词汇学Unit 5

I. Choose the best answer and put the letter of your choice in the brackets.1. The minimal meaningful units are known as _____.A. morphsB. stemsC. morphemesD. roots2. The word ‘shortenings’ contains _____ morphemes.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as _____.A. morphsB. phonemesC. lexemesD. allomorphs4. Words like cat, dog, tree and so on are called ______ words.A. stemB. polysemousC. polymorphemicD. monomorphemic5. Free morphemes are the same as _____ words.A. clippedB. stemC. nativeD. root6. In the word “contradiction”, the morpheme “-dict-“ is _____.A. a free rootB. a bound rootC. an affixD. a free morpheme7. In the word “international”, “nation” is not a _____.A. free morphemeB. stemC. bound morphemeD. free root8. A bound morpheme has to combine with other _____ to make words.A. morphemesB. allomorphsC. phonemesD. Lexemes9. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in _____ words.A. derivedB. convertedC. inflectionalD. compound10. _____ affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.A. InflectionalB. BoundC. DerivationalD. Converted11. A _____ is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.A. rootB. morphC. morphemeD. stem12. The word _____ contain an inflectional affix.A. workerB. happierC. formalD. enrichII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions given in the course book.1. A _____ is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units.2. The plural morpheme has a number of _____ in different sound context.3. There is no _____ morpheme in the word “dictation”.4. Free morphemes and free _____are identical.5. Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words are called _____ affixes.6. The word “internationalists” has _____ morphemes.7. According to the _____ of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and _____.III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.2. Inflectional morphemes indicate grammatical relationships.3. Free morphemes can be used as words alone.4. What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes is a stem.5. A word is the minimal meaningful unit of a language.6. The word “prisoners” has two morphemes.7. There is an inflectional morpheme in the word “easier”.8. Free morphemes are also known as free roots.IV. Answer the following questions.1. What are the differences between a bound morpheme and a bound root? V. Analyze and comment on the following.1. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words.Point out the types of morphemes.prediction strawberries encouragement。

Key to Unit 5.The Semantic Types of English WordsPre-Class ReadingCheck Your Understandinga. Fb. Tc. Td. Fe. FIn-Class Activities1. a. rush, hurry, stumble, dance, sail, moveb. bumpy, winding, stony, muddy, slipperyc. whimper, sweep, moan, groan, yelld. glimpse, watch, examine, glance, stare,2. concrete words:(1) Sunlight, trees, birds, corn, people, harvest; night, wind, rain, singer; deeds, work(2) Beauty is an abstract concept, yet by using the above concrete words, the author creates vivid images about “what beauty consists of”, i.e. beauty exists in the nature and in our daily life.3. (1) Proper nouns: Government of Victoria, Professor Liu Kang, Parliament House, Melbourne, Monday, International Community Education Conference Common nouns: reception, delegates(2) “International Community Education Conference”can be converted intocommon nouns if they are used in small letters, and refer to general international community education conferences. In much the same way, “Delegates” here refers to THOSE delegates who are going to attend the particular conference, thus can be regarded as a proper noun.4. (1) Proper nouns have a certain degree of specificity, i.e. they are used in a contextshared by the speaker and the hearer. Phonological information helps clarify the context. These words do not apply to other general cases. Sentences (e – h) either violates the specificity, or the background information can not be recovered.a. Mary is a person both of them know.b. There is a person called Mary who called you. (And the implied meaning alsoincludes “I don not know this girl.)c. Both of us know Which Plymouth I mean.d. There are many places called Plymouth.(2) Different languages have different working mechanisms of reference. There may be similar cases in Chinese, but we rely on other modifiers (or specifiers) to clarify the information.a. 玛丽喜欢语言学。

第一单元英语词汇概说英语单词的结构⒈词word: It is a minimal free form of language which has given sound and meaning andsyntactic function. Eg: book, red …..⒉词条entry: It is a term used by dictionary compilers. It refers to all the information aboutword that appears in a dictionary.It includes the headword, the pronunciation, definition, irregular plural forms, comparative and superlative form, irregular forms of verbs, part of speeches, even derivatives of the headword, etc.⒊词位lexeme: In linguistic study, every entry (specifically the headword) which are collectedinto a dictionary is called a lexeme by linguists. An lexeme is an abstract unit in linguistics that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. Eg: run, runs, ran, running. 原形大写表示词位，词位相当于词条中的headword.⒋词形word form: Different forms of a word which are caused by the change of tense, number,point of view, part of speech, etc. are called word form.⒌词汇vocabulary/ lexicon: all the words in a language are termed as it. However, vocabularycan also be used to refer to all the words in a book or in a particular historical period of time, or in a dialet, or in a particular discipline, or eben to all the words that a person possesses.⒍词汇单位lexical unit/ item: is a single word or chain of words that are the basic elements of alanguage’s lexicon. Eg: cat, traffic light, take care of, by-the-way, it’s raining cats and dogs. The entire store of lexical items in a language is called its lexis(词库).Ⅱ、classification of English wordsBy origin: native words 本土词; loan words外来词.By use frequency: basic word stock基础词; non-basic word stock非基础词.By the level of usage: common words 常用词；literary words 书面词；colloquial words口语词；slang words 俚语；technical words 术语.By notion(function): content words 实义词；function words 功能词.Ⅲ、⒈词素morpheme: is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible oranalyzable into smaller forms. Word is composed of morphemes. 词素是词的组成部分，是语言中语音和词义的最小结合体。

Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis Having discussed the structure and formation of words, we now move to the meaning of words. In Chapter 1, we touched upon word meaning in brief, in this chapter we will discuss it in more depth in terms of meanings of 'meaning', motivation of meaning, types of meaning and the components of word meaning.5.1 Word MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. 'Form' refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. 'Meaning' is what the form stands for. For example, the linguistic form cat /kaet/ is used to denote 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws'. It can be said that 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws' is the meaning of the word cat. But the term is not as simple as it seems to be. There are some related concepts which need further clarification.1. ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 'By means of reference, aspeaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.' (Hurford and Heasley 1983:25) In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i. e. , an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful. The form cat is meaningful because the language user employs it conventionally to refer to the 'animal' concerned. So part of the word meaning is the reference under discussion.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary(任意的) and conventional （约定俗成的）(See Chapter 1). This connection is the result of generalization(概括) and abstraction(抽象). The word cat refers to a whole set of animals of the same species without the distinction of size, color, region, owner and other factors. It is the extension of all cats in the universe.Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite(确定的). Cat without context denotes a set of cats; but it refers to a particular cat in 'Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday evening'. Therefore, meaning can be pinned down(确定；使明确说明) by the user, time, place, etc. . The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can bereferred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this , she and so on.2. ConceptIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of concept. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical(完全相同的). They are both related directly to referents(所指) and are notions of the words but belong to different categories(范畴). Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认知), reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, much water, but many people, many books, many buildings, not vice versa. Synonymous(同义的)pairs such as die—pass away, maiden—-woman, quarrel—argue are all good examples. Each pair has the same concept but different socio-cultural and stylistic values(文体色彩).3. SenseGenerally speaking, the meaning of 'meaning' is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes(指称) the relationships inside the language. ' The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language'. (ibid) Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction that can be entertained(心存，持有（信心、意见）；容纳，接受；（准备）考虑) in the mind of a language user. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as laving the same sense: pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English have the same sense, so do pal(<口>伙伴，好友)and chum(<口>好友，同房间的人).5.2 MotivationMotivation(理据)refers to the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning. As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be non-motivated(没有理据的). That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent(透明的，清楚的；意义与形式有联系的) and reasonably explicable(可解释的).1. Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）In modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating(模拟) the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, cuckoo, tick-tuck, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds which they represent means understanding the meaning. All the words based on the sounds made by birds, animals, insects and so on belong to this category: crow by cocks, quack by ducks, trumpet by elephants, buzz by bees or flies, croak by frogs, squeak by mice, neigh by horses, bleat by goats, hiss by snakes, roar by lions, etc. . But such echoic(拟声的；回声的) words are conventional to quite a large extent, for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other languages; splashand whisper do not mean 'splash' and 'whisper' for example in German or French (Quirk 1978).2. Morphological Motivation(形态理据)Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic(多词素的) words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. For instance, airmail means ' to mail by air' ; reading-lamp is ' the lamp for reading'; miniskirt is 'a small skirt'; and hopeful means 'full of hope'.It should be pointed out that there are a lot of words whose structures are opaque(不透明的，不发亮的；难以理解), i.e. their meanings are not the combinations of the constituent parts. Black market, for example, is by no means the market black in color but expressing 'illegal selling and buying'. Likewise, egghead is not the head in the shape of an egg, but ' a learned person' in the derogatory(毁损的，贬低的) sense.3. Semantic MotivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word. In other words, it is thefigurative(比喻性的) sense of the word. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate ' the opening part of the river' with ' the mouth of a human being or an animal'. When we use the foot of the mountain , we are comparing ' the lower part of the mountain' to ' the foot of a human being'. Bottle in ' He is fond of the bottle' reminds one of what is contained inside; and pen and sword in ' The pen is mightier(更强大的) than the sword' is suggestive(示意的；启发的；引起联想的) of 'writing' and 'war'.4. Etymological MotivationThe origins of words more often than not throw light on(说明，揭示) their meanings. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally refers to 'a heavy quill(羽毛管；羽根) or feather', because before modern pens were created, feathers were trimmed(整理；修剪) to a split point（有分叉的尖端）, used as writing tools. Though people in modern times no longer use feathers in writing, for the sake of conventionality, the name is retained. All the words commonized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins. One example will suffice(足够) for illustration. The word laconic meaning 'brief' or 'short' is derived From Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their brevity(简洁；简练) of speech and for their habitof never using more words than necessary. Hence a Laconic answer is 'a short answer' (See Commonization of Proper Names for details).5.3 Types of MeaningWord meaning per se(本身) is not monogeneous（单一的）but a composite(复合体)consisting of different components, which are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. These meanings are not found in every word, and in fact some words possess some of them, devoid(没有的；缺乏的) of others. Some types of meanings may appear more prominent in certain words than in others. Some meanings are constant, and others may be transient(暂时的), existing only in actual contexts. All these form part of the study of semantics and prove of paramount(最高的，首要的)importance in the use of words. This section will discuss in brief each type of meaning.1. Grammatical Meaning and Lexical MeaningAs mentioned earlier, grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns,tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm(范例，样式；【语】（名词、动词等的）词形变化)(forget, forgets , forgot, forgotten , forgetting). Grammatical meaning becomes transparent only when words are used in connected speech. For example, 'The dog is chasing a ball. ' The words dog and ball are nouns and both are singular used as subject and object in the sentence respectively; is chasing is the predicate verb(谓语动词), showing present continuous tense(现在进行时), and the and a are determiners(限定词，限定成分；决定因素), specifying definiteness and number. Unlike lexical meaning, different lexemes(词素)or lexical items(词项), which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning, e. g. tables, men, oxen, potatoes (having the same plural meaning) and taught, -worked, forgave (having the same tense meaning). On the other hand, one and the same lexeme may have different grammatical meaning as shown in forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and their lexical meanings are prominent.