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Lecture2 我们的身体——人体的科学(教案)一．教学目标1．知识性目标：大致了解身体结构；了解基本器官以及消化系统、呼吸系统的工作原理。
2．感受人体构造的“神奇”，培养探索性的好奇心。
3．介绍一些日常生活中自我保护和救助的小知识。
4．培养爱护身体的意识。
二．准备：1．课前在黑板上画人体结构图。
2．网球+网兜（模拟肺泡的结构）3．咀嚼、吞咽、消化、呼吸等的音效[注：六年级的教室里墙上有几个插座，事先不知，所以未带音箱去。
如果知道可以和mp3结合使用。
]三．教学设计Part I 引入：了解身体的意义我们今天要讲的话题是我们的身体。
可能有人觉得，这个话题太普通了，我们对自己的身体还不熟悉吗！是啊，我们每天每时每刻都在用自己的身体，可是我们真的很了解它吗？[跟着几个简单问题后，问：你有几颗牙齿？——资料：乳牙20颗，7-25换牙后（每换一颗牙需要半年）在乳牙后还会长出12 只恒磨牙，共32 颗，但有的人最后四颗磨牙终生不萌出或部份萌出。
全口牙齿总咬力男子为1408公斤，女子为936公斤；但如果失掉一颗牙齿，总咬力会减少200多公斤，缺二颗牙齿，总咬力减少50％-剩一半-牙齿需要配合才能最好地发挥作用，每一颗牙齿都要保护。
]其实这只是一个简单的例子，我们的身体中的奥秘还多着呢。
解答这些奥秘，有时候仅仅是为了满足我们的好奇心，但是另外有些时候是因为这些奥秘的答案实在太重要了，让人们不能忽视它。
比如，医生只有知道人体是怎么构造的，有哪些器官，这些器官在哪儿，都是怎么工作的，才能有效地诊断、治疗病人。
但是，在很长时间的一段时间里，医生连人体主要器官的位置都搞不清楚，因为当时解剖尸体是被禁止的（谁也不敢把人体“切开来”看看里面究竟是什么样）。
西方1800多年前有一位医学家叫盖仑，他认为解剖学对医生来说就像设计图纸对建筑师一样重要。
但是因为没法解剖人体，他只能解剖动物，比如猴子、猪、山羊、河马，然后从这些动物的结构上来猜测人体的结构。
【托福听力备考】TPO3听力文本——Lecture 2对于很多学生来说，托福TPO材料是备考托福听力最好的材料。
相信众多备考托福的同学也一直在练习这套材料，那么在以下内容中我们就为大家带来托福TPO听力练习的文本，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。
Lecture 2 Film historyNarrator：Listen to part of a lecture in a film history class.Professor：Okay, we’ve been discussing films in the 1920s and 30s, and how back then film categories, as we know them today, had not yet been established. We said that by today’s standards, many of the films of the 20s and 30s would be considered hybrids, that is, a mixture of styles that wouldn’t exactly fit into any of today’s categories. And in that context, today we are going to talk about a film-maker who began making very unique films in the late 1920s. He was French, and his name was Jean Painlevé.Jean Painlevé was born in 1902. He made his first film in 1928. Now in a way, Painlevé’s films conform to norms of the 20s and 30s, that is, they don’t fit very neatly into the categories we use to classify films today. That said, even by the standards of the 20s and 30s, Painlevé’s films were a unique hybrid of styles. He had a special way of fusing, or some people might say, confusing, science and fiction. His films begin with facts, but then they become more and more fictional. They gradually add more and more fictional elements. In fact, Painlevé was known for saying that science is fiction.Painlevé was a pioneer in underwater film-making, and a lot of his short films focused on the aquatic animal world. He liked to show small underwater creatures, displaying what seemed like familiar human characteristics – what we think of as unique to humans. He might take a clip of a mollusk going up and down in the water and set it to music. You know, to make it look as if the mollusk were dancing to the music like a human being – that sort of thing. But then he suddenly changed the image or narration to remind us how different the animals are, how unlike humans.He confused his audience in the way he portrayed the animals he filmed, mixing up our notions of the categories human and animal. The films make us a little uncomfortable at times because we are uncertain about what we are seeing. It gives him films an uncanny feature: the familiar made unfamiliar, the normal made suspicious. He liked twists, he liked the unusual. In fact, one of his favorite sea