欧盟竞争法的发展历程与现行欧盟竞争法体系
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欧盟竞争法对市场竞争与消费者权益的保护欧盟竞争法(EU Competition Law)是欧洲联盟为维护市场竞争秩序和保护消费者权益而制定的法律规则。
它的主要目标是确保公平竞争和市场有效运作,以促进经济发展和保障消费者利益。
本文将介绍欧盟竞争法的基本原则、主要规定以及对市场竞争和消费者权益的保护。
一、欧盟竞争法的基本原则1.1 公平竞争原则欧盟竞争法奉行公平竞争原则,禁止各种限制竞争行为,包括垄断、滥用市场支配地位等,确保市场上的各家企业在公平的环境下进行竞争。
1.2 经济效率原则欧盟竞争法追求经济效率,通过防止和纠正排除、限制竞争的行为,提高资源配置效率,促进市场发展,维护消费者福利。
1.3 消费者权益保护原则欧盟竞争法强调保护消费者权益,禁止垄断和不正当竞争行为对消费者造成的不利影响,确保消费者能够以合理价格获得丰富多样的产品和服务。
二、欧盟竞争法的主要规定2.1 反垄断规定欧盟竞争法禁止垄断行为,包括滥用市场支配地位和限制竞争的垄断协议。
欧盟委员会负责监督和执法,对垄断行为进行调查,并可以对违法企业进行罚款或其它相应的处罚措施。
2.2 合并控制规定欧盟竞争法要求对重大企业合并进行审查,以避免合并对市场竞争和消费者权益产生不利影响。
欧盟委员会会根据具体的案件进行评估,并可以对合并行为进行阻止或提出特定要求。
2.3 国家援助规定欧盟竞争法限制成员国向企业提供国家援助,以避免国家援助对市场竞争产生不公平影响。
国家援助必须符合特定条件,且欧盟委员会有权审查和监督其合法性与合理性。
三、欧盟竞争法对市场竞争的保护欧盟竞争法通过打击垄断行为和限制竞争的行为,保护市场竞争的公平性和健康发展。
它监督并惩罚垄断企业,防止滥用市场支配地位,确保其他企业有机会进入市场并以公平的方式竞争。
这有助于推动创新和技术进步,提高企业效率,促进经济的可持续发展。
四、欧盟竞争法对消费者权益的保护欧盟竞争法关注消费者权益的保护,旨在确保消费者能够以合理价格和良好品质获得多样化的产品和服务。
欧盟的竞争法与市场监管欧盟的竞争法与市场监管是欧盟内部为维护公平竞争和保护市场利益而制定的一系列法规和监管措施。
这些法规和措施的目的是确保欧盟内所有企业在开展经济活动时都能够遵循公平竞争原则,并防止滥用市场支配地位的行为。
一、竞争法的法律框架欧盟的竞争法包括《欧盟竞争法公约》和《欧洲共同体委员会指令》等法规。
这些法规适用于所有在欧盟内开展经济活动的企业,无论其规模大小。
竞争法的基本原则是禁止反竞争行为,如价格垄断、垄断协议和滥用市场支配地位等。
二、反垄断措施为了打破垄断和促进市场竞争,欧盟制定了一系列反垄断措施。
其中最重要的是对于垄断行为的处罚。
根据欧盟竞争法公约,欧盟委员会有权对涉嫌垄断的企业进行调查,并对其进行罚款。
此外,欧盟还设立了监管机构,负责监督市场竞争和制定反垄断政策。
三、反垄断调查程序欧盟的反垄断调查程序包括两个阶段:初步调查和正式调查。
初步调查阶段,欧盟委员会将收集相关的证据和信息,并对涉嫌违反竞争法的企业进行评估。
如果初步调查发现存在垄断行为的证据,委员会将启动正式调查程序,并进行更为深入的调查。
四、市场监管除了反垄断措施外,欧盟还通过市场监管来保护消费者利益和维护市场的正常运行。
欧盟委员会负责制定和执行一系列监管措施,如反垃圾邮件指令、消费者权益指令等。
这些措施旨在促进公平竞争、防止虚假宣传和欺诈行为,并保护消费者的权益。
五、欧盟竞争法的挑战面对新兴技术和全球市场竞争的挑战,欧盟竞争法也面临着一些问题和挑战。
其中之一是如何适应数字经济时代的竞争环境。
另外,欧盟竞争法在执行和调查上的效率也面临一定的改善空间。
六、未来发展趋势在未来,欧盟竞争法将继续适应新的经济形势和技术发展,以确保公平竞争和维护市场秩序。
此外,欧盟也将加强与其他国际组织和国家的合作,以共同应对全球市场竞争和垄断行为。
结论:欧盟的竞争法与市场监管是欧盟为保护市场利益和维护公平竞争环境而制定的一系列法规和监管措施。
最新版国家开放大学《竞争法》形成性考核作业及参考答案精选《竞争法》作业一一、名词解释1.P4 所谓竞争,是指市场经济活动的主体,为获取交易机会、占有市场优势、追求利益最大化,以其他竞争者为对手而从事的较量。
2. P12 竞争法是由国家制定或认可的、维护市场竞争秩序、调整经营者之间的竞争关系及相关的市场竞争管理关系的法律规范的总称。
3.P24 竞争法体系是指按照一定的原则和标准对所有竞争法律规范分类组合而形成的具有一定结构和内在联系的有机整体。
4.P25 竞争法学体系是指由竞争法律的历史现状及其发展规律进行分门别类研究的竞争法分支学科组成的有机联系的统一整体。
5.P29 竞争管理实体法从国家依法干预和管理竞争的角度,通过系统、有序的监督、检查、引导、协调等方式实现对竞争的有效保护,为市场创造良好的环境,促进发垄断法和反不正当竞争法的有效实施。
6.P59“本身违法原则”美国法院在适用《谢尔曼法》时,逐渐通过判例确定的一项判断一行为是否为反竞争行为的重要原则,即某些反竞争的行为其本身是违法的,可以不需要在通过对其他因素加以考虑和判断,而直接认定其为反竞争行为。
二、填空题 1.竞争的对抗性竞争的非理性竞争的双重性 2.分立式统一调整模式3.经济法基础性重要4.独占事业结合联合行为不公平竞争 5.谢尔曼法克革顿法联邦贸易委员会法简答题1.P5 市场竞争的本质和特点有哪些?市场竞争的本质是逐利性。
逐利性是市场竞争与非市场竞争的根本区别,是竞争的起点和终点,并贯穿竞争的全过程。
如果说非市场竞争是有其他目的,那么,市场竞争则是赤裸裸地表现为对经济利益的关注和爱好。
市场竞争的特点:竞争具有对抗性、非理性和双重性等特点。
竞争的对抗性是指进驻参与者之间的敌对状态,竞争方式的针锋相对,竞争过程的激烈程度等综合内容,它使竞争呈现出你死我活的不可调和性。
竞争的对抗性是竞争的魅力所在,它孕育创新势力的同时也孕育破坏势力,他是竞争双重作用产生的根源。
欧盟法律体系深入了解欧洲联盟法律框架和成员国法律关系欧盟法律体系作为欧洲联盟(European Union)的法律框架,扮演着重要的角色。
它不仅为欧盟成员国之间的合作提供了指导,同时也对欧盟内部和外部的法律关系产生深远影响。
本文将对欧盟法律体系进行深入了解,包括欧洲联盟的法律框架以及成员国之间的法律关系。
一、欧洲联盟的法律框架欧洲联盟的法律框架由《欧洲联盟的功能条约》(Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union)和《欧洲联盟的宪法条约》(Treaty on European Union)构成。
这两个条约为欧盟的运作提供了基本规则和原则。
《欧洲联盟的宪法条约》是欧盟的最高法律文件,也被称为《里斯本条约》。
该条约规定了欧洲联盟的目标和价值观,确立了欧盟的机构体系,以及规定了欧盟与其成员国之间的权力和责任。
《欧洲联盟的功能条约》则进一步规定了欧盟的具体政策领域和运作机制,包括经济政策、竞争政策、农业政策等。
欧洲联盟法律体系中的二级法律文件包括欧盟的法规、指令、决定等。
欧盟法规对所有成员国具有直接适用的效力,而指令则要求成员国在一定期限内将其转化为国内法。
此外,欧盟的决定可以针对个别成员国或特定领域发挥作用。
二、成员国之间的法律关系欧盟成员国在法律领域有着相互依存的关系。
根据欧盟法律体系的原则,欧盟法律优先于成员国法律,但成员国法律仍然有一定的适用范围。
首先,成员国必须遵守欧盟法律的原则和规定。
这意味着成员国的国内法不能与欧盟法律相抵触。
如果成员国有违反欧盟法律的行为,欧盟机构可以对其进行违约行为的起诉,并采取必要的法律措施。
其次,欧盟法律要求成员国在特定领域采取一致的立法和政策。
例如,在欧洲联盟的共同市场中,成员国必须遵守共同的竞争规则,禁止垄断行为和不正当竞争行为。
这要求成员国在国内法中确立相应的法规和机构,以配合欧盟的规定。
此外,欧盟法律也要求成员国就特定事务进行协作和协调。
竞争法的产生随着历史的发展,人类社会逐渐过渡到市场经济体系,竞争逐渐成为了市场经济体系中不可或缺的一部分。
竞争有助于推动社会进步,增强企业的创新性和活力,并提升消费者的福利水平。
但竞争也可能产生不良的影响,例如垄断、寡头垄断、价格歧视等不合理行为,这些都会损害消费者和其他企业的利益。
于是,各国不断修订和完善竞争法,通过相关法律控制市场竞争行为,促进公平竞争和维护市场秩序。
1.竞争法的发展历程竞争法的历史可以追溯到古希腊时期,在公元前500年左右,古希腊开始实施禁止垄断行为的法律,以确保市场竞争。
但现代的竞争法发展起源于19世纪末和20世纪初的美国和欧洲。
在美国,谢尔曼反垄断法于1890年颁布实施,成为世界上最早的电讯法之一。
这一法律旨在禁止企业之间的垄断行为,认为这些行为会限制竞争、提高价格、损害消费者利益。
而在欧洲,德国于1957年颁布第一部竞争法,意大利和法国也分别于1962年和1966年颁布了类似的法律。
随着全球化的加速和市场经济的发展,越来越多的国家相继颁布了竞争法。
目前,主要的国际竞争法组织包括联合国、欧盟、美国、加拿大、日本和澳大利亚等。
2.竞争法的主要内容竞争法包括了广泛的法律和法规,规定了企业在市场上的行为限制和相关责任。
它的核心目标是确保公平竞争、维护市场秩序和保护消费者利益。
竞争法的内容包括以下几个方面:(1)禁止垄断行为。
垄断是指在一个市场上只有一个或几个企业掌握了绝对的市场份额,从而可以控制价格、减少生产进程、限制竞争等行为。
竞争法禁止垄断行为,鼓励多种经营形式在同一市场竞争,保护消费者利益。
(2)禁止滥用市场支配地位。
如果企业拥有实际上的市场支配地位,就可能滥用这种地位限制竞争、提高价格等不合理行为。
竞争法规定了如何定义市场支配地位、禁止利用其进行不合理行为。
(3)禁止勾结和协议限制竞争。
企业之间的勾结和协议往往会导致价格垄断和限制竞争。
竞争法规定这种行为是不合法的,对违反的企业进行处罚。
问题:您如何看待欧盟法律的特质及其与民法法系、普通法法系法律的相互影响?欧盟法这种特殊的样态对于我们理解世界法律格局有何启示?答:1.从欧盟法的特质可以得知,民法法系、普通法法系对其的影响主要体现在法律渊源和司法制度方面。
(1)在法律渊源方面,欧盟法以制定法为主,以判例法为辅,但判例法的地位明显。
欧盟法的主要渊源是建立欧共体和欧盟的各个条约。
包括建立煤钢共同体的《巴黎条约》(1951年),建立原子能共同体的《罗马条约》(1957年),建立经济共同体的《罗马条约》(1957年),建立三个共同体单一部长理事会与单一委员会的《合并条约》(1967年),确定1992年建成统一的欧洲市场的《单一欧洲法令》(1986年),建立欧盟的《欧洲联盟条约》(《马斯特里赫特条约》,1992年将欧盟一体化进程扩大的社会保障、人权法治和社会治安与防治犯罪领域的《阿姆斯特丹条约》)。
次要渊源主要包括各个机构所颁布的条例、指令、决定、推荐与意见,以及欧洲法院的判例。
条例是指由欧盟机构所颁布的具有全体适用性和直接适用性的规范性文件。
针对全体成员国,可以在成员国直接适用,无须任何转化措施。
指令是欧盟针对个别成员国所发布的命令。
决定所指向的对象可能是成员国,也可能是法人或个人。
推荐与意见,没有法律约束力,不能授予个人可以在国内法庭上得到保障的权利,不是严格意义上的法律渊源。
但当欧盟机构所提出的推荐与意见是成员国制定有关法律条文的特别依据时,或者对解释欧共体法的其他条文有意义时,并且这些条文与法院审理的案件都有关系时,国内法院就必须在有关地方提到这些条文。
实践中,欧洲法院的判例作为法律渊源主要通过三种途径:第一,在判决中提及欧洲法院曾经做出的决定;第二,在判决中重复欧洲法院曾经做出的决定;第三,在判决中,欧洲法院指示考虑其他类似的情况,该判决对类似情况具有拘束力。
由上可知,在欧盟法中,大部分的法律渊源是条约、条例、指令和决定。
条约是各成员国通过协商而制定出来的约束成员国的一般规范,其内容是一般性、抽象性的、建构式的规定。