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning form the word meaning. As stated already, grammatical meaning surfaces(显现)only in use, but lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the concept the word conveys. Therefore it remains the focus of semantic studies and naturally is our chief concern. Lexical meaning itself embraces(包括)two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.2. Conceptual Meaning and Associative MeaningConceptual meaning ( also known as cognitive（认知的）, denotative（外延的）, or designative（指称的）meaning) is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community. Take 'The sun rises in the east'. The symbol sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is unmistakable to anyone who speaks English.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented(补充) to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.. Nida in his Language, Culture, and Translating (1993) lists six sources of associative meanings, namely,(1)the persons who use such lexemes;(2) the settings in which such lexemes are generally employed;(3) the occurrence of such lexemes in prior texts (intertextuality(互文性));(4) contamination(（词语的）感染错合；（文章的）混杂) from linguistic collocations;(5) contamination from homophones(同音词);(6) cultural values associated with the referents of the lexemes.These could be fused into four categories: connotative(内涵的), stylistic, affective(情感的), and collocative(搭配的) (Leech 1981).1) Connotative MeaningOpposite to the denotative meaning(外延意义), connotative meaning(内涵意义) refers to the overtones(附带意义)or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part ofthe word meaning, but social and cultural values that might occur in the mind of particular users of the language. For example, mother, denoting a 'female parent', is often associated with 'love', 'care', 'tenderness', 'forgiving', etc. . These connotations are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word n actual context to particular readers or speakers. Another example is home, whose conceptual meaning is 'a dwelling place'. When readers come across the term in actual reading, they may make out more than that. It may remind them of their 'family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience', etc. . These connotations are implied in he well-known sayings ' East or west, home is best' and ' There is no place like home'.Connotative meaning is peripheral(边缘的；不重要的) compared with conceptual meaning and annotations are relatively unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Suppose a child is prejudiced against, often jeered(嘲笑)at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to him is nothing but a hell, naturally he unfavorable connotations, 'indifference', 'hatred', 'disgust' and so on. Even a phrase like son of a bitch which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity(粗俗；粗野) may convey the connotation of 'friendly conviviality'(欢宴；宴饮交际) used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time as in 'And how are you doing, you old son of a bitch ?'. (Nida 1993:41)2) Stylistic MeaningApart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal', 'informal', 'literary', 'archaic' (古体的，不通用的；过时的), 'slang' and so on. For instance, pregnant, expecting, knocking up, in the club, greggers, up the stick, up the spout(被典当掉；被毁灭；丧失掉；怀孕), glowing, etc. , all can have the same reference, but differ in their contextual appropriateness. Words such as facticity(确凿性), neoclassicism(新古典主义), plausibility(似真性),legitimacy(合法性)carry meanings of pedantry(卖弄学问；迂腐) and are appropriate for technical writing.The stylistic differentiation(差异) is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. Martin Joos (1962) in his The Five Clocks suggests five degreesof formality: 'frozen'(冷冻体), 'formal'(正式体), 'consultative'(商洽体), 'casual'(随意体) and 'intimate '(亲密体). Accordingly, the synonyms charger(战马), steed(骏马), horse, nag(老马), plug(老而无用的马)can be labeled as 'frozen', 'formal', consultative', 'casual' and 'intimate' respectively. People generally do not go into such elaboration(详述). The normal terms used to classify styles are 'formal', 'neutral' orinformal'. In such terms charger and steed can be marked 'formal', nag and plug 'informal' and horse ' general' or ' neutral'. Compare the following two groups of synonyms:domicile (very formal, official)(住宅；【律】原籍)residence (formal)abode (poetic)(住所)home (general)diminutive (very formal) (小的，小型的)tiny (colloquial)w ee (colloquial, dialectal)(极小的；（苏格兰）一点点)(Leech 1981: 14-15)Leech also illustrates the stylistic distinction in the following two sentences (ibid):(1) They chucked(扔)a stone at the cops(条子), and then did a bunk with(窜)the loot(战利品).(2) After casting a stone at the police, they absconded() with the money.Apart from the structural difference, the stylistic features of words are quite conspicuous(). Sentence (1) could be said by two criminals, talking casually about the crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics are slang, whereas sentence (2) might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report, thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).3) Affective MeaningAffective meaning expresses the speaker's attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words as many have emotive content in themselves, e. g. vicious(恶毒的), villainous(罪恶的), tyrant(暴君), love, hate, anger, grief(悲痛), pleasure. Interjections(感叹词)are generally expressions of emotions such as oh , dear me, alas, hurrah.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative(褒义的)or pejorative. Words ofpositive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval such as famous, determined, slim /slender, black; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt(鄙视)or criticism, e.g. notorious(臭名昭著的), pigheaded(倔强的), skinny(皮包骨的), nigger.(黑鬼)Just like connotative meaning, affective meaning varies from individual to individual, from culture to culture, from generation to generation, from society to society. Words like revolution, freedom, democracy, imperialism may have quite different interpretations in different societies and sometimes these' emotive' overtones are more important in the words' use than the denotations (概念意义) (Jackson 1988). Another example is the word dog which may have quite different affective meanings in different societies. In most Western countries, dog is associated with 'loyalty', 'faithfulness', a close companion' and all positive qualities; whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is a useful animal. As a matter of fact, it generally takes on negative associations. If a person is compared to a dog, the speaker's attitude towards the person is no more than contemptuous'(鄙视的). In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meaning of the words are brought out only by the speakers in context:(1) He is bright and ambitious.(有抱负的)(2) Knowledge of inequality has stimulated envy, ambition and greed.(野心)(3) The reactionary's chief ambition is to become the emperor.(野心)(4) One who is filled with ambition usually works hard.