animals was the seahorse because with seahorses, it’s the male that carries the eggs, and he thought that was great. His first and most celebrated underwater film is about the seahorse.Susan, you have a question?Student 1：But underwater film-making wasn’t that unusual, was it? I mean, weren’t there other people making movies underwater?Professor：Well, actually, it was pretty rare at that time. I mean, we are talking the early 1930s here.Student 1：But what about Jacques Cousteau? Was he like an innovator, you know, with underwater photography too?Professor： Ah, Jacques Cousteau. Well, Painlevé and Cousteau did both film underwater, and they were both innovators, so you are right in that sense. But that’s pretty much where the similarities end.First of all, Painlevé was about 20 years ahead of Cousteau. And Cousteau’s adventures were high-tech, with lots of fancy equipment, whereas Painlevé kind of patchedequipment together as he needed it. Cousteau usually filmed large animals, usually in the open sea, whereas Painlevé generally filmed smaller animals, and he liked to film in shallow water.Uh, what else? Oh well, the main difference was that Cousteau simply investigated and presented the facts – he didn’t mix in fiction. He was a strict documentarist. He set the standard really for the nature documentary. Painlevé, on the other hand, as we said before, mixed in elements of fiction. And his films are much more artistic, incorporating music as an important element.John, you have a question?Student 2：Well, maybe I shouldn’t be asking this, but if Painlevé’s films are so special, so good, why haven’t we ever heard of them? I mean, everyone’s heard of Jacques Cousteau.Professor： Well, that’s a fair question. Uh, the short answer is that Painlev é’s style just never caught on with the general public. I mean, it probably goes back at least in part to what we mentioned earlier, that people didn’t know what to make of his films – they were confused by them, whereas Cousteau’s documentaries were very straightforward, met people’s expectations more than Painlevé’s films did. But you true film history buffs know about him. And Painlevé is still highly respected in many circles.。
Lecture 2 心理偏誤與展望理論認知心理學家透過實驗研究提出相當多的心理偏誤，且諸多學者有不同的分類方式，本講次參考Shefrin (2007)依序介紹認知偏誤(biases)、捷思或經驗法則(heuristics)與框架效應(framing effect)，最後說明展望理論。
I. 心理偏誤1.認知偏誤(Biases)(1)過度樂觀: 高估有利出象的機率，低估不利出象的機率。
在診斷性問題中列出了18個事件，請評估與同性別的他人相比，該事件發生在你身上的機率是比平均水準低(1~6)、等於平均水準(7)或是高於平均水準(8~15)。
結果發現: Typically the average rating for the unfavorable events is below 7, while the average rating for the favorable events is above 7.(2)過度自信：人們所自己的所知(the limits of their knowledge)和自己的能力(their own ability)容易有過度自信的傾向。
在診斷性問題中列出了10個困難的題目，受實驗者必須對每個題目回答best guess, 以及90%信心水準下的low guess和high guess (即認為正確答案有90%的機率落於所設定的上下界之間)。
結果發現: Typically the most frequent number of hits, and the average number of hits, is about 4.(3)確認性偏誤：人們容易忽視與自己觀點不一致的訊息，而接受尋找與自己觀點一致的訊息。
診斷性問題：桌上有四張卡(p. A1-5)，每張卡的一面是字母，另一面是數字，受實驗者被詢問檢測以下假說“Any card having a vowel on one side has an even number on the other side.”在四張卡中受實驗者至少要掀開幾張卡才能決定此假說是否為真?結果發現: Most people turn over the card with the a,and some turn over the cardwith the 2 as well.(4)控制性幻覺：人們傾向於高估本身對結果或出象的控制力。
