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第一章1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. (研究对象：Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.)2. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? First, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.3. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统) Arbitrary:language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language.4. What is design features of language?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.5. What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC.Hockeet to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?In 1960, the American linguist Charles Hockett specified thirteen design features, five of which will be discussed here:(1) Arbitrariness(任意性): this means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(2) Productivity(创造性=creativity): language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) Duality(二层性): Duality means that consists of two sets of structures. At the higher level there are a large number of units of meaning; at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of meaningless sounds.(4) Displacement(移位性): language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. (This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.)(5) Cultural transmission(文化传递性): human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.第二章1.What are the major branches of phonetics?There are three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics,and acoustic phonetics .2.What are organs of speech?There are three organs of speech: the pharyngeal cavity - the throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, and the nasal cavity - the nose.3.Vocal cords(声带)功能：区分轻音和浊音4.The tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other.5.What’ s the classification of English speech sounds?An initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants.6.What’ s the classification of English consonants?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.7.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to four criterion:(1) which part of the tongue is held highest;(2) the openness of the mouth; (accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi - close vowels, semi - open vowels, and open vowels) (3) a third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips; (all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, while all the back vowels are rounded)(4)the length of the sound.8.What are rules in phonology? What is assimilation rule?There are three rules in phonology: sequential rules(序列规则), assimilation rule(通化规则) and deletion rule(省略规则).The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.9.The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.10.What kinds of stress? What is sentence stress?Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.Sentence stress refers to stressed in an English sentence are nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns. (the other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually not stressed.)第三章1. What’ s morphemes? What’ s the classification of morpheme?Morphemes is the minimal units of meaning.A morpheme has two classification: free morpheme and bound morpheme. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.2.What are structures of word?Roots and affixes Complex words typically consist of a root morpheme and one ormore affixes. The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning; unlike roots, affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes.3.What is inflectional morphemes?There are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. Such bound morphemes are called inflectional morphemes.第五章1.What are the different between sense and reference?Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de - contextualized.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non - linguistic world of experience.2.What is the synonymy?Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, “hyponymy”, “antonymy”.(1) homonymy(同形异义词): homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音异义词); when two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形异义词); when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leekHomographs: bow v./bow n.tear v./tear n.lead v./lead n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.scale n./scale v.(2) polysemy(一词多义): the same word may have more than one meaning.(3) hyponymy(上下位关系): hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate(上义词);The more specific words are called its hyponyms(下义/位词); hyponyms of the same superordinate are co - hyponyms(并列下义词) to each other.Superordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning glory ...Superordinate: animal Hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, wolf, fox, bear ...Superordinate:furniture Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, settee..(4) antonymy: the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are Gradable Antonyms, Complementary Antonyms, Relational Antonyms.第六章1.What different between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?A sentence is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied asthe abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and contextdependent. The utterance meaning of the sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered, and the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning. 2.What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?(1) representatives/assertives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action;(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.3.What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to particularized conversational implicature.CP(Cooperative Principle): Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.There are for maxims under this general principle:(1) the maxim of quantity: e.g. A:When is Susan’s farewell party?B:Sometime next month.(2) the maxim of quality: e.g. A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) the maxim of relation: e.g. A:How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?B:We had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.(4) the maxim of manner: e.g. A:Shall we get something for the kids?B:Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.第七章1.What are mainly processes of semantic change?There are present mainly three processes of semantic change: semantic broadening(语义拓宽), semantic narrowing(词义变窄), semantic shift(词义改变).第八章1. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the sub - field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2.What classfication of dialectal varieties?There are six kinds of dialectal varieties:(1)regional dialect(地域方言): a regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(2)Sociolect(社会方言): social - class dialect or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (accent is an important marker of sociolect. A case in point is the so - called “Received Pronunciation”(RP).(3)Language and gender(性别方言): male and female speeches are also found to be different in the use of intonations.(4)Language and age(年龄方言): an elderly man who still talks about the “icebox” or the “wireless” may be confused by some of the speech of his teenage granddaughter who likes to “pig out”whatever she sees in the “fridge”while listening to her “boombox”.(5)Idiolect(个人方言): idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.(6)Ethnic dialect(种族方言): an ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.3.What is standard variety?The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.名词解释1.Displacement(移位性): language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places.2. Arbitrariness(任意性): this means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.3. Inflectional morphemes(曲折词缀): There are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. Such bound morphemes are called inflectional morphemes.4. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de - contextualized.5. Reference(指称): Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non - linguistic world of experience.6. Standard dialect: The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.7. Hyponymy(上下位关系)：hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.8. Homonymy(同形异义词): homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.9. Derivation(派生词): Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and /or category distinct from that of its bases.10.Speech variety: Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.简答1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?They are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. Phonetics:The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics. (Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language.)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication, they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology:the study of how morpheme are arranged and combined to form words. (Linguists use the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.)Syntax: the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.Semantics: the study of meaning is known as semantics.Pragmatics:the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use. (Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication; or the study of language in use/the study of meaning in context.)2.