(抱负)In sentences (1) and (4), the italicized words are obviously used in good sense showing approval on the part of the speaker. In sentences (2) and (3), however, ambition undoubtedly conveys a pejorative overtone. Therefore, to a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the circumstances under which it is used.4) Collocative MeaningAs Leech defines, 'collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. ' In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. He illustrates the point by the synonyms of pretty and handsome. These two words share the conceptual meaning of 'good-looking ' , but are distinguished by the rangeof nouns they collocate with:girl boyboy manwoman carflower womanpretty gardenovercoathandsomecolor airlinevillage typewriteretc. etc.It may be noted that there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words, e. g. pretty woman and handsome woman. Though both are perfectly correct, yet they suggest a different kind of attractiveness. A pretty woman stresses the attractiveness of facial features while a handsome woman may not be facially beautiful yet is attractive in other respects: a slender figure, graceful posture and behaviour, etc. . The same is true of tremble and quiver, both meaning 'shake involuntarily', but people tremble with fear and quiver withexcitement, showing different implications.It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality(互文性). As Nida notes, one can often tell what work a person has been doing by the kinds of stains on clothing, so a word in particular contexts is likely to acquire associative meanings reflecting such usage. Green is a kind color but its meaning is obviously affected when it occurs in such phrases as green on he job, green fruit, green with envy, green-eyed monster.5.4 Componential AnalysisComponential analysis, according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components. Every content word, even some of the simplest, harbours(包含；怀有) an amazingly explicit(明确) set of wayward(难以捉摸的，无法预言的；不规则的) traits(特征，特性) . Digging them out, classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis(成分分析) ( Bolinger and Sears 1981:114). As an example, let us examine a group of semantically related words man , woman , boy, girl.A B1 man wo ma n2 boygirlThis diagram represents three-dimensions of meaning of these words. Vertically, Column A and Column B show the dimension of sex 'male' and 'female'; horizontally, Line 1 and Line 2 reveal the dimension of age 'adult' and 'young'. Considered as a whole, these four words form the semantic field(语义场) 'human race', the third dimension. These traits of words are abstracted from the words and are called by semantic analysts semantic features(语义特征) , which are the components of the sense of words. Conventionally, these minimal components can "be symbolized in terms of binarity(两极性) : + ADULT (adult) , —ADULT (young), + MALE (male), —MALE (female), + HUMAN (human), -HUMAN (non-human). Therefore, the meanings of the individual items can be expressed by combinations of these features:man ( + HUMAN + ADULT + MALE)woman ( + HUMAN + ADULT -MALE)boy( + HUMAN -ADULT + MALE)girl( + HUMAN - ADULT - MALE) however, the sexual dimension of the meaning of many lexical items is characteristic of neutralization(中性) of opposition such as cat, child. Under such circumstances, we might describe the definition as follows (See Leech 1981:90) :child ( + HUMAN - ADULT OMALE)cat ( - HUMAN + ADULT OMALE)In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the defining features, i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another. For example, between horse, cattle and machine, chair, the defining feature is ( ± ANIMATE); between road, house and thought, philosophy, the distinguishing feature(区别性特征) is ( ± CONCRETE); between water, gas and stone , tree, the discriminating feature(区别性特征) is [ ±COUNTABLE] , etc. . Verbs like nouns also have defining features(区别性特征) , for example, ( ± MOMENTARY), ( ±DYNAMIC), ( ±TRANSITIVE).Componential analysis as a theory of word meaning is a useful and revealing technique(展示手段) for demonstrating relations of meaning between words. Knowing the semanticfeatures of a word helps one in grasping the conceptual meaning. For example, the word dog can be defined as ( + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, +CANINE(犬科动物) , + DOMESTIC) plus (OMALE) or (+ COUNTABLE) depending on the intention of the user. Similarly, the meaning of foal() is composed of [ + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, + EQUINE(马；马科动物) , -ADULT, OMALE], which tell us it is a 'young horse'.Secondly, componential analysis can help show the synonymy of two items by giving them both the same componential features. For instance, spinster and maiden are synonymous in that both are [ + HUMAN, - MALE, - MARRIED], but differ considerably in connotations: the former conveying a negative overtone(含蓄之意；暗示) , the latter a positive association.Thirdly, by componential analysis of words, we can tell whether a certain collocation or syntactic structure is acceptable or not. Let us look at two sentences:(1) * He has left this neighborhood for ten years.(2) He has lived in this neighborhood for ten years.The surface structures of the two sentences are very similar. It seems that one is not any better than the other. However, if we analyze just the semantic features of the verbs, we will come toquite a different conclusion. The verb leave used in sentence (1) is [ + MOMENTARY], and is not supposed to co-occur with 'for+ time' which is characteristic of [ - MOMENTARY]; while in sentence (2), live is a [ - MOMENTARY] verb, and is grammatically compatible with(与…一致的) 'for + time'. Therefore, sentence (1) is not acceptable whereas sentence (2) is. This can be further illustrated:(1) The robbers broke into the bank with a hammer.(2) * A hammer broke into the bank by the robbers. Break has the feature of [ + DYNAMIC], entailing a subject which is [+ANIMATE]. The word robber is [ + HUMAN], which is semantically included in the feature of [+ANIMATE], so logically sentence (1) is correct. But sentence (2) is problematic, as hammer is [-ANIMATE], incapable of the agent of the action of breaking. (Consequently, sentence (2) is unacceptable.Nevertheless, semanticists do not agree on the merits of componential analysis, which is in fact controversial. The major views are:1) Componential analysis is useful only in a limited scope,for it accounts for only some parts of a language'svocabulary. It is well applicable, to concrete wordswhich have definite referents, but not effective when we deal with words of abstract ideas or words whose referents are not clear. For example, what are the semantic features of beauty, delight, hostility?It is not easy to abstract components of their senses. Even a concrete word like game is hard to analyze. Failing to find the essential defining features that constitute game, Wittgenstein concluded that we know what the word game means only by virtue of recognizing certain 'family resemblance'(家族相似性) between the activities it refers to. Labov's experiment with the object 'cup' (1973) leads to the same conclusion that often a word can not be defined in terms of a clear-cut, unvarying set of features. Does the cup have a handle, have a saucer? Is it narrow and deep rather than wide and shallow? Is it used for drinking out of or for other purposes? Indeed, it is difficult to pin them down (See discussion by Leech 1981: 117-118).2) Some semanticists hold that it is not enough to breakdown the sense of a word into its components in terms of their referents' physical aspects. In the actual contexts, many words are used in figurative rather than literalsense. For example, tiger is defined as [+ ANIMATE,+FELINE(猫科动物；猫科的) , +CARNIVOROUS(食肉的)], but it does not explain the sentence 'There is amixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of theimperialists'. Obviously, tiger in this context does notrefer to the animal in its physical sense but theassociative qualities of the referent under discussion, i. e.'cruel and ferocious(凶恶的；残忍的) '.Because of the figurative use of words, many collocations which in appearance are impossible are acceptable, e. g. beautiful tyrant, cold fire , honorable villain . Look at a few lines chosen from Oscar Wilde's The Ballad of Reading Goal:With yawning mouth the yellow hole (黄穴张开血盆大口，)Gaped for a living thing;(窥视等着吞食那生物；)The very mud cried out for blood(干渴的环形沥青之下，)To the thirsty asphalt ring:(泥土叫嚷拿血来喝。