第五讲:欧盟竞争法及其执法体系t钾舞各垄鹳棼》≈f镑第五讲:欧盟竞争法及其执法体系一,欧盟竞争法的演变欧盟竞争法是欧盟法律的重要组成部分.欧盟的前身欧共体是由法国,联邦德国,意大利,荷兰,比利时和卢森堡创立的.1951年4月18号,他们在巴黎签订了《建立欧洲煤钢共同体条约》(又称《巴黎条约》).1957年3月25日,这六个国家又在罗马签订了《建立欧洲经济共同体条约》和《欧洲原子能共同体条约》,统称《罗马条约》.1965年4月8日,这六个国家签订了《布鲁塞尔条约》,决定将三个共同体的机构合并.统称欧洲共同体.1991年l2月,欧洲共同体马斯特里赫特首脑会议通过《欧洲联盟条约》,通称《马斯特里赫特条约》(简称《马约》).1993年11月1日,《马约》正式生效,欧盟正式诞生.总部设在比利时首都布鲁塞尔.早~,a951年的《欧洲煤钢共同体条约》中第60条,第65条,第66条就有保护竞争的规定.该条约中的第60条关于禁止歧视的规定,第65条关于反竞争协议的规定和第66条关于控制企业合并的规定就是现在欧盟竞争法的雏形.但是因为这个共同体只是局限在煤钢领域他的作用是非常有限的.1955年6月在签订《欧洲经济共同体条约》和《欧洲原子能共同体条约》之前,共同体的创建者们感到要推动整个欧洲经济的繁荣和发展,必须充分发挥竞争机制的作用,把多国相对分割的市场逐步变成超国界的完全竞争的市场.排除国界及经济组织对于市场竞争的限制和不'-3影响,实现商品,人员,劳动力和资本在成员国之间的自由流通.于是在签订《欧洲经济共同体条约》(简称《欧共体条约》)的时候.欧共体创始国把建立公平的竞争制度作为主要的课题之一.因此,《欧洲经济共同体条约》的主要目的就是通过建立共同市场和协调各个成员国之间的经济政策,促进经济的发展.该条约的第85条关于禁止反竞争协议的规定和第86条关于禁止滥用市场支配地位的规定便成为欧盟竞争法最核心的内容.在此之后,欧盟立法机构又颁布了一系列的调整竞争关系的单行法规.欧盟委员会的执行实践和欧洲二级法院的司法判例与解释也逐渐发展起来,并最终形成了欧盟较为完善的竞争法律制度欧盟竞争法的法律依据主要是《欧共体条约》中的第8l至89条(在1997年《阿姆斯特丹条约》以前是第85至94条).根据这些条款制定的有关法规, 指令,以及在并购领域的欧盟《合并法规》.实施欧盟竞争法的主要目的,一是保持欧盟内部市场上的公平竞争,二是促进欧盟单一市场的进一步发展. 二,欧盟竞争法的主要内容(一)反托拉斯和反卡特尔.该领域涉及的主要对象包括限制性协议和滥用市场支配地位.《欧共体条约》第81条以及相关一系列法规禁止瓜分市场,限定价格,限制产量等类型的协议;第82条及相关法规禁止滥用市场支配地位的行为.(二)合并控制.考虑到企业合并后对市场竞争可能造成的不利影响,欧盟对企业的并购行为也进行控制.该领域的主要法规是欧盟《合并法规》(4064/89号).(三)市场开放.在原来具有垄断性质的经济部门(如电信,邮政,能源等)引入竞争.《欧共体条约》第86条以及根据此条制定的一系列指令和法规对如何开放这些领域进行了规范.(四)国家补贴.《欧共体条约》第87~89条及相关法规.对成员国各级政府所提供的各种补贴措囝|每垄施进行了限制.以使这些措施不至于扭曲欧盟共同大市场中的竞争.例如,欧盟明确禁止成员国拨款给一家亏损且没有扭亏为盈希望的企业.同时.也对部分给予中小企业,以及用于促进就业,加强培训,缩小地区差异,研发和环保等目的的补贴进行豁免三,欧盟竞争法执行机构欧洲委员会竞争总司(简称"竞争总司")是欧盟竞争法的主要执行机构.其成立可以追溯至1962 年.1962年,欧洲理事会通过了《理事会关于执行第85条和第86条(现第81条和第82条)的第17号条例》,首次对竞争法公共执行主体的权能进行了划分,形成了以委员会为核心的集权化的实施机制.竞争总司负责调查涉嫌损害市场公平竞争的垄断行为,并可以对相关企业处以罚款(最高可到该企业世界范围内年销售额的10%).在有关国家补贴的案件中,竞争总司还有权要求接受补贴的企业向有关政府部门退回补贴款.目前,欧盟竞争总司下设9个司,2009年度财务总预算为1234.68万欧元.其中专门负责查处卡特尔案件的卡特尔司(相当于反价格垄断执法中的"价格垄断协议"部分)下设六个部门,包括:卡特尔1 组,卡特尔2组,卡特尔3组,卡特尔4组,卡特尔5 组,卡特尔和解工作组.2010年,卡特尔司工作成员共90名,竞争总司反垄断调查人员共316名.欧盟竞争总司机构组织图匹四,欧盟竞争法与成员国竞争法的关系在欧盟内部存在两套竞争法律体系,一套是欧盟层面适用于所有成员国的竞争法,主要是《欧共体条约》,另一套是各成员国国内的竞争法.相应地,欧盟委员会设立了竞争总司,各个成员国也有自己的反垄断执法机构.这两套法律体系相互独立又密切联系.一般来说,欧盟竞争法适用于损害欧盟共同利益的行为.而只发生在一国境内,未涉及到欧盟整体利益的行为.由成员国国内竞争法约束. 但是,如果两套法律体系出现冲突.则按照欧盟法优于成员国法的原则,优先适用欧盟竞争法.(价监局市场价格监管处张炜提供)第六讲:英国\德国反价格垄断法律制度和执法情况一,英国反价格垄断法律制度和执法情况(一)英国反垄断机构设置英国的反垄断主管机构主要包括公平交易署,竞争委员会,竞争上诉法庭以及商业,创新及技术部.(二)英国反垄断执法的策略手段英国公平交易署作为英国反垄断的主要执法机构,在反垄断执法方面具有广泛的民事和刑事调查处罚的权利.其调查处理的案件一般要经历:发现线索初步调查决定是否立案一调查取证裁决处理(或移交)的过程.在这一过程中.英国政府部门经实践总结并通过立法创设了一系列独特的策略手段,提高了政府部门反垄断的成效.1.自首免责及鼓励举报策略.对卡特尔参与者中第一个与公平交易署配合者.可以免于经圈。
欧盟的法律和治理体系欧洲联盟(European Union, EU)是由28个欧洲国家组成的政治和经济联盟。
为了实现欧盟的目标,成员国制定了一系列的法律和治理体系。
本文将介绍欧盟的法律制度、决策过程以及其对成员国的治理。
一、欧盟的法律制度欧盟的法律制度由基本法源、次级法和成员国法律构成。
欧盟的基本法源主要包括《欧洲联盟的功能条约》(Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, TFEU)、《欧洲联盟运作条约》(Treaty on European Union, TEU)以及《欧洲联盟宪章》(Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union)。
基本法源确立了欧洲联盟的机构、职能和宏观目标。
次级法是根据基本法源由欧盟机构制定的具体法规、指令和决议等。
成员国在履行欧盟职责的过程中,需要制定或修改国内法律以确保与欧盟法律的一致性。
欧盟的法律制度具有权威性和直接适用性。
一旦欧盟法律发布,它就具有优先性并可直接在所有成员国适用。
二、欧盟的决策过程欧盟的决策过程涉及各个机构之间的合作与互动。
欧洲联盟理事会(European Council)是欧盟的最高决策机构,由各成员国的元首或政府首脑组成。
欧洲委员会(European Commission)是欧盟的行政执行机构,负责起草法律和政策建议,并执行已通过的法律。
欧洲议会(European Parliament)则是欧盟的立法机构。
在决策过程中,欧洲委员会提出法律和政策建议,并提交给欧洲议会和理事会。
欧洲议会与理事会通过立法程序对其进行审议和修改。
一旦议会和理事会就法律或政策达成共识,该法律或政策就会生效。
需要注意的是,欧盟的决策过程通常需要在不同的机构之间进行谈判和协商,以确保各成员国的权益得到平衡和尊重。
三、欧盟对成员国的治理欧盟的治理是通过欧洲委员会、理事会和欧洲议会这些机构进行的。
欧盟的法律体系与法律制度欧盟(European Union,EU)是由28个成员国组成的政治经济联盟,拥有自身的法律体系与法律制度。
这套法律体系对成员国有较强的约束力,并在欧洲内部产生一定的法律统一与标准化。
本文将介绍欧盟的法律体系、法律制度以及其对成员国的影响。
一、欧盟的法律体系欧盟的法律体系以法律文件为基础,主要由欧洲联盟条约(Treaties of the European Union)和欧盟法规(Regulations)构成。
欧洲联盟条约是欧盟的宪法,规定了欧盟的基本原则、机构设置和权力分配等内容。
欧盟法规则是在欧洲联盟条约授权下由欧洲联盟委员会(European Commission)提出并由欧洲议会(European Parliament)和理事会(Council)共同通过的法律文件,具有直接适用性,适用于所有成员国。
此外,欧盟的法律体系还包括欧盟指令(Directives)、欧盟决议(Decisions)和欧盟法规的执行规则等等。
欧盟指令是欧洲联盟委员会向成员国发出的要求,要求成员国在一定期限内制定适当的国内法律或行政法规来落实指令的规定。
欧盟决议则针对具体的案件或行为做出具体的裁决。
二、欧盟的法律制度欧盟的法律制度主要由欧洲联盟委员会、欧洲议会和欧洲法院构成。
欧洲联盟委员会是欧盟的执行机构,负责提出法规和指令、执行欧盟的政策和决策,掌握着法律制定的主导权。
欧洲议会是欧盟的立法机构,由成员国选举产生,行使立法、监督和决策职能。
欧洲法院是欧盟维护法律统一和权威的司法机构,负责解释和适用欧盟的法律,对成员国的违法行为进行裁决。
欧盟的法律制度建立了一个相对独立和完善的法律体系,有力地维护了欧盟的权威和一体性。
欧洲法院的裁决具有最高法律效力,各成员国的法院都必须接受并尊重欧洲法院的裁决。
这些法律制度的建立和运行,为欧盟内部的法律统一和协调提供了制度保障。
三、欧盟法律体系对成员国的影响欧盟的法律体系对成员国的影响主要表现在以下几个方面:1. 法律的统一性和标准化:欧盟的法律体系确保了成员国之间法律的统一性和标准化。
欧盟的竞争政策与反垄断措施欧洲联盟(European Union,简称EU)是由28个欧洲国家组成的政治经济联盟。
作为世界上最大的贸易集团之一,欧盟致力于维护自由与公平的市场环境。
竞争政策与反垄断措施是欧盟推动市场公正与竞争的核心机制。
本文将探讨欧盟的竞争政策与反垄断措施的背景、目标、法律框架和执行方式,并分析其对欧洲市场的影响。
一、背景与目标欧盟的竞争政策与反垄断措施的形成源于对欧洲市场公平竞争状况的关注。
欧洲国家在过去曾存在垄断行为与不正当竞争现象,这导致市场资源的不均衡分配,限制了经济发展的潜力。
为了解决这些问题,欧盟制定了一系列政策与措施,以确保市场的公正竞争,促进创新和经济增长。
欧盟竞争政策的主要目标包括:维护市场公平竞争、保护消费者权益、促进经济效率、防止市场垄断和不正当竞争行为、促进行业创新和技术进步等。
通过竞争政策与反垄断措施的实施,欧盟试图消除市场障碍,推动经济一体化,促进欧洲内部市场的融合与发展。
二、法律框架欧盟的竞争政策与反垄断措施主要依赖于两个核心法律文件:欧洲联盟的《竞争法》和《反垄断法》。
这些法律为欧盟成员国制定了统一的法律规范,确保公平竞争和市场监管的有效进行。
《竞争法》规定了反垄断和反不正当竞争的法律准则。
根据该法律,操纵市场价格、限制市场准入、达成垄断协议、滥用市场支配地位等行为都被视为违法行为,将受到相应的惩罚和制裁。
另外,《竞争法》还规定了国家竞争事务部门的权限,以及欧盟委员会在竞争问题上的决策权。
《反垄断法》则涉及对市场垄断的监管和反垄断的具体执行措施。
欧盟委员会在遇到具体垄断行为时,可以对涉嫌垄断的公司进行调查,如有必要,可以对其进行罚款或要求解除垄断行为。
此外,如果垄断行为的后果对欧盟市场有重大不利影响,欧盟委员会还可以对公司进行拆分或降低其市场份额。
三、执行机制欧盟的竞争政策与反垄断措施的执行主体是欧盟委员会。
欧盟委员会负责监督欧洲市场的竞争环境,对违反竞争法的行为进行调查与裁决。
国际竞争法一、保护工业产权巴黎公约1. 形成与发展1884年巴黎公约生效,1900布鲁塞尔修订本将保护工业产权的国民待遇员额扩大到反不正当竞争领域,第一次在公约中规定了国际经济交往中反不正当竞争的内容1911华盛顿续订本,对制止不正当竞争的措施和方法做出了规定,同时要求各成员国履行禁止不正当竞争的义务,并讲这一规定载入公约1925海牙修订本明确提出了不正当竞争的定义,同时要求成员国向其他成员国国民提供不正当竞争救济,并将此载入公约;1934伦敦修订本和1958里斯本修订本进一步补充了不正当竞争的实例;现行的为1967年的斯德哥尔摩修订本2.巴黎公约中竞争法律制度的主要特点以工业产权的国际保护为宗旨;充分体现了对各国竞争法律制度的协调与统一;实体规定与程序规定并重;主要调整狭义的不正当竞争行为,基本不涉及限制竞争和垄断;3.巴黎公约中竞争法的基本内容规定了不正当竞争行为的定义,规定了表现方式和制裁措施,规定了一般救济程序;二、欧盟竞争法1. 主要内容欧洲煤钢联营条约中有关竞争法的规定,罗马条约中,欧共体部长理事会所进行的竞争立法,执法机构执行竞争法的决定与判例;2. 特点以保护欧共体共同市场的公平竞争为主旨,将企业作为重要的法律主体,实行域内域外双重效力原则,侧重于对垄断及限制竞争行为的调整;3.欧盟竞争法规制的反竞争行为限制性商业做法,滥用优势地位,企业合并,破坏竞争的国家援助;4. 