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?(1) From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.(2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.(3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.(4) For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech.3.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration?Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.(1) The descriptive function is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information. Which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified, e.g. “The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”(2) the expressive function, also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values, e.g. “I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”(3) the social function, also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people, e.g. “How can I help you, Sir?”4.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?(1) the naming theory(命名论): the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to thes theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) the conceptualist view(概念论): conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. Between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards.(3) contextualism(语境论): the contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. The linguistic context, sometimes known as co - text.(4) behaviorism(行为主义论): this theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.5.What are the major types of synonyms in English?(1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词): synonyms used in different regional dialects;(2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词): synonyms differing in style;(3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning;(4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义词): synonyms differ in their collocation;(5) Semantically different synonyms6.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:(1) A: Tom’ s wife is pregnant. (2) A: My sister will soon be divorced.B: Tom has a wife. B: My sister is a married woman.(3) A: He likes seafood. (4) A: They are going to have another baby.B: He likes crabs. B: They have a child.(1) A presupposes B (B is a prerequisite of A): if A is true, B must be true(if Tom’s wife is pregnant, Tom must have a wife.); if A is false, B is still true(if Tom’s wife isn’t pregnant, Tom still has a wife.).(2)、(4) are similar to (1)(3) A entails B (B is an entailment of A): if A is true, B is necessarily true(if he likes seafood, he must likes crabs.); if A is false, B may be true or false(if he doesn’t like seafood, he may likes crabs or he doesn’t like crabs.).7.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics? Pragmatics is the study of language in use.As pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.8.According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance? Give an example.There are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.(1) A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses;(2) An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something;(3) A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.9.How is language related to society?There are many indications of the inter - relationship between language and society.(1) One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.(2) the kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background.(3) To some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.(4) The evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.。
高三英语人类学研究单选题40题1.Anthropology is the study of human beings in all aspects including their biology, culture and history. What is the main method used in anthropology?A.ExperimentationB.ObservationC.Hypothesis testingD.Mathematical modeling答案：B。
本题主要考查人类学的研究方法。
选项A“Experimentation”实验法在自然科学中常用，但人类学主要采用观察法。
选项B“Observation”观察法是人类学研究人类行为和文化的主要方法之一。
选项C“Hypothesis testing”假设检验在某些科学研究中会用到，但不是人类学的主要方法。
选项D“Mathematical modeling”数学建模在一些定量研究中使用，但不是人类学常用方法。
2.Which of the following is NOT a branch of anthropology?A.Physical anthropologyB.Cultural anthropologyC.Social anthropologyD.Biological chemistry答案：D。
本题考查人类学的分支。
选项A“Physical anthropology”体质人类学、选项B“Cultural anthropology”文化人类学、选项C“Social anthropology”社会人类学都是人类学的重要分支。
选项D“Biological chemistry”生物化学不属于人类学分支。
3.In anthropology, the study of human languages is called?A.LinguisticsB.SociolinguisticsC.Anthropological linguisticsD.Psycholinguistics答案：C。
试卷《科⽬：语⾔学导论》28. What is the full name of LAD? DA. Language Associative DistrictB. Language Acquisition DistrictC. Language Associative DeviceD. Language Acquisition Device9. Speech act theory was originally proposed by___A___.A. AustinB. SearleC. ChomskyD. Richard10. Zhang Tao, an English learner, has learned that adding “ed” to the end of a verb is therule for regular past tense formation and so he says: “My wife goed to Beijing.” Zhang Tao’s mistake is attributed to ___D____.A. fossilizationB. negative transferC. positive transferD. overgeneralization11. Which of the following meanings is not a term of Geoffrey Leech? CA. Conceptual meaningB. Social meaningC. Lexical meaningD. Thematic meaning12. Which of the following is not the focus of pragmatics？ CA. contextual meaningB. utterance meaningC. metaphorical meaningD. speaker meaning13. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by __B___.A. William JamesB. Noam ChomskyC. John SearleD. Paul Grice14. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows thatlanguage has the design feature of __D___.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement15. The level of syntactic representation that exists before movementtakes place is commonly termed the ___D___.A. phrase structureB. surface structureC. syntactic structureD. deep structure16. The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day, eight days a wee k.”obviously violates the maxim of _A_____.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner17. One way to analyze lexical meaning is ___C__.A. predication analysisB. stylistic analysisC. componential analysisD. proposition analysis18. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __B___ because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. illocutionary actC. perlocutionary actD. constative act19. A bilingual speaker often uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker, a speech situation known as __D___.A. discourse role-switchingB. activity role-switchingC. social role-switchingD. code-switching20. Chomsky uses the term __D___ to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of th e rules of his language in linguistic communication.A. langueB. competenceC. paroleD. performance21. Transformational-Generative Grammar was introduced by _C___in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. F. SaussureC. N. ChomskyD.M. A. K. Halliday22. “Sweets” and “candy” are used respectively in Britain in and America, but referto the same thing. The words are _B____ synonyms.A. collocativeB. dialectalC. completeD. stylistic23. “How fast did he dri ve when he ran the red light?”_C____“He ran the red light”.A. entailsB. contradictsC. presupposesD. includes24. The branch of linguistics that studies meaning of language in context is called___C_____.A. semanticsB. sociolinguisticsC. pragmaticsD. psycholinguistics25. The superordinate term of the group of words “love, anger, happiness, sadness, fear” is__D___.A. fearB. angerC. loveD. emotionII. Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true orF for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (10 points)( F ) 1. Language can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approaches can equally favored by modern linguists.( F ) 2. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language.( F ) 3. It is generally believed that first language is learned, while a second language is acquired.( F ) 4. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the samesense.( T ) 5. Language reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, just as it is not obscene; but it can connote sexist attitudes as well as attitudes about socialtaboos or racism.(F ) 6. Since language is arbitrary, learners of a foreign language should pay moreattention to the arbitrariness instead of the conventionality of the target language. ( T ) 7. Sociolingu ists are interested in “terms of address” because they offer some socio-cultural information about the type of relationship between the speaker and the hearer.( F ) 8. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons.( T ) 9. Creole is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.( T ) 10. The significance of Grice’s Cooperative Principle lies in that it explains how it i s possible for the speaker to convey more than is literally said.III. Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (15 points)1. Negative transferNegative transfer is commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning. For example, Chinese students, due to the interference of their mother tongue, often make mistakes like “Although…but…”, “He come tomorrow.”and “I not want go.”2. Language acquisitionLanguage acquisitio n refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. For example, the acquisition of Chinese in China and the acquisition of British English in England.3. LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4. TabooTaboo, or rather linguistic taboo, refers to an obscene, profane, or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “polite” society. F or example, fuck, breast, shit, etc.5. ContextContext is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer, For example, the knowledge of the language used and the knowledge of the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.I V. Answer the following questions according to what you’ve learned in linguistics.1. State briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and theterm learning in language acquisition study?The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes. Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning, while a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e. acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily precluded having to acquire it later.2. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples to showhow the flouting of these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature (give at least two examples, each flouting a different maxim)The four maxims of the cooperative principle are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of manner and maxim of relation.Example1A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?This is said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature produced is “I don’t wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner.”Example 2A : Shall we get something for the kids”B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The implicature produced is “I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream.”。
英语语言学知识English:1. What is the study of English language called?The study of English language is called English linguistics or English language studies.2. What are the main branches of English language studies?The main branches of English language studies include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics.3. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech, including the production and perception of speech sounds.4. What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of a language, including the way sounds are organized and used in the language.5. What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure and formationof words in a language, including the ways in which words are formed and the relationships between different forms ofa word.6. What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure and formation of sentences in a language, including the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form grammatical sentences.7. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language, including how meaning is constructed and interpreted in communication.8. What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in context, including how language is used to convey meaning and achieve communicative goals in different social and cultural settings.9. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society, including how language varies and changes in different social and cultural contexts.10. What are the major theories of language acquisition?The major theories of language acquisition include behaviorist theories, nativist theories, interactionist theories, and cognitive theories.中文：1. 英语语言学的研究叫什么？英语语言学的研究叫做英语语言学或英语语言研究。
. Sociolinguistics：is a branch of linguistics which studies all aspects of the relationship between language and society.What are the main factors leading to the growth of sociolinguistics?A. The general recognition of the importance of the fact that language is a very variable phenomenon and that this variability may have as much to do with society as with language.B. The demand made by the development of modern sciences and society and the financial support given by some capitalist governments such as the U.S. government.C. The healthy climate for its growth created by the development of disciplines like sociology, anthropology and psychology as it takes concepts and findings from them.Sociolinguistics and related disciplinesSociolinguistics is related to other disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, education and planning as it has drawn a lot (e.g. taking concepts and findings) from the work done by anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, educators and planners who also use much work of sociolinguistics to help their studies.The present situation of sociolinguistics？a. It has been a very important new branch of linguistics.b. It has been a recognized part of most courses at university level on linguistics or language.c. It is one of the main growth points in the study of language, from the point of both teaching and research.Features of the present sociolinguistics:Many numerous theories, vast amounts of data, and important consequences of new discoveries for areas such as education and language planning, but there is no central doctrine that must be adhered to。
Understanding of Sociolinguistics1 Introduction (1)2 Some definitions of sociolinguistics (1)3 The scope of sociolinguistic study (2)4 The comment on Fishman’s definition of sociolinguistics (2)5 Conclusion (3)References (3)Abstract：Sociolinguistics has drawn more and more attention since it became an independent discipline in 1960s．But scholars from various disciplines look at sociolinguistics from different perspectives，and carry out sociolinguistic study in different ways．This paper tries to understand sociolinguistics in terms of its definitions and the scope of sociolinguistic study to point out the lack of comprehensiveness in Fishman’s view on the definition of sociolinguistics．Key words：sociolinguistics；definitions；scope；lack of comprehensiveness1 IntroductionThough the social aspect of language attracted early attention，it was not until the mid 1960s that sociolinguistics became an independent discipline with its representatives William Labor and Dell Hymes．It has become an indispensable course in linguistic study together with syntax，phonetics and phonology, semantics. etc．．But scholars from various disciplines have different answers to the questions：‘What is sociolinguistics?’，‘What does the sociolinguist do?’，‘What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?’，and ‘What methods should be adopted in carrying out sociolinguistic study?’．Fishman argued that sociolinguistics is the name commonly given to the study of who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end (cited from Wardhaugh，R．1986：16)．Before we make any comment on this view，it is necessary to have a basic knowledge about the definitions of sociolinguistics and the scope of sociolinguistic study．2 Some definitions of sociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a cross—disciplinary subject．Linguists and sociolinguists are not the only researchers involved in studies of language in society．Scholars such as anthropologists，psychologists，educators，and planners have an interest too．They study the socio—cultural aspect of language from different angles and come up with different understanding．Peter Trudgill says that sociolinguistics is a science that combines linguistic and social concerns in varying degrees (cited from Fasold，R．1990：FS0)．This view seems to p1ay sociolinguistics at a high level by considering it “a science”, but is vague in the failure to specify the “varying degrees”．William Labov defines sociolinguistics as the secular linguistics．While William Downes sees sociolinguistics as that branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which require reference to social，including contextua1 factors in their explanation．To quote Holmes’ view，sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship between language and the context in which it is used．Gumperz states that sociolinguistics is an attempt to find relations between social structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur．This definition covers a broad range，therefore is more inclusive of the scope of sociolinguistic study．Susan Pinlips in 1980 defines sociolinguistics b riefly as the ‘study of the ways in which a person’s speech conveys social information’．This view manifests that language is a social behavior．People’sdifferent choices of linguistic forms may reflect their different social background．Wolfson expresses his view by saying that sociolinguistics is the study of the interplay of linguistic，social，and cultural factors in human communication．In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching ＆Applied Linguistics, sociolinguistics is defined as the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class，educational level and type of education, Age, sex，ethnic origins，etc．(Richard，J．C．1992：425)．It seems that there is no agreement on the exact definition of sociolinguistics，just like what Dell Hymes has claimed：“Different people may have different understanding of the term ‘sociolinguistics’．Therefore，no one has the patent for its definition.”(cited in Fasold．