Unit One What is Lexicology?Lexicology It is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language.Word It is the basic unit of speech and minimal free form which has a given sound and meaning and grammatical function.The relationship between sound and meaning is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to this cluster of sounds for such an animal.分类Words may fall into basic word stock and non-basic by use frequency; content words and functional words by notion, native words or borrowed words by origin.Basic words stable and indispensablecharacteristics1 All national character:.2 Stability:3 Productivity.4 Polysemy:5 collocability .Non-basic words：Terminology术语Slang俚语Jargon行话Argot 隐语Dialectal words方言Archaisms古词Neologisms新词functional words , like :prep. conj. Auxilaries and articles… They don’t have notion of their own. Content (notional) words constitute the main body of English vocabulary. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.Native words: Anglo-Saxon words, small in number, the core of the language, neutral in style, frequent in use.Borrowed words: are words taken over from other languagese.g. chaos, dogma, drama, pneumonia ---Greek. hymn, pope, martyr, monk, anthem, shrine, creed –old E Cradle, bald, slogan, flannel, down ---- Celtic Balcony, corridor, attack, cannon, opera---Italyvocabulary---all the words in a language together, all items in a dictionary.5. Exercises:1) Which of the following is not true? Aa. A word is the smallest form of a language.b. A word is a sound unity.c. A word has a given meaning.d. A word can be used freely in a sentence.2) The differences between sound and form are due to Da. the fact of more phonemes than letters in Englishb. stabilization of spelling by printingc. influence of the work of scribesd. innovations made by linguists3) Complete the following sentences:a. There is no intrinsic relationship between sound and meaning, The connection between them is ___arbitrary__ and conventional.b. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are more ___stable__. Functional words enjoy a higher frequency in use than content words.Unit Two Word Formation1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation。

