劳是一种消弱它强度的趋向，是连续改编应力的结果。
现代的水泥叫做波特兰水泥，是1824年发明的。它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，将它加热然后磨成粉末。在建筑现场或靠近现场的地方，将它惨上石子，骨料（小石子，碎石或砾石）和水，就制成混凝土。不同的配料比例能制成不同强度和重量的混凝土。混凝土的适用性很强，它可以灌注，可以用泵抽送，甚至可喷注成各种各样的形状。而且，刚才有很大的抗拉强度，混凝土却有很大的抗压强度。因而，这两种材料可以互相补充。他们还可以在其他方面互相补充：它们具有几乎相同的收缩率和膨胀率。因而他们可以在同时存在压与拉力两种因素的情况下共同起作用。在受拉的混凝土梁或结构中埋置进钢筋，就支撑钢筋混凝土。混凝土和钢还形成一种很强的粘结力――一种将他们粘结起来的力――使钢不能在混凝土中滑动。还有另一个有点就是钢在混凝土中不腐蚀。酸会腐蚀钢，而混凝土却有与钢相反的碱性化学反应。
预应力混凝土是钢筋混凝土的一种改进形式。钢筋被弯曲为各种形状以使他具有所需要的抗拉强度。于是，通常用两种方法中的一种去利用他们对混凝土预加应力。第一种方法是在混凝土梁中留出与钢筋的形状一样的孔道。当把钢筋穿过孔道后，利用薄浆（稀的灰浆或粘结剂）填充孔道，使他们与混凝土固结在一起。另一种方法，也是较常用的，是把预应力钢筋放在一个与成品形状一致的模子的下部，而把混凝土浇注在它的周围。预应力混凝土用的钢和混凝土都比较少。由于它非常经济，所以它是一种很合乎需要的材料。
钢和混凝土的广泛使用，再加上升降运输机（也是九十世纪才研制出来的），才有可能出现最有特点的现代建筑：钢和混凝土框架建筑物。不仅高的现代化摩天楼，而且还有很多不那么雄伟和壮观的建筑物都具有承担结构重量的钢骨架或混凝土骨架。在与可能建造这种型式的结构以前，外墙（承重墙）一直是承担建筑物的重量的。这就是说，一座高大建筑物的下面几层的墙壁必须非常厚。例如，纽约的老普利策大楼，大约与第一个钢框架建筑——芝加哥的家庭保险大楼，是同时建造的，并且高度也大致相同，其基础部分的墙壁竟厚达九又二分之一英尺。
由于这种类型现代建筑物的重量是由钢和混凝土框架承载的，墙就不必承受建筑物的重量，而变成了围护墙，它们可使建筑物免受恶劣天气的侵袭，还可以采光。早期的钢框架建筑中，围护墙一般是砌筑的；它们具有承重墙所具有的坚固外观。可是，现在的围护墙往往是不同组合的轻质材料组成，如玻璃、铝或塑料。
钢结构的另一个进展是梁的连接方法的改进。多年来，标准的方法是铆接。铆钉就是有帽的栓钉，看起来象个没有螺纹的圆头螺栓。将它加热，放在穿通各个钢构件的孔内，在另一端垂击它，形成第二个帽头，使之固定就位。现在铆接在很大程度上被焊接所代替，焊
接就是用高温将钢构件之间的钢材熔化，使之连接在一起。
预应力混凝土使特殊形状的建筑物有了发展的可能，象某些现代的体育馆，他们的大空间没有任何挡住视线的支承物。这种比较新的结构方法的使用，正在持续地发展着。
当前的趋向是发展轻质材料。例如，铝的重量比钢轻得多，但是却有许多与之相同的性能。铝梁已被用于桥梁结构和一些建筑物的框架。
目前仍在尝试生产强度更高、耐久性更好、而且重量更轻的混凝土。有一种用聚合物（塑料中用的长链化合物）作为部分配料的方法。这种方法有助于使混凝土的重量降低到一定的程度。
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Create and comprehensive technology in the structure global design of the building The 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together. The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 学院（系）：南京理工大学继续教育学院 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：学术论坛网 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 建筑类型和设计 厂房与人民息息相关，因为它提供必要的空间，工作和生活中。 由于其使用的分类，建筑主要有两种类型：工业建筑和民用建筑各工厂或工业生产中使用的工业大厦，而那些居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的人使用的民用建筑。 工业楼宇厂房可用于加工和制造各类采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等领域。可分为两种类型的单层和多层的厂房，民用建筑，工业建筑是相同的。然而，工业与民用建筑中使用的材料，在使用它们的方式不同。 民用建筑分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑，住宅建筑应满足家庭生活应包括至少有三个必要的房间：每个单位。一个客厅，一个厨房和厕所，公共建筑，可以在政治文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，影剧院，体育场馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等，他们都有不同的功能，这在需要以及不同的设计类型。 房屋是人类居住。房屋的基本功能是提供遮风挡雨，但今天人们需要更他们的住房，一个家庭迁入一个新的居民区知道，如果现有住房符合其标准安全，健康和舒适。附近的房屋是如何粮店，粮食市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，社区中心，家庭也会问。 在60年代中期最重要的住房价值足够空间的内部和外部。多数首选的一半左右1英亩的土地，这将提供业余活动空间单户住宅的家庭。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭宁愿住尽量尽可能从一个大都市区的中心，“打工仔”，即使行驶一段距离，他们的工作。不少家庭的首选国家住房郊区住房的大量的，因为他们的主要目的是远离噪音，拥挤，混乱。无障碍公共交通已不再是决定性因素，在住房，因为大多数工人开着自己的车上班的人。我们主要感兴趣的安排和房间的大小和卧室数目。 在建筑设计中的一个重要的一点是，房间的布局，应提供有关它们目的，最大可能的便利，在住宅，布局可根据三类认为：“天”，“夜必须注意“和”服务“。支付提供这些地区之间容易沟通。”天“的房间，一般包括用餐室，起居室和厨房，但其他房间，如一项研究，可能会补充说，可能有一个大厅，客厅，通常是最大的，往往是作为一个餐厅，也或厨房，可有一个用餐凉亭。“夜”的房间，卧室组成。“服务”，包括厨房，卫生间，储藏室，厨房和储藏室的水厕。连接天与客房的服务。 这也是必须考虑的前景问题，从不同的房间，和那些在使用中最应该尽可能最好朝