1990：F 12) But however different views scholars hold，they are ready to agree at least one point．That is，sociolinguistics studies the relation between language and society．Whatever sociolinguistics is，it must be oriented toward both data and theory．But still scholars will come up with different answers to the question ‘What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?’．3 The scope of sociolinguistic studyWe can generally divide sociolinguistic study into the broad sense and the narrow sense．The former is also widely called the macro-sociolinguistics，and the latter micro-sociolinguistics．To make the division clear, Wolfson compared sociolinguistic study to a sort of telescope through which language behavior may be studied in its socio-cultural context．In looking through the small end of the telescope，we view speech at the level of face-to-face interaction，and this type of study is called micro-sociolinguistics．By looking through the large end of the sociolinguistic telescope，we are able to see the workings of language contact，choice，use，maintenance，and change at the social level，a field of study called the sociology of language or macro-sociolinguistics．Hudson in 1980 made a distinction between sociolinguistics and the sociology of language in stating that the former is the study of language in relation to society while the later is the study of society in relation to language(cited in Wardhaugh，R．1986：12-13). That is to say．sociolinguistics can be studied either from the perspective of language or from that of society．Hudson further argues that the influence which society exerts on language is the major concern of sociolinguistic study．Some scholars also classify sociolinguistic study into the theoretical research model and the practical research mode1．But no matter how scholars define and understand sociolinguistics，it is generally agreed that sociolinguistic study mainly deals with social variation, language varieties，the differences of language use conventions，and the socio-cultural factors that contribute to the variation, varieties and differences．Social variation in language including the variation of region，social class, register, style，age and sex has been one of the major focuses of sociolinguistics since its formation in the early 1960．Language variety has been and still is the main concern of sociolinguistics，but the scope of sociolinguistic study may be very wide such that it can cover almost everything．Sociolinguistics is an empirical science．it must be founded on an adequate data base．This requires that when we are considering sociolinguistics，we should take the various kinds of research methods Into account．It is better to collect data through observing naturally occurring linguistic events．The ethnomethodology makes one significant contribution to the development of sociolinguistic study．4 The comment on Fishman’s definition of so ciolinguisticsFishman says that sociolinguistics is the name commonly given to the study of who speaks(or writes)what language (or what language variety)to whom and when and to what end．The American sociolinguist Nessa Wolfson shares the similar view with Fishman in generalizing the scope of sociolinguistics to be‘Who says what to whom，when and how’(cited from Hudson．1980：F14)．Brief as Fishman’s definition is，it includes the major elements in sociolinguistics:“what” representsthe language or language variety．“who”, “whom”, “when”and “to what end”represent those social variables．This may be better understood by considering the four components that influence linguistic choices，namely，the participants，the setting or social context of the interaction．the topic and the function(Holmes，Janet．1997：12)．Hymes’s SPEAKING theory may also be adopted to account for Fishman’s definition to some extent．In spite of its brevity and reasonableness，this definition is not comprehensive enough to inform us the nature of sociolinguistics，the relationship between it and the sociology of language or other disciplines．Neither does it cover the broad range of the scope of sociolinguistic study．It looks at sociolinguistics from the viewpoint of interpersonal interactions，and covers social variation and language variety, thus belongs to the scope of micro-sociolinguistics．To mention only the language variety does not make the whole story．It also fails to mention the research methods and the theoretical base of sociolinguistic study．Therefore，Fishman’s definition can not provide us with an overall and thorough understanding of sociolinguistics．5 ConclusionThough scholars from various disciplines have shown great interest in the socio—cultural aspect of language，different researchers define sociolinguistics differently and come up with different understanding．In fact，sociolinguistic study is characterized by a wide variety or inclusiveness of its research scope．Cf．McGregor argues that as long as we are fully aware of this point，questions like “How to define sociolinguist ics?” and “What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?” seem to be not very imperative and important(quoted in Fasold，R．1990：F12)．References1, Downes, William，1998．Language and Society【M】．2nd edition．Cambridge：CUP．2, Fasold，R．1 990 The Sociolinguistics【M】．Oxford：Blackwell Publishers Ltd．3, Holmes．Janet．I 997．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics【M】．New York：Longman Ltd．4, Hudson，R．A．1 980．Sociolinguistics【M】．2-edition．Cambridge：CUP．5, Richards，C．J．and Platt，J．and Platt，H．1 992．Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching＆Applied Linguistics【M】．New York：Longman Ltd．6, Salzmann，Zdenek．1993．Language．Culture．& Social An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology 【M】．Boulder：Westview Press，Inc．7, Trask，R．L．I999．Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics【M】．London；Routledge．8, Wardhaugh．R．1986．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics：Issues of Society and Schooling 【M】．Oxford：Basil Blackwel1．9, Wardhaugh．R．1998．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics【M】．3 edition．Oxford：Blackwel1．10, Wolfson，N．1989．Perspectives．Sociolinguistics and TESOL【M】．Cambridge：Newbury．。
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreational元语言功能metal lingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metal lingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is dirverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the place of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
语⾔学概论（英）试卷三1. Which of the following statements is FALSE? ________. A. Language is just for communication.B. Language is one of many ways in which we experience the world.C. Language is a sign system.D. Language is arbitrary and conventional.2. ______ refers to the fact that there is no necessary or logical relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. A. Displacement B. creativity C. arbitrariness D. duality3. The study of a language at some point of time is called________. A. computational linguistics B. sociolinguisticsC. diachronic linguisticsD. synchronic linguistics4. ________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community A. Langue B. performance C. competence D. parole201 年⽉江苏省⾼等教育⾃学考试8801语⾔学概论（英）⼀、选择题（每⼩题1分，共20分）在下列每⼩题的四个备选答案中选出⼀个正确的答案，并将其字母标号填⼊题⼲的括号内。
第一章测试1【判断题】(5分) Peopledoresearchinordertohaveabetterunderstandingofourworld.A.对B.错2【判断题】(5分)Wedon’tneedtobecreativeinresearchasanyresearchisbasedonevidences.A.错B.对3【判断题】(5分)Goodresearchquestionsareimportantinresearch.A.错B.对4【判断题】(5分) Literaturereviewisneededinsomeresearchpapers.A.对B.错5【判断题】(5分) Agoodresearchpaperneedscarefulrevisingandproofreading.A.错B.对6【判断题】(5分) Unintentionalplagiarismcanbeexcusedasitisnotcommitteddeliberately.A.对B.错7【判断题】(5分) Academicfalsificationisonecommontypeofacademicdishonesty.A.对B.错8【多选题】(5分) Whatroledoesaliteraturereviewplayinaresearchpaper?A.Itenhancesthecredibilityofyourpaper.B.Itprovestheexistenceofaresearchgap.C.Itsynthesizestheexistingstudiesinyourarea.D.Itprovidesevidencesforyourargument.9【单选题】(5分) WhichofthefollowingisNOTanessentialstepinaresearchpaperwriting?A.ChoosingatopicB.ConsultinginstructorsC.LocatingsourcesD.OutliningthePaper10【多选题】(5分) Whichofthefollowingmayleadtoacademicdishonesty?A.AcademicplagiarismB.AcademicpromotionC.AcademicinterestD.Academicfabrication第二章测试1【多选题】(5分)Inchoosingaresearchtopic,whichofthefollowingdoweneedtoconsider?A.PublicationpossibilitiesB.AcademicimportanceC.OurresearchinterestD.Ourmanageability2【判断题】(5分)Tocheckthevalidityofaresearchtopic,weneedtobecriticalenough.A.对B.错3【判断题】(5分) Itisanactofplagiarismifonesimplyparaphrasesabookforaresearchpaper.A.对B.错4【判断题】(5分) StudentsshouldbebraveenoughtotrychallengingissuesfortheirBAtheses.A.对B.错5【判断题】(5分) Carefulreadingofliterarytextisimportantinliterarystudies.A.对B.错6【判断题】(5分) Literarytheoriestakepriorityoverliterarytextsinliteraryanalysis.A.错B.对7【判断题】(5分) ICstudycanbechallengingbutinterestingandpracticalinlife.A.错B.对8【判断题】(5分) Expertssharesimilarunderstandingsoverthestandardsoftranslation.A.错B.对9【判断题】(5分) Translationstrategiesandtranslationtechniquesaredifferentconceptsintranslation.A.对B.错10【判断题】(5分) Sociolinguisticsisoneofthebranchesofappliedlinguistics.A.对B.错第三章测试1【判断题】(5分) Aworkingbibliographyincludesthesourceswehavesofarcollectedforaresearchproject.A.