The Main Process of English Word-formationThe main process of English word-formation is chiefly based on A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language by Randolph Quirk et al. Published in 1985.Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation.Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base.Affixation has played an active part in the course of the development of the English language.PrefixationAffixationSuffixationPrefixationWhat is prefixation?Prefixation is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base,sometimes with,but more usually without a change of word class.A.Negative prefixes:a- or an-The prefix a- or an-means “lacking in “or “lack of”amoral——nonmoral;not concerned with moralsdis-The prefix dis- means “not”,or “the converse of ”dishonest(ly)——not honest(ly)in-The prefix in- means “not”,or “the converse of ”incomplete——not completenon-The prefix non- means “not”non-black——white studentsun-The prefix un- means “not” or “the converse of ”unfriendly——not friendly,hostileB.Reversative or privative prefixes:de-a.The prefix de- means “reversing the action”deforest——to become unfrozen:to remove ice formb.The prefix de- means “depriving of ”decapitate——to cut off the head ofdis-a.The prefix dis- means “reversing the action”disown——to refuse to accept as one’s ownb.The prefix dis- means “lacking”discolored——becoming changed in colorun-a.The prefix un- means “reversing the action”unzip——to open by undoing a zipb.Thr prefix un- means “depriving of”unhorse——to dislodge from a horseC.Pejorative prefixes:mal-The prefix mal- means “badly” or “bad”maldepoly——to deploy faultilymis-The prefix mis- means “wrongly” or “astray”misdial——to dial a wrong numberpseudo-The prefix pseudo- means “false” or “imitation”pseudoscience——pretended scienceD.Prefixes of degree or size:arch-The prefix arch- means “supreme” or “most”archenemy——chief enemyco-The prefix co- means “joint” ,“jointly” or “on equal footing”coexistence——the state of existing togetherhyper-The prefix hyper- means “extreme”hyperslow——too slowmini-The prefix mini-means “little”and is currently used with the two meaning given below:a.Of very small size,duration.importance;miniature or minor minibike——a small motocycleb.Reaching well above the knee;very shortminicoat——a very short coatout-The prefix out- means “surpassing”outlive——to live longer thanover-The prefix over- means “excessive”overeat——to eat to excesssub-The prefix sub- means “below”subnormal——below normalsuper-a.The prefix super- means “more than” or “very special”supersecret——extremely secretb.The prefix super- means “on top ” or “hiterachially superior”superfreeze——to freeze to a very low temperaturesur-The prefix sur- means “over and above”surtax——an additional tax on high incomesultra-The prefix ultra- means “extreme” or “beyond”ultrasecret——highly secretunder-The prefix under- means “too little”underrespresentes——inadequately representedE.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeanti-The prefix anti- means “against”antibacterial——directed or effective against bacteria contra-The prefix contra- means “opposite” or “contrasting”contradistinction——the distiction by contrastcounter-The prefix counter- means “against” or “in oppositing to”counterclaim——an opposing claim,especially in lawpro-a.The prefix pro- means “for” or “on the side of”pro-student——favoring or siding with studentsb.The prefix pro- means “on behalf of” or “deputizing for”pro-consul——deputy consulF.Locative prefixes:fore-The prefix fore- means “front part of “ or “front”forename——a name that precedes one’s surnameinter-The prefix inter- means “between” or “among”interview——to ask questions of (somebody) in an interviewsub-The prefix sub- means “under”subhuman——of less than human qualitiessuper-The prefix super- means “above”superstructure——an important arrangement system,etc.,which has grown from a certain base.trans-The prefix trans- means “across”transoceanic——beyond or crossing an oceanG.Prefixes of time and order:ex-The prefix ex- means “former”ex-husban——former husbandfore-The prefix fore- means “before”forewarn——to warn in advancepost-The prefix post- means “after”post-election——relating to a period after election pre-The prefix pre- means “before”prefight——prior to a fightre-The prefix re- means “again” or “back”redesign——to design againH.Number prefixes:bi-,di-The prefixes bi- and di- mean “two”biped——a two-footed creature dimerous——consisting of two partsmulti-,poly-The prefixes multi- and poly- mean “many”multi-lateral——having many sides polysyllabic——having more than three syllablessemi-,demi-,hemi-The prefixes semi-,demi-,and hemi- mean “half”semicircle——half a circledemitasse——a small cup of black coffe hemidemisemiquaver——sixty-fourth notetri-The prefix tri- means “three”triaxial——having three axesuni-,mono-The prefixes uni- and mono- mean”one”unique——being the only onemonorail——a railway with a single trailI.Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes:auto-The prefixe auto- means “self”autocrat——a ruler with unlimited powerextra-The prefix extra- means “exceptionally”extrasolar——found or existing outside the solar system neo-The prefix neo- means “new” or “revived”neo-classism——new classismpaleo-The prefix paleo- means “old” or “ancient”paleomagnetic——of or relating to palemagnetismpan-The prefix pan- means “all” or “world-wide”Pan-Africanism——a movement for the political union of all the African nationsproto-The prefix proto- means “first” or “original”protomartyr——the first martyr in a cause or regiontele-The prefix tele- means “distant”telest——a television receiving setvice-The prefix vice- means “deputy”vice-chairman——an officer next in rank to a chairmanJ.Conversion prefixes:a-The prefix a-combines chiefly with verbs to form predicative adjectives.asleep——sleepingbe-a.It means “wearing” or “surrounded by”beforgged——surrounded by fogb.It intensifies the force of verbsbestir——to stir up;to rouse to actionc.It combines with nouns to become transitive verbs bedevil——to trouble greatly;to confuseen-,em-The prefixes en- and em- mean “to put into” or “to provide with”enmain——to get into a trainembitter——to fill with painful or bitter feelings;to make sad and angrySuffixationWhat is suffixation?Suffixation is a main type of word-formation,putting a suffix after the base,sometimes without,but more usually with a change of word class.The primary function of suffixes is to change the word class of the base,although suffixes have only a samll semantic role.Therefore suffixes may be classified into four categories according to the word class.A.Noun suffixes:1．Denominal nouns:abstract:-ageThe suffix -age means “measure of” or “collection of ”percentage——an amount stated as if it is part of a whole which is 100-domThe suffix -dom means “the state of being”officialdom——officials as a class-ery.-ryThe suffix -ery and -ry has three meanings:a.It means “the condition or behavior associated with”. devilry——action performed with the help of the devilb.It means “location of”.nunnery——a building in which nuns live togetherc.It combines with concrete nouns to form nouncount,collective nouns.gadgetry——gadgets generally-fulThe suffix -ful means “the amount contained”tubful——an amount that a tub holds-hoodThe suffix -hood means “the state or time of being(something) widowhood——the state of being a widow-ingThere are two meaning of the suffix -inga.It means “material of”Matting——rough material for matsb.It means “activity connected with”blackberrying——the act of planting blackberry-ismThe suffix -ism means “docterine of “ or “practice of”absenteeism——regular absence without good causes，especially from work or duty-ocracyThe suffix -ocracy means “government by”demovracy——government of the people,by the people and for the people-shipThe suffix -ship means “the state of quality of”membership——the state of being a member of a club,society,etc.2.Denominal nouns:concrete-eerThe suffix -eer means “skilled in” or “engeged in”pamphleteer——a person who writes panphlets-erThe suffix -er means “having dominan characteristic”or “denizen of”north-wester——a strong northwest wind-essThe suffi x -ess means “a female(of the stated kind)”lioness——a female lion-etteThe suffix -ette has trhee meanings.a.It means “compact”.dinette——a small space usually off a kitchen used for informal diningb.It means “imitation”.leatherette——a cheap material made to look like leatherc.It means “a feminine marker”usherette——a woman or girl whose job is in a cinema-letThe suffix -let means “small” or “unimportant”piglet——a young pig-lingThe suffix -ling means “minor” or “offspring of”duckling——a small young duck3.Deverbal nouns-antThe suffix -ant means “a person or thing”contestant——one that participates in a contest-erThe suffix -er means “a person or thing”driver——a person who drives-ageThe suffix -age means “action of” or “instance of”shrinkage——an act or amount of shrinking-ingThe suffix -ing means“what results fro the action of the base”opening——a hole or clear space-mentThe suffix -ment means “the result of”amazement——the quality or state of being amazed4.De-adjectival nouns:-ityThe suffix -ity means “the quality or an example of”rapid——the qualit or state of being rapid5.Noun/adjective suffixes:-eseThe suffix -ese has two meanings:a,It means “in the language of” or “in the style of”Chinese——a native or an inhabitant of Chinab,It means “in the language of” or “in the style of”Chinese——the Chinese language;of or related to China,its people on their languageB.Adjective suffixes1.Denominal suffixes-edThe suffix -ed means “having”walled——having walls-fulThe suffix -ful means “full of” or “providing”delightful——highly pleasing2.Deverbal suffixes:-ableThe suffix -able means “of the kind can be done”printable——fit to be printedC.Adverb suffixes:-wardThe suffix -ward is used to form nongradable directional acverbs where the basw may be a noun,a prepositional adverb or a directional adverb.earthward——toward the erathD.Verb suffixes:-ateThe suffix -ate combines with mainly neoclassical noun bases hyphenate——to join with hyphen-izeThe suffix -ize combines freely with adjectives and nouns. legalize——to make lawful。