欧盟的竞争法机构欧洲议会,欧盟部长理事会,欧盟委员会,欧洲初审法院,欧洲法院;三、WTO中的竞争法1.WTO所确定的竞争原则与规则三基本原则,最惠国待遇,国民待遇,透明度原则;关税贸易总协定规定的原则;服务贸易总协定中特有的竞争原则;与贸易有关的知识产权协议中特有的竞争规则;关于解决争端的规则与程序的谅解中解决竞争纠纷的程序性规则;2.WTO中竞争法的特点以培育和引导国际贸易中的公平竞争为主旨,将国家和政府的限制竞争行为作为重要的规范对象,反垄断与反不正当竞争并举;3.WTO中竞争法所规制的主要行为关税限制,数量限制,国家专控产品贸易,与知识产权有关的不正当竞争行为,四、联合国有关竞争法的国际性文件与示范法1980年,联合国贸易与发展会议United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,UNCTAD,简称贸发会议在多年努力的基础上通过了控制限制性商业惯例的多边协议的公平原则和规则The Set of Multilaterally Agreed Equitable Principles and Rules for the Control of Restrictive Business Practices,以下简称公平原则与规则;1984年,UNCTAD又以控制限制性商业惯例的多边协议的公平原则和规则为蓝本完成了消除或控制限制性商业惯例法律范本以下简称法律范本;1999年6月7日至9日,在UNCTAD的主持下,政府间竞争法与竞争政策专家组召开会议;会议一致认为,UNCTAD应继续出版法律范本的注释,以吸收近年来竞争法领域新的立法情况;2003年2月19日,竞争法与竞争政策特别专家组会议在日内瓦召开,对其作了进一步的修改并于2004年公布了最新版本,称为竞争法示范法Model Law On Competition;2.控制限制性商业惯例的多边协议的公平原则和规则宗旨和目的:消除关税壁垒保持发展中利益,促进贸易特别是发展中,保护社会公益消费者利益,消除不利条件扩大国际贸易维护发展中利益,适用范围:适用于一切企业的限制性商业惯例主要内容:控制限制性商业惯例的公平原则,为包括跨国公司在内的企业制定的原则和规则,为各国咋国家、区域和地区固定的原则和规则,国际措施;3.竞争法示范法的内容2004年发布的竞争法示范法共分三个部分,第一部分是正文,计13条;第二部分是条文的注释;第三部分是附件;正文部分结构为第一、二条是竞争法示范法的目标、适用范围和相关定义;第三条规定限制性协议;第四条规定滥用市场支配地位;第五条规定限制性行为的通知制度;第六条规定影响集中市场的合并;第七条规定竞争主管机关与有关管理机构包括部门管理者的关系;第八条规定消费者保护问题;第九、十条规定竞争主管机关的设置、组织及其职能和权力;第十一、十二、十三条规定程序问题,包括处罚和救济、上诉以及损害赔偿;。
I(Acts whose publication is obligatory)COUNCIL REGULATION(EC)No1/2003of16December2002on the implementation of the rules on competition laid down in Articles81and82of the Treaty(Text with EEA relevance)THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION,Having regard to the Treaty establishing the European Community,and in particular Article83thereof,Having regard to the proposal from the Commission(1),Having regard to the opinion of the European Parliament(2),Having regard to the opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee(3),Whereas:(1)In order to establish a system which ensures that competition in the common market is notdistorted,Articles81and82of the Treaty must be applied effectively and uniformly in the Commu-nity.Council Regulation No17of6February1962,First Regulation implementing Articles81and 82(*)of the Treaty(4),has allowed a Community competition policy to develop that has helped to disseminate a competition culture within the Community.In the light of experience,however,that Regulation should now be replaced by legislation designed to meet the challenges of an integrated market and a future enlargement of the Community.(2)In particular,there is a need to rethink the arrangements for applying the exception from the prohi-bition on agreements,which restrict competition,laid down in Article81(3)of the Treaty.Under Article83(2)(b)of the Treaty,account must be taken in this regard of the need to ensure effective supervision,on the one hand,and to simplify administration to the greatest possible extent,on the other.(3)The centralised scheme set up by Regulation No17no longer secures a balance between those twoobjectives.It hampers application of the Community competition rules by the courts and competi-tion authorities of the Member States,and the system of notification it involves prevents the Commission from concentrating its resources on curbing the most serious infringements.It also imposes considerable costs on undertakings.(4)The present systemshould therefore be replaced by a directly applicable exception systemin whichthe competition authorities and courts of the Member States have the power to apply not only Article81(1)and Article82of the Treaty,which have direct applicability by virtue of the case-law of the Court of Justice of the European Communities,but also Article81(3)of the Treaty.(1)OJ C365E,19.12.2000,p.284.(2)OJ C72E,21.3.2002,p.305.(3)OJ C155,29.5.2001,p.73.(*)The title of Regulation No17has been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty, in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Articles85and86of the Treaty.(4)OJ13,21.2.1962,p.204/62.Regulation as last amended by Regulation(EC)No1216/1999(OJ L148,15.6.1999,p.5).(5)In order to ensure an effective enforcement of the Community competition rules and at the sametime the respect of fundamental rights of defence,this Regulation should regulate the burden of proof under Articles81and82of the Treaty.It should be for the party or the authority alleging an infringement of Article81(1)and Article82of the Treaty to prove the existence thereof to the required legal standard.It should be for the undertaking or association of undertakings invoking the benefit of a defence against a finding of an infringement to demonstrate to the required legal stan-dard that the conditions for applying such defence are satisfied.This Regulation affects neither national rules on the standard of proof nor obligations of competition authorities and courts of the Member States to ascertain the relevant facts of a case,provided that such rules and obligations are compatible with general principles of Community law.(6)In order to ensure that the Community competition rules are applied effectively,the competitionauthorities of the Member States should be associated more closely with their application.To this end,they should be empowered to apply Community law.(7)National courts have an essential part to play in applying the Community competition rules.Whendeciding disputes between private individuals,they protect the subjective rights under Community law,for example by awarding damages to the victims of infringements.The role of the national courts here complements that of the competition authorities of the Member States.They should therefore be allowed to apply Articles81and82of the Treaty in full.