对B.错2【判断题】(5分) Knowingwhatsourcesyouneedisofvitalimportanceinevaluatingyoursources.A.错B.对3【判断题】(5分) Sourcesfromleadingscholarscanbeveryusefultoyourresearch.A.错B.对4【判断题】(5分)Inreadingsources,weneedtobecriticalandformourpersonalresponses.A.对B.错5【判断题】(5分) Theplanforanempiricalresearchshouldcoveritspurpose,method,subjects,andprocedure.A.错B.对6【判断题】(5分) Itiswisefortheobservernottotakepartintheactivityobservedatalltime.A.错B.对7【多选题】(5分)InBooleanLogic,ifonewantstosearchonlyforsourcesrelevantwithcomputervirus,thesearchformul ashouldbe_______.A.computernotvirusB.computernearvirusC.computerorvirusD.computerandvirus8【多选题】(5分) Theannotationofasourceinanannotatedbibliographymayhaveyour____:A.reflectionofthesourceB.adaptationofthesourceC.summaryofthesourceD.assessmentofthesource9【单选题】(5分)Inaquestionnaireentitled“ASurveyontheThirdYearEnglishMajors’EnglishVocabularyinXXUniv ersity”,the“thethirdyearEnglishmajors”shouldbe：A.ThetimeofthesurveyB.ThesubjectofthesurveyC.ThecontentofthesurveyD.Themodeofthesurvey10【单选题】(5分)Inanexperimententitled“AStudyontheEffectsofWriting-after-ReadingActivityonEnglishMajors EnglishVocabulary”,students’languageproficiencyshouldbe:A.IrrelevantvariableB.dependentvariableC.Independentvariable第四章测试1【判断题】(5分)Aresearchproposalshouldbepersuasiveinnature.A.错B.对2【判断题】(5分) Wecanaskforsuggestionsfromtheexpertsforourresearchinourproposal.A.错B.对3【判断题】(5分) Weneedtoputforwardourresearchquestionsinourresearchproposals.A.错B.对4【判断题】(5分) Aresearchproposaldemonstratesthesignificanceofourproposedresearch.A.错B.对5【判断题】(5分) Theliteraturereviewsectioninaproposalprovestheexistenceofaresearchgap.A.对B.错6【判断题】(5分)The“ApplicationoftheResearch”tellshowyourresearchwillbenefitinpractice.A.对B.错7【判断题】(5分)A“PreliminaryBibliography”isalistofthesourcesyouhavecitedinyourproposal.A.错B.对8【判断题】(5分) Thesignificanceofyourresearchemphasizespossibleresearchcontributions.A.对B.错9【判断题】(5分)Simpleasitis,aBAthesisproposalincludesalltheelementsinagrantresearchproposal.A.错B.对10【多选题】(5分)WhichofthefollowingisNOTincludedinthree-moveschemeoftheproposalsummary?A.researchneedB.potentialcontributionsC.possiblelimitationsD.researchmethod第五章测试1【判断题】(5分) Theuseofsignalphrasesincitationcanenhancethefluencyofwriting.A.对B.错2【判断题】(5分) Theintegrationofthesourcesmustfitourwritinginstructureandgrammar.A.错B.对3【判断题】(5分) Researchlimitationisacompulsoryelementinallresearchpapers.A.错B.对4【判断题】(5分) CARSModelisapatternforintroductionwritinginresearchpapers.A.对B.错5【判断题】(5分)Inrevising,weneedtofocusontheerrorslikegrammarandspelling.A.错B.对6【判断题】(5分) Aliteraturereviewmainlypresentsasummaryofeachsourceinchronologicalorder.A.错B.对7【单选题】(5分) Characteristicsofacademicwritingincludesallthefollowingexcept________.A.thefirst-personviewB.aformaltoneC.aclearfocusD.precisewordchoice8【单选题】(5分) Itisessentialtoalwaysacknowledgethesourceofborrowedideasinyourpaper.Todootherwiseisconsi dered_________.A.IgnoranceB.CarelessnessC.Plagiarism9【单选题】(5分)Whichofthefollowingarefeaturesofagoodtitle?A.ClearB.AlloftheaboveC.Attractive.D.Direct10【单选题】(5分)Abstractscanbedividedintotwotypes accordingto their_________.A.functionsB.length第六章测试1【判断题】(5分)MLAin-textcitationrequiresthattheauthorinformationshouldbeputeitherinthetextofthepaperorint heparentheticalcitation.A.错B.对2【判断题】(5分)InMLAdocumentation,parentheticalcitationinthetextofthepapermustalwaysincludetheauthor’sn ameandthework’stitle.A.错B.对3【判断题】(5分)MLAworkscitedlistisorganizedalphabeticallybytheauthor’slastnames(orbytitleforaworkwithnoa uthor).A.错B.对4【判断题】(5分)Whenawork’sauthorisunknown,theworkislistedunder“Anonymous”inthelistofMLAworkscited.A.错B.对5【单选题】(5分)Lee(2007)stated,“Theabilitytothinkcriticallyisneededinthisrevolutionaryageoftechnologicalcha nge”(p.82).Thein-textcitationusedhereis__________.A.integratedB.non-integrated6【多选题】(5分)WhatarethefunctionsofAPAdocumentation?A.Tociteothers’ideasandinformationusedwithinyourpaperB.TodemonstratethetypeofresearchconductedC.ToindicatethesourcesintheReferenceslist7【单选题】(5分)Writethelistofworkscited,usingtheAPAformat.Aparaphraseofanideafrompage121ofWritingSpace:TheComputer;Hypertext,andtheHistoryofWr iting,byJayDavidBolter.This1991bookwaspublishedbyLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesofHillsdale, NewJersey.Whichofthefollowingiscorrectfortheauthor’sname?A.Bolter,J.DB.J.D.BolterC.Jay,D.BolterD.Bolter,JayDavid【单选题】(5分)Writethelistofworkscited,usingtheAPAformat.Aquotationfrompage78ofanarticlebyBartKoskoandSatornIsakafromtheJuly1993issueofScientifi cAmerican,amonthlypublication.Thearticleisentitled"FuzzyLogic"andappearsonpages76to81in volume239,ofthejournal. Whichofthefollowingisthecorrectformatforthevolumeandpagernumber?A.ScientificAmerican,239,78B.ScientificAmerican,239,76-81C.ScientificAmerican,239:76-81D.ScientificAmerican,239,76-81.9【多选题】(5分)Bohren,M.A.,G.J.Hofmeyr,C.Sakala,R.K.Fukuzawa,andA.Cuthbert.(2017).Continuoussupportf orwomenduringchildbirth.CochraneDatabaseofSystematicReviews,2017(7).https:///10.1 002/14651858.CD003766.pub6Errorsmadeinthisentryinclude_________.A.authors’namesB.issuenumberC.theword“and”D.doinumber10【单选题】(5分)Perrey,S.(2017).Doweperformbetterwhenweincreaseredbloodcells?TheLancetHaematology,17, 2352-3026.https:///10.1016/S2352-3026(17)30123-0.RetrievedAugust23,2018.Whatinfo rmationisNOTneededinthisentry?A.ThedateofretrievalB.ThepagerangeC.Thedoinumber。
I Introduction1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the systematic/scientific study of language.study: investigate, examine, not learnscientific: based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure, the way in which it is studied.language(zero article): It implies that it studies not any particular language, but languages in general.What is the relationship between data & theory?▲In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data is hardly valid; data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.The process of study may be as follows:1) Certain linguistics facts are found to display some similarities, so generalizations are made about them.2) On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for the facts. These hypotheses are tested by further observations.3) A theory is constructed about how language works.2. What is a linguist? What is the main task for him?A person who studies linguistics. He does not need to be able to use a large number of languages for communication purposes, but he should have a wide experience of different types of languages. His task is not to learn to use any particular language, but to study how each language is constructed, how it is used by its speakers, and how it is related to other languages. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from one social class to another, how it changes from one historical period to the next, and how children acquire their mother tongue. To sum up, his task is basically to study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built. To make his analysis as scientific as possible, he is usually guided by 4 principles.▲Consistency (一致性): there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.▲Economy (经济性) : other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a long or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible ones which can account most fully for all facts.▲Objectivity(客观性): a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalization.▲Exhaustiveness(穷尽性): to gather all the materials relevant to one‘s investigation and give them an adequate explanation.3. What are the scopes of linguistics?▲Phonetics: the study of human speech sound▲Phonology: the sound pattering▲Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed▲Syntax: the arrangement of sentences▲Semantics: the study of meaning▲Pragmatics: the study of how speakers use sentences to effect successful communication▲Psycholinguistics: the relationship between language & the mind▲Historic linguistics: the study of language change▲Sociolinguistics: the relationship between language & society▲Applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories & principles to language teaching( narrow sense)▲Anthropological linguistics▲Neurological linguistics▲Mathematical linguistics▲Computational linguistics4. What are some important distinctions in linguistics?(重要区别)①Synchronic linguistics (共时语言学):the study of a language system at one particular point in time （研究特定时间的语言体系）Diachronic (historical)linguistics (历时语言学):an approach to linguistics which studies how a language changes over a period time（研究语言在一段时期内怎样变化）In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.e.g. The sound system of Modern British English②Prescriptive vs. descriptive( 规定性与描写性)▲The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are.▲Do/Don‘t say X. (prescriptive)▲People do/ don‘t say X. (descriptive)Look at the following pairs of sentences:▲It is I. It is me.▲Who did you speak to?▲Whom did you speak to?▲I haven‘t done anything.▲I have n‘t done nothing.▲③Speech & writing5. Why do modern linguistics regard the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language?▲1) linguistic evolution; ( historically)▲2) daily communication; (function)▲3)acquisition of the mother tongue; ( genetically)▲4) features of human speech (authentic)▲④Langue & parole(语言与言语)Who made the distinction between langue and parole? And when?▲F. de Saussure ( a Swiss linguist) in the early 20th century.▲― if we could embrace the sum of word-images stored in the minds of all individuals, we could identify the social bond that constitutes language (langue). It is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking (parole), a grammatical system that has a potential existence in each brain, or, more specifically, in the brains of a group of individuals. For language is not complete in any speaker; it exists perfectly only within a collectivity. In separating language( langue) from speaking (parole) we are at the same time separating (1) what is social from what is individual; and (2) what is essential from what is accessory and more or less accidental.( ------Saussure 1959:13-14 ) ▲―如果我们能了解所有个人头脑中的语言形象，我们就能知道形成语言的社会因素。