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
本科毕业设计（外文翻译） 题目居住区交往空间规划与设计 院（系部）xxx学院 专业名称xx 年级班级xx 学生姓名xx 指导教师xx xx 年xx 月x 日 Planning and Design of Association Space of residential District
Xia dong liang 【Abstract】:The association space refers to the indoor and outdoor space for communication between residents.The article presents an overall discussion of the necessity，hierarchy and functionality of association space,with a wish to create positive and healthy association atmosphere and stimulate good communication among residents so that the residential area can become a homeland full of love and harmony． 【Keyword】:residential area；association space；necessity；hierarchy；Functionality 【Foreword】：As the housing system reform and the rapid development of real estate, urban residential areas large urban settlements have emerged on the layout of residential buildings, public buildings, public green space, life and living facilities such as roads, to provide urban residents live in the community and The establishment, is an integral part of the city. Exchanges between the living room area residents is to communicate and exchange of indoor and outdoor space. At this stage, people's living standards greatly improved the living environment of continuous improvement district. Developers should not only focus on residential construction and the reasonable comfort, paying greater attention to the construction of residential environment. However, the current environment in the construction of residential areas, they are often the natural ecology of greening the environment is much more to consider, and the promotion of exchanges between the residents of the space environment to consider less, environmental construction can not meet the occupants of the psychological characteristics and needs. From the basic physiological needs gradually to meet the psychological and cultural fields of promoting a higher level, the residential area is not only the function of living, but also people's thinking and feelings of the local exchange. Therefore, the strengthening of exchanges between the residential areas of space construction, increase residential neighbourhood affinity, should be developed in the planning and construction of residential areas should also consider the issue. How to conduct exchanges between the residential areas of space planning and design, improve people's quality of life, the author of his own real estate development