(8)In order to ensure the effective enforcement of the Community competition rules and the properfunctioning of the cooperation mechanisms contained in this Regulation,it is necessary to oblige the competition authorities and courts of the Member States to also apply Articles81and82of the Treaty where they apply national competition law to agreements and practices which may affect trade between Member States.In order to create a level playing field for agreements,decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices within the internal market,it is also necessary to determine pursuant to Article83(2)(e)of the Treaty the relationship between national laws and Community competition law.To that effect it is necessary to provide that the application of national competition laws to agreements,decisions or concerted practices within the meaning of Article 81(1)of the Treaty may not lead to the prohibition of such agreements,decisions and concerted practices if they are not also prohibited under Community competition law.The notions of agree-ments,decisions and concerted practices are autonomous concepts of Community competition law covering the coordination of behaviour of undertakings on the market as interpreted by the Community Courts.Member States should not under this Regulation be precluded from adopting and applying on their territory stricter national competition laws which prohibit or impose sanc-tions on unilateral conduct engaged in by undertakings.These stricter national laws may include provisions which prohibit or impose sanctions on abusive behaviour toward economically depen-dent undertakings.Furthermore,this Regulation does not apply to national laws which impose crim-inal sanctions on natural persons except to the extent that such sanctions are the means whereby competition rules applying to undertakings are enforced.(9)Articles81and82of the Treaty have as their objective the protection of competition on the market.This Regulation,which is adopted for the implementation of these Treaty provisions,does not preclude Member States from implementing on their territory national legislation,which protects other legitimate interests provided that such legislation is compatible with general principles and other provisions of Community law.In so far as such national legislation pursues predominantly an objective different from that of protecting competition on the market,the competition authorities and courts of the Member States may apply such legislation on their territory.Accordingly,Member States may under this Regulation implement on their territory national legislation that prohibits or imposes sanctions on acts of unfair trading practice,be they unilateral or contractual.Such legisla-tion pursues a specific objective,irrespective of the actual or presumed effects of such acts on competition on the market.This is particularly the case of legislation which prohibits undertakings from imposing on their trading partners,obtaining or attempting to obtain from them terms and conditions that are unjustified,disproportionate or without consideration.(10)Regulations such as19/65/EEC(1),(EEC)No2821/71(2),(EEC)No3976/87(3),(EEC)No1534/91(4),or(EEC)No479/92(5)empower the Commission to apply Article81(3)of the Treaty by Regulation to certain categories of agreements,decisions by associations of undertakings and concerted practices.In the areas defined by such Regulations,the Commission has adopted and may continue to adopt so called‘block’exemption Regulations by which it declares Article81(1)of the Treaty inapplicable to categories of agreements,decisions and concerted practices.Where agree-ments,decisions and concerted practices to which such Regulations apply nonetheless have effects that are incompatible with Article81(3)of the Treaty,the Commission and the competition authori-ties of the Member States should have the power to withdraw in a particular case the benefit of the block exemption Regulation.(11)For it to ensure that the provisions of the Treaty are applied,the Commission should be able toaddress decisions to undertakings or associations of undertakings for the purpose of bringing to an end infringements of Articles81and82of the Treaty.Provided there is a legitimate interest in doing so,the Commission should also be able to adopt decisions which find that an infringement has been committed in the past even if it does not impose a fine.This Regulation should also make explicit provision for the Commission's power to adopt decisions ordering interim measures,which has been acknowledged by the Court of Justice.(12)This Regulation should make explicit provision for the Commission's power to impose any remedy,whether behavioural or structural,which is necessary to bring the infringement effectively to an end,having regard to the principle of proportionality.Structural remedies should only be imposed either where there is no equally effective behavioural remedy or where any equally effective beha-vioural remedy would be more burdensome for the undertaking concerned than the structural remedy.Changes to the structure of an undertaking as it existed before the infringement was committed would only be proportionate where there is a substantial risk of a lasting or repeated infringement that derives from the very structure of the undertaking.(13)Where,in the course of proceedings which might lead to an agreement or practice being prohibited,undertakings offer the Commission commitments such as to meet its concerns,the Commission should be able to adopt decisions which make those commitments binding on the undertakings mitment decisions should find that there are no longer grounds for action by the Commission without concluding whether or not there has been or still is an mit-ment decisions are without prejudice to the powers of competition authorities and courts of the Member States to make such a finding and decide upon the mitment decisions are not appropriate in cases where the Commission intends to impose a fine.