第五章词义Symbols符号Acquire获得Reference参考Referent指示物Sign标记Phenomenon现象Conventionally惯例Arbitrary随意的Region地区Pin down固定Generalization归纳JassyExtension But在第一章中我们接触到了词义的概念。

我们知道词是形式和意义的结合体。

通过形式我们了解它的读音和拼写。

意义是形式代表的东西。

例如，语言形式cat被用来表示“一种小的四足动物，有软毛和锋利的爪子。

”可以说成是“一种有软毛和锋利爪子的小的四足动物”就是词语cat的意义。

但是“意义”不像看的那样简单。

有一些相关的概念需要作更多的解释。

另外，我们将讨论意义的不同类型。

5.1“意义”的意义。

5.1.1参考词语只是符号，许多只当它们获得参考的时候才有意义。

参考是语言和世界之间的联系。

“通过参考的方法，一个说者表述哪些世界中的事物正在被描述。

”换句话说，只有当语言符号和一样参照物之间的联系已经被建立，就是说一样物体，一个现象，一个人等等。

符号才变得有意义。

形式“猫”因为语言使用者约定俗成的使用它来指代相关的“动物”。

词义的这部分就是讨论中的参考。

一个指代语言以外事物的单词的参考是随意和约定俗成的。

这种联系是归纳和抽象的结果。

单词“cat”指同种的全部动物没有尺寸，颜色，地区，助人和其他因素的区分。

它包括所有世界上的猫。

尽管参考是一种抽象，然而在背景的帮助下，它能指示特定的事物。

Cat在没有背景的情况下代表全部猫，还代表特定的猫，象是“jean昨天晚上忘记喂她的猫了。

”因此，意义可以通过使用者，时间，地点等而固定。

同样的事物毫无疑问可以有不同的参考表达。

Cat可以用来指代“动物“”亲爱的“”jassy“”这“”她“等等。

Cognition认识Alike同样的UniversalCollocate并置Synonymous同义的Socio-culturalStylistic风格上5.1.2概念在很多时候意义指代“概念”。

Unit 5 词的语用意义Pragmatic Meaning of Word一、语用意义的定义I. Linguistic Meaning and Pragmatic MeaningLinguistic Meaning contains two aspects:lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.Lexical meaning refers to conceptual meaning orcognitive meaning.Grammatical meaning reveals the information conveyed by grammatical category, such as the action referred to as present tense, or past tense, or plural form or not, etc.While linguistic meaning is used to study the static meaning of word, i.e. the adherent, fixed, unaffected meaning, pragmatic meaning is used to study the dynamic meaning of word, i.e. the meaning expressed by speakers with specific intention in specific context while using language.II. ContextContext includes linguistic context and non-linguistic context下列各组同义词在日常使用时所含意义的褒贬程度不一。

将它们按褒义、中性和贬义的顺序重新排列：1. student, scholar, bookworm2. stubborn, firm, pigheaded3. counterfeit, replica, copy 5. unusual, bizarre, unique6. tolerant, flexible, wishy-washy7. caustic, penetrating, sharp 8. reserved, aristocratic, snobbish9. buffoon, wit, comic 10. officer, policeman, cop11. slender, skinny, thin 12. literary artist, hack, writer13. friend, accomplice, company 14. depreciation, appreciation, perception二、语用意义的特点I. 原词附属性II. 主观体验性III. 词义不确定性IV. 概念临时性1.指示（deixis）现象2.共轭搭配（zeugma）V. 语境共生性下列各对句子中的斜体词具有相似的语义，但它们表示的语用含义不同。