building types and design A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities . Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used . Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center . In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms . Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 系：机械工程系 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Design of prestressed (用外文写) concrete structures 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 8-2简支梁布局 一个简单的预应力混凝土梁由两个危险截面控制：最大弯矩截面和端截面。这两部分设计好之后，中间截面一定要单独检查，必要时其他部位也要单独调查。最大弯矩截面在以下两种荷载阶段为控制情况，即传递时梁受最小弯矩M G的初始阶段和最大设计弯矩M T时的工作荷载阶段。而端截面则由抗剪强度、支承垫板、锚头间距和千斤顶净空所需要的面积来决定。所有的中间截面是由一个或多个上述要求，根它们与上述两种危险截面的距离来控制。对于后张构件的一种常见的布置方式是在最大弯矩截面采用诸如I形或T形的截面，而在接近梁端处逐渐过渡到简单的矩形截面。这就是人们通常所说的后张构件的端块。对于用长线法生产的先张构件，为了便于生产，全部只用一种等截面，其截面形状则可以为I形、双T形或空心的。在第5 、 6 和7章节中已经阐明了个别截面的设计，下面论述简支梁钢索的总布置。 梁的布置可以用变化混凝土和钢筋的办法来调整。混凝土的截面在高度、宽度、形状和梁底面或者顶面的曲率方面都可以有变化。而钢筋只在面积方面有所变化，不过在相对于混凝土重心轴线的位置方面却多半可以有变化。通过调整这些变化因素，布置方案可能有许多组合，以适应不同的荷载情况。这一点是与钢筋混凝土梁是完全不同的，在钢筋混凝土梁的通常布置中，不是一个统一的矩形截面便是一个统一的T形，而钢筋的位置总是布置得尽量靠底面纤维。 首先考虑先张梁，如图 8-7，这里最好采用直线钢索，因为它们在两个台座之间加力比较容易。我们先从图（a）的等截面直梁的直线钢索开始讨论。这样的布置都很简单，但这样一来，就不是很经济的设计了，因为跨中和梁端的要求会产生冲突。通常发生在跨度中央的最大弯矩截面中的钢索，最好尽量放低，以便尽可能提供最大力臂而提供最大的内部抵制力矩。当跨度中央的梁自重弯矩M G相当大时，就可以把c.g.s布置在截面核心范围以下很远的地方，而不致在传递时在顶部纤维中引起拉应力。然而对于梁端截面却有一套完全不同的要求。由于在梁端没有外力矩，因为在最后的时刻，安排钢索要以c.g.s与 c.g.c在结束区段一致，如此同样地获得克服压力分配的方法。无论如何，如果张应力在最后不能承受，放置 c.g.s.
毕业设计英文资料翻译 Tran slati on ofthe En glish Docume nts for Graduati on Desig n 课题名称_____________________________________ 院< 系）_____________________________________ 专业 _____________________________________ 姓名 _____________________________________ 学号 _____________________________________ 起讫日期 _____________________________________ 指导教师 _____________________________________ 2018 年2月25日 原文: Abstract：Gree n buildi ng refers to do its best to maximize con servati on of resources (en ergy, land, water, and wood> , protecti ng the environment and reduce polluti on in its life cycle. Provide people with healthy, appropriate and efficient use of space, and nature in harmony symbiosis buildings. Idescribed more details of green building design ' notion, green building ' design, as well as the sig ni fica nee of the con
外文文献： Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
外文原文 Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of Projects Lin Jingjing , Zhou Guohua SchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm. Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority . 1.INTRODUCTION More and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have
Literature translation. Construction constituent Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground. The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers. Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour. Load-Carrying Frame Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton con struction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material