(1)Council Regulation No19/65/EEC of2March1965on the application of Article81(3)(The titles of the Regulationshave been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article 12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Article85(3)of the Treaty)of the Treaty to certain cate-gories of agreements and concerted practices(OJ36,6.3.1965,p.533).Regulation as last amended by Regulation (EC)No1215/1999(OJ L148,15.6.1999,p.1).(2)Council Regulation(EEC)No2821/71of20December1971on the application of Article81(3)(The titles of theRegulations have been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Article85(3)of the Treaty)of the Treaty to categories of agreements,decisions and concerted practices(OJ L285,29.12.1971,p.46).Regulation as last amended by the Act of Accession of1994.(3)Council Regulation(EEC)No3976/87of14December1987on the application of Article81(3)(The titles of theRegulations have been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Article85(3)of the Treaty)of the Treaty to certain categories of agreements and concerted practices in the air transport sector(OJ L374,31.12.1987,p.9).Regulation as last amended by the Act of Accession of1994.(4)Council Regulation(EEC)No1534/91of31May1991on the application of Article81(3)(The titles of the Regula-tions have been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Article85(3)of the Treaty)of the Treaty to certain categories of agreements,decisions and concerted practices in the insurance sector(OJ L143,7.6.1991,p.1).(5)Council Regulation(EEC)No479/92of25February1992on the application of Article81(3)(The titles of the Regu-lations have been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Article85(3)of the Treaty)of the Treaty to certain categories of agreements,decisions and concerted practices between liner shipping companies(Consortia)(OJ L55,29.2.1992,p.3).Regulation amended by the Act of Accession of1994.(14)In exceptional cases where the public interest of the Community so requires,it may also be expe-dient for the Commission to adopt a decision of a declaratory nature finding that the prohibition in Article81or Article82of the Treaty does not apply,with a view to clarifying the law and ensuring its consistent application throughout the Community,in particular with regard to new types of agreements or practices that have not been settled in the existing case-law and administrative prac-tice.(15)The Commission and the competition authorities of the Member States should form together anetwork of public authorities applying the Community competition rules in close cooperation.For that purpose it is necessary to set up arrangements for information and consultation.Further modal-ities for the cooperation within the network will be laid down and revised by the Commission,in close cooperation with the Member States.(16)Notwithstanding any national provision to the contrary,the exchange of information and the use ofsuch information in evidence should be allowed between the members of the network even where the information is confidential.This information may be used for the application of Articles81and 82of the Treaty as well as for the parallel application of national competition law,provided that the latter application relates to the same case and does not lead to a different outcome.When the infor-mation exchanged is used by the receiving authority to impose sanctions on undertakings,there should be no other limit to the use of the information than the obligation to use it for the purpose for which it was collected given the fact that the sanctions imposed on undertakings are of the same type in all systems.The rights of defence enjoyed by undertakings in the various systems can be considered as sufficiently equivalent.However,as regards natural persons,they may be subject to substantially different types of sanctions across the various systems.Where that is the case,it is necessary to ensure that information can only be used if it has been collected in a way which respects the same level of protection of the rights of defence of natural persons as provided for under the national rules of the receiving authority.(17)If the competition rules are to be applied consistently and,at the same time,the network is to bemanaged in the best possible way,it is essential to retain the rule that the competition authorities of the Member States are automatically relieved of their competence if the Commission initiates its own proceedings.Where a competition authority of a Member State is already acting on a case and the Commission intends to initiate proceedings,it should endeavour to do so as soon as possible.Before initiating proceedings,the Commission should consult the national authority concerned.(18)To ensure that cases are dealt with by the most appropriate authorities within the network,a generalprovision should be laid down allowing a competition authority to suspend or close a case on the ground that another authority is dealing with it or has already dealt with it,the objective being that each case should be handled by a single authority.This provision should not prevent the Commis-sion from rejecting a complaint for lack of Community interest,as the case-law of the Court of Justice has acknowledged it may do,even if no other competition authority has indicated its inten-tion of dealing with the case.