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
语言学A__ is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distributionand patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A. PhonologyB. LexicographyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC2. ___C_ is defined as the scientific study of language, studying language in general.A. PsycholinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. PhoneticsB3. Which of the linguistic items listed below is best described as the smallest unit of meaning A. the word B. the morphemeC. the phonemeD. the clauseB4. A prefix is an affix which appears ____.A. after the stemB. before the stemC. in the middle of the stemD. below the stemC 5. Which of the following is true ____A. Phonetics is the study of pronunciation.B. Phonetics is the scientific study of the movement of sound waves.C. Phonetics is the scientific study of the sounds of language.D. Phonetics is the scientific study of the organs of speech.D6. “What’s in a name That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweetSo Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,” (Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2, 43~5)To what characteristic of language dose Shakespeare refer ___A. CreativityB. ProductivityC. DualityD. ArbitrarinessA7. Language, as a system, consists of two sets of structures or two levels, which is known as____, one of a design features of human language.A. DualityB. DisplacementC. ProductivityD. ArbitrarinessD8. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. soundsD. allophonesA9. What is complementary distribution ____A. Different places of occurrence of allophones within a word.B. When a phone can only occur at the end of a word.C. When an allophone occurs at the beginning of a word.D. Contrastive distribution of allophonesD10. ___ deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.A. MorphemeB. VocabularyC. RootD. LexiconB1. Cold and hot are called ____ antonyms.A. complementaryB. gradableC. reversalD. converseC2. “I regret that I can’t help you.” This is an example of __ _.A. representativesB. directivesC. expressivesD. commissivesD. What is the duality of the language ____A. Letters and soundsB. Sounds and symbolsC. Symbols and meaningD. sounds and meaningA4. “I bought some roses” ___ “I bought some flowers”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous withC5. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into Prague School.A. BloomfieldB. SaussureC. JakobsonD. FirthC6. Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is often referred to as acquired ____.A. diglossiaB. aphasiaC. dyslexiaD. dysgraphiaA7. ____ A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for the spelling and word use.A. Samuel Johnson’sB. Bishop Lowth’sC. Firth’sD. Samuel John’sB8. What is phonology ____A. The study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted and receivedB. The study of the function, behavior and organization of speech sounds as linguistic items.C. The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet.D. The study of all possible speech sounds.D9. The morpheme “cast” in the common word “telecast” is a (n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD10. A phoneme is ____.A. a set of different realization of a phoneB. a set of contrastive allophones in free variationC. a set of phones in complementary distributionD. a set of phonetically similar noncontrastive phonesA1. Firstly, to which of these language groups dose English belong ____A. GermanicB. SlavonicC. romanceD. BalticD2. What is defined as “the study of sentence structure” ___A. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. SyntaxD3. According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisitionC4. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned”is known as a(n) ____.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free formC5. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language, especially those items which have clear semantic references.A. PhonologyB. LexicologyC. MorphologyD. LexicographyA6. As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, ____ is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner.A. interlanguageB. interferenceC. language transferD. linguistic relativityA7. ____ means the lack of a logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. ArbitrarinessB. AbstractnessC. AmbiguityD. FuzzinessB8. The term ___ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeD9. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound that follows or precedes it, it is said to be ____.A. nasalizedB. voicedC. aspiratedD. assimilatedC10. F. de Saussure is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianA1. N. Chomsky is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. CanadaC. SwissD. FrenchB2. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: ___ and ____.A. Linguistic description, Linguistic determinismB. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic relativityC. Linguistic relativity, Linguistic descriptionD. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic performanceA3. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and used by people who speak different language for restricted purpose is ____.A. pidiginB. creoleC. dialectD. blendsB4. By ____, we refer to word forms which differ from each other only by one sound, . “pin”and “bin”.A. complementally distributionB. minimal pairC. Adjacency pairD. code—switchingA5. When two sounds never occur in the same environment they said to be in ___.A. complementary distributionB. free variationC. co-occurrenceD. minimal pairD6. ___ century is considered to be the beginning of Modern English.A. 18thB. 17thC. 19thD. 16thB7. Conventionally a __ __ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phonemeC. phoneD. morphemeD8. __ __ is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that the only things valid enough to confirm or refute o scientific theory are interpersonally observable phenomena, rather than people’s introspections or intuitions.A. MentalismB. Functional grammarC. Case grammarD. BehaviorismC9. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called __C.A. expressivesB. directivesC. commisivesD. declaratives*C 10. A __ _ is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.A. morphemeB. wordC. rootD. phonemeD1. Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human language in generalD. the system of a particular languageA2. __ __ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.A. InterlanguageB. IdeologyC. DialectD. InterferenceB3. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called __ _ rule.A. DeletionB. SequentialC. superasegmentalD. AssimilationB 4. “There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to”. This is the __ view concerning the study of meaning.A. naming theoryB. conceptualistC. contextualistD. behavioristA5. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. , in terms of _.A. manner of articulationB. openness of mouthC. place of articulationD. voicingA6. According to Chomsky, _ __ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language. A. competence B. paroleC. performanceD. langueA7. __ is not a suprasegmental feature.A. AspirationB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA8 __ is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1language in their learning process.A. Language transferB. BlendingC. InterferenceD. CooperativeC9. _ are affixes added to an existing form to create a new word, . in-,-er.A. inflectional morphemeB. free morphemeC. derivational morphemeD. rootB10. Writing is the secondary language form based on ___.A. soundB. speechC. gestureD. signC1. ____ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SemanticsB. SociolinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. LinguisticsA2. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so on are called ____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivationalC3. Which of the following is not a compound word ___A. clearwayB. rainbowC. scarcityD. withoutA4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by process of learning, and not genetically is referred to as ____.A. culture transmissionB. performanceC. competenceD. acquisitionC5. ____ is the language of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who invaded Britain after AD 450.A. Old NorseB. CleticC. Old EnglishD. Middle EnglishC6. A group of two or more consonants together in a syllable is called a (n) ____.A. arresting clusterB. releasing clusterC. consonant clusterD. syllableC7. The semantic features of the word “woman” can be expressed as ____.A. +ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALEB. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, -- ADULT, + MALEC. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, + ADULT, -- MALED. + ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, -- ADULT, -- MALEA8. ____ is to refer to an auxiliary language used to enable routine communication to take placebetween groups of people who speak different native languages.A. Lingua francaB. DialectC. PidginD. Ethnic dialectA9. ____ is the study of the relationship between brain and language, including research intohow the structure of the brain influences language learning.A. NeurolinguisticsB. PsyhcholingisticsC. Applied LinguisticsD. SociolinguisticsB10. Modern synchronic linguistics traditionally dates from the ____ of Swiss scholar Ferdinandde Saussure.A. Syntactic structureB. Cours de Linguitique GeneralC. De Lingua LatinaD. Language and MindA1. According to the strong version of the ____ hypothesis, language determines speakers’perceptions and patterns their way of life.A. Sapir WhorfB. inputC. GrimD. InnatenessD2. Which of the following is true ____A. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spokenform.B. A compound is the combination of only two words.C. The division of English into old English, Middle English, and Modern English isnonconventional and not arbitrary.D. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a languagesuccessfully later on.D3. Which of the following statements is not true ____A. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.B. Language is human specificC. Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraintsfirst language was invented by Adam, the first man.B 4. A group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes to- ward linguistic norms are defined as ____.A. speech varietyB. speech communityC. registerD. sociolectC5. “Your money or your life” is an example of ___.A. representativeB. expressiveC. directivesD. commissivesD6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used to separate [p] and [b] __A. stopB. fricativesC. bilabialD. voicedD7. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language particularly those items which have clear semantic references.A. LexicographyB. PhonologyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC8. ____ theorized that acquisition of language is an innate process determined by biological factors which limit the important period for acquisition of a language from roughly two years of age to puberty.A. Input hypothesisB. Interaction hypothesisC. Critical period hypothesisD. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC9. An example of ___ would be the change in meaning undergone by the OE word, docga, modern day dog. In OE docga referred to a particular breed of dog, while in modern usage it refers to the class of dogs as a whole.A. semantic degradationsB. semantic reductionsC. semantic extensionsD. semantic elevationC10. According to Chomsky, the child is born with a built –in set of rules, which have the specific function of enabling her to construct the grammar of her mother tongue. This view is to be seen as ____.A. Input hypothesisB. X-theoryC. Language acquisition deviceD. Universal grammarD1. “Old” and “Young” are a pair of ____ opposites.A. complementaryB. relationalC. converseD. gradableB2. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20thcentury, is put forward by ____.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD. MalinowskiD3. Vowels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ____vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD. centralD4. From Halliday’s viewpoint, language is a form of realization of ____ rather than a form of realization of______.A. knowing, doingB. thinking, knowingC. doing, thinkingD. doing, knowingC5. ___ believes that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.A. The innatistB. The interactionistC. The behavioristD. The mentalistthe physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear.A. Articulatory phoneticsB. Physiological phoneticsC Acoustic phonetics D. Auditory phoneticsB7. Creativity refers to ____.A. the unconscious knowledge that language users have in their mindsB. the capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number ofsentencesC. a property claimed to be characteristic of all languagesD. animals’ capacity to learn more than one human languageA8. Fossilization is a process _ _.A. in which incorrect linguistic features beca me a permanent part of a learner’s competenceB. in which incorrect as well as correct linguistic features became a permanent part of alearner’s competence, but the correct items gradually delete the incorrect itemsC. which can happen as a result of teachers’ disapproval of an incorrect itemand C are correctB9. “Competence” refers to ____.A. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesB. a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageC. the actual use of a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageD. the laws that pertain to all languages throughout the worldA10. ___ refers to unintentionally deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker.A. An errorB. A mistakeC. A slip of the tongueD. FossilizationC1. ____ is a multiword construction that is a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituents.A. semantic componentB. collocationC. idiomD. referenceB2. The distinction between langue and parole is similar to that between ____.A. prescriptive and descriptiveB. competence and performanceC. speech and writingD. synchronic and diachronicA3. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as ____.A. open class wordsB. grammatical wordsC. closed class wordsD. function wordsB4. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “furniture/bed” ____A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. antonymyB5. Which description of componential analysis for the word “woman” is right ____A. +human,-adult, -maleB. +human, + adult, -maleC. +human, + adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +maleB6. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a ____.A. regional dialectB. registerC. fieldD. repertoireD7. In structural grammar, distributional analysis is used to define ____, which are taken as the basic building blocks.A. morphemesB. wordsC. syllableD. phonemesD8. “Speech Act Theory” was proposed by ____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. Jane AustinD. John AustinD9. The major new development in linguistics in 20th century was ____ grammar.A. speculativeB. traditionalC. structuralD. transformational-generativeA10. ____ refers to the tendency of many learners to stop developing their inter-language grammar in the direction of the target language.A. FossilizationB. Error analysisC. OvergeneralizationD. InterferenceD1. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in ____and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciationC2. The study of how we do things with utterance is the study of ____, the nature of which is determined by context.A. contextB. pragmaticsC. speech actD. semanticsA3. A(n) ___ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, . “pass away” for “die”.A. euphemismsB. deleteC. coinageD. tabooB4. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, ____ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.A. transferB. bilingualismC. diglossiaD. inter-languageD5. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation, but in ____.A. relationshipB. dependenceC. sentenceD. contextis a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.A. cultural transmissionB. dualityC. displacementD. productivityB7. Traditional grammarians begin with ____ definition of the sentence and components.A. structuralB. notionalC. descriptiveD. prescriptiveA8. ____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. Speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A countryA9. ___ invasions established three major groups in England: Saxons, Angles and Jutes.A. GermanicB. NormanC. FrenchD. RomanD10. Japanese is the only major language that uses ___ writing system.A. a word-writingB. a logographicC. an alphabeticD. a syllabicC1. ____ is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constitu ents, . a word or group of words, which serves as a definable “center” or “head”.A. Exocentric constructionB. CoordinationC. Endocentric constructionD. CollocationA2. Of the following linguists, ____ should not be grouped into American school.A. FirthB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. BoasD3. When people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career, we say they learn a foreign language with a (n) ___.A. intrinsic motivationB. resultative motivationC. integrative motivationD. instrumental motivationB4. What is the sense relation in the sentence “M y unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.”____A. PresupposeB. ContradictionC. EntailmentD. InconsistentB5. ---TRUTH.---Do not say what you believe to be false.---Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Those can be defined as the features of ____ of Gricean maxims.A. maxim of quantityB. maxim of qualityC. maxim of relationD. maxim of mannerC6. ____ caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords refers to the use of pitch in language to distinguish words.A. IntonationB. StressC. ToneD. AspirationC7. ____ is a socially prestigious dialect that is supported by institutions.A. Ethnic dialectB. IdeolectC. Standard dialectD. CreoleD8. Which of the following country are those loanwords “garage, champion, beauty, parliament”borrowed from ____.A. LatinB. DutchC. GermanD. FrenchB9. In the sentence “The angry man went furiously through the rooms.” The first division into immediate constitute should be between ____.A. angry and manB. man and wentC. furiously and throughD. The and angryC10. ____ refers to the effect of the utterance.A. Illocutionary actB. Locutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech actA1. The consonant sound /p/ is described as ___.A. voiceless bilabial stopB. voiceless alveolar stopC. voiced bilabial stopD. voiced alveolar stopC2. A new word created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part is referred to as____.A. acronymB. borrowingC. clippingD. blendingC3. According to the author our brain is divided into two hemispheres. Language functions aremainly located in ____.A. right hemispheresB. front hemispheresC. left hemispheresD. back hemispheresC4. “A language pattern which occurs in all known language” is called ____.A. a phonemic representationB. a phonetic representationC. a language universalD. language changeC5. In the sentence-------“The child found the puppy”, ____ is not a constituent.A. The childB. found the puppyC. found theD. the puppyA6. A ____ is a word or phrase which people use in place of terms which they consider to be moredisagreeable or offensive to themselves and /or to their audience.A. EuphemismB. metaphorC. denotationD. jargonC7. ____ is the learner’s process of adapting to the culture and value system of the targetlanguage community.A. AcquisitionB. AssimilationC. AcculturationD. ArticulationC8. What is the relationship between the two words “flower / rose” ____A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. hyponymyD. PolysemyD9. The function of the sentence “How are you” ____A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phaticC10. Homonyms ____.A. are words that share the same phonetic features and the same semantic featuresB. are words that share the same semantic features but have different sets of phonetic featuresC. are words that share the same phonetic features but have different sets of semantic featuresD. are two words that all but one of semantic features in commonB1. The distinction between language and parole is proposed by ____.A. HallidayB. SaussureC. ChomskyD. FirthC2. In the following dialogue, the maxim of ____ is not observed.A. What time is itB. It’s terribly cold in here.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerB3. ____ are linguistic units larger than sentences.A. MovesB. DiscoursesC. TopicsD. TendenciesA4. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity __A. single/marriedB. big/smallC. hot / coldD. old /youngA5. Usually ____ refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but linguistics is used in other areas, as well.A. applied linguisticsB. theoretical linguisticsC. contextual linguisticsD. general linguisticsD6. Two words that are differentiated by one phoneme, such as “cat” and “rat”, are known as a ____.A. distinctive featureB. argumentC. codeD. minimal pairD7. ____ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics.A. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. LabovC8. ____ is the academic discipline concerned with the study of the processes by which people learn languages in addition to their native tongue.A. IPAB. IC AnalysisC. SLAD. TGC9. The ____ is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents.A. bound morphemeB. affixC. rootD. prefixA10. In terms of S earle’s classification system of illocutionary acts, the sentence “Ten buckssay that The Yankee will win the game.” used to bet belongs to ____.A. representativeB. commissiveC. directiveD. declarationB1. Three factors involved in describing vowels are ____.A. place of articulation / part of the tongue raised / voicingB. tongue height / part of the tongue raised / lip roundingC. articulators / extreme vowel positions / tongue positionD. teeth position / alveolar ridge position / voicingC2. In ____ the structure of words is studied.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. morphologyD. syntaxD3. Which one is not a source of error ____A the native language B. the target languageC. learner’s style of thinkingD. noneC4. “Love” and “hate” are ____.A. binary antonymsB. complementary pairsC. gradable antonymsD. relational oppositesA5. ___ refers to sentences not only describe or report information, but also help speakers accomplish things.A. Speech actB. DiscourseC. ContextD. CommunicationB6. The feature th at distinguishes “hotdog” and “hot dog” is ____.A. toneB. stressC. intonationD. aspirationA7. ____ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. NeurolinguistcsD. Anthropological linguisticsD8. The study of language at some point of time is generally termed as ____ linguistics.A. appliedB. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronicA9. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into London school.A. FirthB. BloomfieldC. BoasD. TrubetzkoyC10. ____ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard languageD1. The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the ____ period for the first language acquisition.A. initialB. one-word stageC. pubertyD. criticalA2. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ____.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. syntaxD. language changeD3. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the ____ principle proposed by J. Grice.A. comprehensiveB. generativeC. discourseD. cooperativeC4. ___ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.A. referenceB. lexical meaningC. senseD. wordB5. “Autumn” and “fall” are used respectively in Britain and America, but refer to the same thing. The words are ___ synonyms.A. collocationalB. dialectalC. completeD. stylisticD6. ____ is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence, namely, the underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.A. surface structureB. syntactic ambiguityC. syntactic componentD. deep structureC7. London speech that was illustrated by Shakespeare’s writing was generally termed ____. A. Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modern EnglishD. Late ModernA8. If we begin interpretation of a sentence spontaneously and automatically on the basis of whatever information is available to us, that is called ____.A. top-down processingB. bottom-up processingC. inductive analysisD. comparative analysisB9. ____ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. Ethnic dialectD. Linguistic repertoireA10. Of the following words, ____ is an initialism.A. UNB. NATOC. BASICD. UNESCO。
What is Sociolinguistics?
Let’s begin by reviewing some of the many questions sociolinguists try to answer through observation and experimentation. These questions include:
1.Which features of language behavior are
people conscious of using? Which are below
the level of their conscious awareness?
2.To what extent do individuals and groups use
language to define themselves or to set
themselves apart?
3.What factors cause individuals or groups to
change their language in order to sound either
similar to or different from others?
4.In what observable ways do individuals and
groups change the features of their language
and the ways in which they use language? 5.What factors inhibit or promote the extinction,
rise or maintenance of local varieties of
languages?
6.What factors cause listeners to perceive one
type of language as higher in status than
another?
7.Do men and women, boys and girls use
language differently?
8.Do adults change their language and the way
they use it as they grow older?
9.How does education affect the features of
language that people use?
10.How do social networks affect language?
11.What type of speaker and what type of
group initiate linguistic change?
12.What social mechanisms help a new
feature of language take hold and spread? 13.What features of language do people vary
according to their social situation?
14.What attitudes do people have towards
regional dialects and foreign accents?
15.What happens when people wish or need
to interact with people who speak another
language?
16.What factors support or inhibit
bilingualism?
17.In what ways is linguistic behavior subject
to control? By whom?
18.How do social conflicts and tensions, such
as racism, affect language?
19.How do radio, television, films and
popular entertainment affect language?
20.How does discourse (connected stretches
of speech or writing) differ from one group to
another?
An important feature of sociolinguistics is its commitment to observing and reporting on language, rather than prescribing how to use it.
This style of language study is known as descriptivism.。