(19)The Advisory Committee on Restrictive Practices and Dominant Positions set up by Regulation No17has functioned in a very satisfactory manner.It will fit well into the new system of decentralised application.It is necessary,therefore,to build upon the rules laid down by Regulation No17,while improving the effectiveness of the organisational arrangements.To this end,it would be expedient to allow opinions to be delivered by written procedure.The Advisory Committee should also be able to act as a forumfor discussing cases that are being handled by the com petition authorities of the Member States,so as to help safeguard the consistent application of the Community competition rules.(20)The Advisory Committee should be composed of representatives of the competition authorities ofthe Member States.For meetings in which general issues are being discussed,Member States should be able to appoint an additional representative.This is without prejudice to members of the Committee being assisted by other experts from the Member States.(21)Consistency in the application of the competition rules also requires that arrangements be estab-lished for cooperation between the courts of the Member States and the Commission.This is rele-vant for all courts of the Member States that apply Articles81and82of the Treaty,whether applying these rules in lawsuits between private parties,acting as public enforcers or as review courts.In particular,national courts should be able to ask the Commission for information or for its opinion on points concerning the application of Community competition law.The Commission and the competition authorities of the Member States should also be able to submit written or oral observations to courts called upon to apply Article81or Article82of the Treaty.These observa-tions should be submitted within the framework of national procedural rules and practices including those safeguarding the rights of the parties.Steps should therefore be taken to ensure that the Commission and the competition authorities of the Member States are kept sufficiently well informed of proceedings before national courts.(22)In order to ensure compliance with the principles of legal certainty and the uniform application ofthe Community competition rules in a system of parallel powers,conflicting decisions must be avoided.It is therefore necessary to clarify,in accordance with the case-law of the Court of Justice, the effects of Commission decisions and proceedings on courts and competition authorities of the Member mitment decisions adopted by the Commission do not affect the power of the courts and the competition authorities of the Member States to apply Articles81and82of the Treaty.(23)The Commission should be empowered throughout the Community to require such information tobe supplied as is necessary to detect any agreement,decision or concerted practice prohibited by Article81of the Treaty or any abuse of a dominant position prohibited by Article82of the Treaty.When complying with a decision of the Commission,undertakings cannot be forced to admit that they have committed an infringement,but they are in any event obliged to answer factual questions and to provide documents,even if this information may be used to establish against them or against another undertaking the existence of an infringement.(24)The Commission should also be empowered to undertake such inspections as are necessary to detectany agreement,decision or concerted practice prohibited by Article81of the Treaty or any abuse ofa dominant position prohibited by Article82of the Treaty.The competition authorities of theMember States should cooperate actively in the exercise of these powers.(25)The detection of infringements of the competition rules is growing ever more difficult,and,in orderto protect competition effectively,the Commission's powers of investigation need to be supple-mented.The Commission should in particular be empowered to interview any persons who may be in possession of useful information and to record the statements made.In the course of an inspec-tion,officials authorised by the Commission should be empowered to affix seals for the period of time necessary for the inspection.Seals should normally not be affixed for more than72hours.Offi-cials authorised by the Commission should also be empowered to ask for any information relevant to the subject matter and purpose of the inspection.(26)Experience has shown that there are cases where business records are kept in the homes of directorsor other people working for an undertaking.In order to safeguard the effectiveness of inspections, therefore,officials and other persons authorised by the Commission should be empowered to enter any premises where business records may be kept,including private homes.However,the exercise of this latter power should be subject to the authorisation of the judicial authority.(27)Without prejudice to the case-law of the Court of Justice,it is useful to set out the scope of thecontrol that the national judicial authority may carry out when it authorises,as foreseen by national law including as a precautionary measure,assistance from law enforcement authorities in order to overcome possible opposition on the part of the undertaking or the execution of the decision to carry out inspections in non-business premises.It results from the case-law that the national judicial authority may in particular ask the Commission for further information which it needs to carry out its control and in the absence of which it could refuse the authorisation.The case-law also confirms the competence of the national courts to control the application of national rules governing the implementation of coercive measures.(28)In order to help the competition authorities of the Member States to apply Articles81and82ofthe Treaty effectively,it is expedient to enable themto assist one another by carrying out inspections and other fact-finding measures.(29)Compliance with Articles81and82of the Treaty and the fulfilment of the obligations imposed onundertakings and associations of undertakings under this Regulation should be enforceable by means of fines and periodic penalty payments.To that end,appropriate levels of fine should also be laid down for infringements of the procedural rules.(30)In order to ensure effective recovery of fines imposed on associations of undertakings for infringe-ments that they have committed,it is necessary to lay down the conditions on which the Commis-sion may require payment of the fine from the members of the association where the association is not solvent.In doing so,the Commission should have regard to the relative size of the undertakings belonging to the association and in particular to the situation of small and medium-sized enterprises.Payment of the fine by one or several members of an association is without prejudice to rules of national law that provide for recovery of the amount paid from other members of the association.(31)The rules on periods of limitation for the imposition of fines and periodic penalty payments werelaid down in Council Regulation(EEC)No2988/74(1),which also concerns penalties in the field of transport.In a system of parallel powers,the acts,which may interrupt a limitation period,should include procedural steps taken independently by the competition authority of a Member State.To clarify the legal framework,Regulation(EEC)No2988/74should therefore be amended to prevent it applying to matters covered by this Regulation,and this Regulation should include provisions on periods of limitation.(32)The undertakings concerned should be accorded the right to be heard by the Commission,thirdparties whose interests may be affected by a decision should be given the opportunity of submitting their observations beforehand,and the decisions taken should be widely publicised.While ensuring the rights of defence of the undertakings concerned,in particular,the right of access to the file,it is essential that business secrets be protected.The confidentiality of information exchanged in the network should likewise be safeguarded.(33)Since all decisions taken by the Commission under this Regulation are subject to review by theCourt of Justice in accordance with the Treaty,the Court of Justice should,in accordance with Article229thereof be given unlimited jurisdiction in respect of decisions by which the Commission imposes fines or periodic penalty payments.(34)The principles laid down in Articles81and82of the Treaty,as they have been applied by Regula-tion No17,have given a central role to the Community bodies.This central role should be retained, whilst associating the Member States more closely with the application of the Community competi-tion rules.In accordance with the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality as set out in Article 5of the Treaty,this Regulation does not go beyond what is necessary in order to achieve its objec-tive,which is to allow the Community competition rules to be applied effectively.(35)In order to attain a proper enforcement of Community competition law,Member States shoulddesignate and empower authorities to apply Articles81and82of the Treaty as public enforcers.They should be able to designate administrative as well as judicial authorities to carry out the various functions conferred upon competition authorities in this Regulation.This Regulation recog-nises the wide variation which exists in the public enforcement systems of Member States.The effects of Article11(6)of this Regulation should apply to all competition authorities.As an excep-tion to this general rule,where a prosecuting authority brings a case before a separate judicial(1)Council Regulation(EEC)No2988/74of26November1974concerning limitation periods in proceedings and theenforcement of sanctions under the rules of the European Economic Community relating to transport and competi-tion(OJ L319,29.11.1974,p.1).authority,Article11(6)should apply to the prosecuting authority subject to the conditions in Article 35(4)of this Regulation.Where these conditions are not fulfilled,the general rule should apply.In any case,Article11(6)should not apply to courts insofar as they are acting as review courts.(36)As the case-law has made it clear that the competition rules apply to transport,that sector shouldbe made subject to the procedural provisions of this Regulation.Council Regulation No141of26 November1962exempting transport from the application of Regulation No17(1)should therefore be repealed and Regulations(EEC)No1017/68(2),(EEC)No4056/86(3)and(EEC)No3975/87(4) should be amended in order to delete the specific procedural provisions they contain.(37)This Regulation respects the fundamental rights and observes the principles recognised in particularby the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.Accordingly,this Regulation should be interpreted and applied with respect to those rights and principles.(38)Legal certainty for undertakings operating under the Community competition rules contributes tothe promotion of innovation and investment.Where cases give rise to genuine uncertainty because they present novel or unresolved questions for the application of these rules,individual undertakings may wish to seek informal guidance from the Commission.This Regulation is without prejudice to the ability of the Commission to issue such informal guidance,HAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:CHAPTER IPRINCIPLESArticle1Application of Articles81and82of the Treaty1.Agreements,decisions and concerted practices caught by Article81(1)of the Treaty which do not satisfy the conditions of Article81(3)of the Treaty shall be prohibited,no prior decision to that effect being required.2.Agreements,decisions and concerted practices caught by Article81(1)of the Treaty which satisfy the conditions of Article81(3)of the Treaty shall not be prohibited,no prior decision to that effect being required.3.The abuse of a dominant position referred to in Article82of the Treaty shall be prohibited,no prior decision to that effect being required.(1)OJ124,28.11.1962,p.2751/62;Regulation as last amended by Regulation No1002/67/EEC(OJ306,16.12.1967,p.1).(2)Council Regulation(EEC)No1017/68of19July1968applying rules of competition to transport by rail,road andinland waterway(OJ L175,23.7.1968,p.1).Regulation as last amended by the Act of Accession of1994.(3)Council Regulation(EEC)No4056/86of22December1986laying down detailed rules for the application of Arti-cles81and82(The title of the Regulation has been adjusted to take account of the renumbering of the Articles of the EC Treaty,in accordance with Article12of the Treaty of Amsterdam;the original reference was to Articles85 and86of the Treaty)of the Treaty to maritime transport(OJ L378,31.12.1986,p.4).Regulation as last amended by the Act of Accession of1994.(4)Council Regulation(EEC)No3975/87of14December1987laying down the procedure for the application of therules on competition to undertakings in the air transport sector(OJ L374,31.12.1987,p.1).Regulation as last amended by Regulation(EEC)No2410/92(OJ L240,24.8.1992,p.18).。
一、欧盟竞争法的简介
(一)欧盟竞争法的产生与组成
欧盟竞争法即我们所说的反垄断法,而将反不正当竞争法排除在外。
自20 世纪50 年代伴随欧洲一体化进程诞生以来,《欧盟竞争法》已成为当今世界最具影响力的反垄断法。
欧盟反垄断执法的状况及其措施、方式,对经济全球化背景下的市场监管,尤其是反垄断的理念、模式、方法及方向等产生了深刻影响。
欧盟竞争法的产生与组成分为四个部分:
首先,竞争法最早体现在《建立欧洲煤钢共同体条约》即《巴黎条约》中,在此条约中主要涉及限制竞争、企业集中、不当价格惯例等内容。
后来,在为建立经济共同体和欧洲原子能联营所签订的《罗马条约》中,保护竞争的法律规定已经成为了该条约的主要组成部分。
该条约主要包括对限制性商业做法以及滥用优势地位等行为所做的原则性规定以及特别禁止行为。
而后,欧共体又根据需要相继颁布了一系列有关竞争方面的单行法令以及实施细则。
最后,长期以来,处理竞争纠纷的司法判例又从不同角度进一步丰富了竞争法律制度的内容。
以上四个部分,即组成了现代欧盟的竞争法及其竞争的主干。
(二)欧盟竞争法的特点
欧盟竞争法的特点包括四个方面:
1、欧盟的竞争法是以保护欧盟共同市场的公平竞争为主旨。
欧盟从成立以来,一直都在谋求建立共同的经济市场,也就是将各国市场逐步变成超国界的完全竞争的市场,排除因国界及经济组织对贸易的不利影响,从而实现商品、经济、人员、劳务和资本在成员国之间的流通。
欧盟目前已经实现了关税同盟、经济和货币同盟及共同的农业政策,建立了一系列的共同市场。
既然有了共同的市场,就要制定相关的竞争法来维护共同市场整体利益。
所以竞争法从开始形成到后来的发展,都是讲制止各种反竞争行为作为维护欧盟共同市场利益的重要的手段。
2、欧盟竞争法将企业作为重要的主体。
欧盟的竞争法所禁止的比如:限制性商业做法、滥用优势地位、企业兼并,不当价格惯例等反竞争行为多属于企业行为,执法机构也多是将企业或企业组织作为其调查和处罚的对象,反竞争行为的责任直接由实施这一行为的特定企业或企业组织来承担。
3、实行域内和域外双重效力原则。
即一方面,欧盟的竞争规则是适用于整个共同市场的,同时成员国是可以直接在其国内运用的,若国内法与欧盟竞争法在规定上相抵触,应优先适用欧盟竞争法;另一方面,欧盟竞争法具有一定的域外效力,即尽管一方非欧盟成员国企业,仍应对其享有管辖权。
4、侧重对垄断及限制竞争行为的调整
这与《巴黎公约》中的竞争法律制度主要调整狭义的不正当竞争行为的情形不同。
欧盟竞争法中的“竞争”它指的并不是传统意义上的“不正当竞争行为”,它强调的是“垄断以及可能造成垄断”的行为,换句话说,欧盟竞争立法的目的,是要保护竞争,保护市场,进而最终保护消费者。
(三)欧盟竞争法的内容
1、限制性商业做法
根据《罗马条约》的规定,限制性商业做法是指凡是影响各成员国之间的贸易和以阻碍、限制过破坏共同市场内部竞争的产生或产生此项结果的一切企业的嫌孩子竞争协议,企业联合组织的决定和联合一致的行为,由于限制性商业的做法影响或成员国之间的正常贸易与欧共体的共同市场相抵触,因而为《罗马条约》所禁止。
根据欧共体竞争法的相关规定,限制性商业做法具有四个构成要件:一是若干个企业之
间或协同实施的经营行为;二是具有扭曲共同市场的竞争目的或者效果;三是可能造成影响成员国贸易的后果;四是其行为或者结果达到了“显著”的程度。
同时,该条约也有例外规定,如果企业间的协议、企业联营组织的决议或企业联合一致的做法,能够使消费者适当地分享因此而产生的利益,能够改善商品的生产、分配或者促进经济发展,技术进步,同时,参与的企业不可能在相关产品的重要部分消除竞争,或者参与企业所受限制仅在为实现上述经济、社会利益所必不可少的范围之内,则这种限制做法是合法的。
2、滥用优势地位
《罗马条约》第86 条规定,一个或几个企业在共同市场或共同市场的重要部分滥用控制市场的地位,如果可能损害成员国之间的贸易,则这种滥用与共同市场相抵触,应予以禁止。
从条约的具体规定可以看出,滥用优势地位的构成要件有三:一是企业在一定的地域范围内具有优势地位;二是实施了滥用优势地位的行为;三是可能造成影响成员国之间的贸易的结果。
3、企业合并
有关企业合并的相关规定,最早出现在《欧洲煤刚联营条约》中,此条约主要是为了限制欧共体内部的钢铁企业的合并,后来到了1989 年12 月,欧共体理事会为解决日益严重的企业合并问题,专门颁布了关于控制企业合并的单行法规,即《关于控制企业间集中行为的4096/ 89 法规》。
主要内容就包括:第一,对参与合并的企业在欧共体内的以及合并后在全球的经营额的限制;第二,对于合并程序的规定;第三,对企业合并后的总的市场占有率的规定。
所以,它和《关于申报合并与或得控制行为的2367/ 90 号法规》、《关于聚合与合并行为的通告》和《关于从属性限制的通令》等三个法规共同组成了完整的合并与获得控制的法律体系,成为欧盟委员会监管共同市场合并活动,从市场结构上调整竞争秩序的重要法律依据。
4、破坏竞争的国家援助
为维护本国的工业和市场,加强本国产品在共同市场上的竞争力,有的成员国通过各种方式援助本国企业。
如出口补贴、关税优惠、提供低息贷款,高价收购企业的产品,低于市场价向企业提供原料或土地等。
具体体现在《欧共体条约》第87、88 和89 条、《理事会关于欧共体条约第93 条具体实施细则的第659/ 1999 号条例》、《理事会关于实施欧共体条约第92 和93 条(现为第87 和88 条)某些类型的水平国家补贴的第994/ 98 号条例》、2007 年《欧委会关于成员国如何有效实施欧委会消除非法及与欧共体利益不相容的国家补贴的决定的通知》以及2007 年《公共服务补偿实施规则》等。
此外,欧盟对广播、煤炭、电影及视听作品、电力、邮政、造船、钢铁、汽车等行业的国家补贴均做出特别规定。
欧盟竞争法对于推动单一市场、建立统一的欧盟大市场发挥了重要作用。
为适应经济发展和欧盟扩大的需要,欧盟从1999 年开始对竞争法的一揽子改革方案提交欧洲议会和成员国讨论,2002 年在欧盟竞争法中引入了卡特尔宽大处理制度,制定了《关于实施欧共体条约第81、82 条的第1/ 2003 号决议》和《关于企业合并控制的第139/ 2004 号决议》。
上述两个决议对竞争法的三大支柱即禁止限制竞争协议、禁止滥用市场垄断地位和企业合并控制进行了修改,并于2004 年5 月1 日起开始实施。
(四)欧盟竞争法的体系
欧盟竞争法律制度的三个层次:
1、《欧盟条约》中关于竞争的基本规则。
条约第81 条和第82条在《罗马条约》中是第85 条和第86 条,这两条是欧盟竞争法的核心。
第81 条(1)款规定,一切以排除、限制和扭曲市场竞争为目的或产生这些结果的企业之间的协议、企业间组织(如行业协会等)的决定和协调一致行为,都是与共同市场
相抵触的,应予以禁止,并且自动无效。
第81 条第(3)款规定如果这些协议、决定和协调一致行为有助于提高产品的生产和流通、提高技术进步或经济的发展,同时使消费者能够合理分享这些利益的,则享有不适用第81 条(1)款规定的反垄断法豁免。
第82 条是关于禁止滥用市场优势地位行为的规定。
2、欧盟理事会制定的规则。
欧盟理事会是欧盟主要的决策机关,与欧盟议会共同行使立法机关的职能。
在竞争法方面,欧盟理事会制定第二层次的竞争规则,主要是就如何适用条约第81 条、第82 条等规则制定实施细则。
这些实施细则可分为两类:(1)适用于欧盟所有成员国及所有行业的一般性规则,如理事会第17 号规则1 和新颁布的理事会第1/ 2003 号规则;(2)适用于特定行业或行为的规则,如海运业适用第81、82 条的理事会第4056/ 86 号规则、海运业不公平定价行为的理事会第4057/ 86 号规则等。
3、欧盟委员会制定的竞争规则、指令和决定等。
欧盟委员会是欧盟的执行机构,执行欧盟法律,有权向欧盟议会和理事会提交立法草案、提供立法建议。
作为执法机关,欧盟委员会的职责主要体现为:第一,根据建立欧盟条约和欧盟理事会的规则制定更加具体的实施规定,一般是针对各个行业制定具体的可操作的规定;第二,对企业和公民的行为进行直接的执法活动,作出有关的决定和命令。
在欧盟竞争法体系中,欧盟委员会制定的竞争规则在数量上是最多的。
参考资料:
1、徐士英、郏丙贵:《欧盟竞争法的新发展及对我国的启示》,《中国法学》2004年8期。
2、许光耀:《欧共体竞争法通论》,武汉大学出版社2006年10月。
3、许光耀:《欧共体竞争立法》,武汉大学出版社2006年10月。
4、胡光志:《欧盟竞争法前沿研究》,法律出版社2005年版。
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