ChapterSemantics教材练习题答案

语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第4章练习题参考答案Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N, V, A or P.3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, andadjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements beingconjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriatetree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PP d) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the window。

Chapter 5 Syntax 句法I. Multiple Choices:1.D. Immediate Constituent2. B. semantic3. A. concord4. A. the future is not expressed by morphological change5. D. substitutability6. C. co-occurrence7. B. Predicate 8.B. syntactic 9. C. self-control10. D. Government 11. D. coordinateII. Fill in the blanks with the most suitable words:1. Cohesion refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.2. A sentence structure that is made up of layers of word groups is called a hierarchical structure.3. Sentences are traditionally assumed to be made up of words in _linear___ direction.4. Provide linguistic terms for the following descriptions.1) a type of relation holding with each other at aparticular place in a structure:2) an operation that moves a phrase category from its original position generated byPS rules to another within a structure: transformation3) the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination ofwords into sentences: syntaxIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false in the bracket before each of them:T 1. It is characteristic of Halliday’s theory that more attention is paid to paradigmatic relations than to syntagmatic relations, which is the main concern of Chomsky.F2. Tense and aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they were separated in traditional grammar. (they were not separated in traditional grammar)F 3. Paradigmatic relation in syntax is alternatively called horizontal relation.(Paradigmatic relation is also called vertical relation; horizontal relation is a term for syntagmatic relation.)T 4. All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete units to form an infinite set of possible sentences.F 5. The English sentence "If only I could fly!" is in imperative mood. subjunctivemoodF 6. GOVERNMENT may be defined as the requirement that the form of two or morewords in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other. concordT 7. The SYNTAGMATIC RELATION is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.T 8. The deep structure may be defined the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between the underlying subject and its verbs, or a verb and its object.F 9. Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into same categoriesbased on commonalities and differences. As a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, it allows us to relate present experiences to past ones.different categoriesF 10. The syntagmatic relation is also known as vertical relation. horizontal relationF 11. "Singing an English song" is an exocentric construction. endocentricconstructionT 12. Single words and clauses can both be constituents.IV. Define the following terms:1. IC analysisIC analysis. IC analysis (immediate constituent analysis) refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents ---- word groups ( or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word.2. paradigmatic relationparadigmatic relation: Saussure originally called associative, is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.3. Lexical ambiguityLexical ambiguity: It refers to ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings. For example, “I went to the bank” is lexically ambiguous in the sense that “bank” in this sentence could refer to a business establishment or a slop of landing adjoining a river.4. Grammatical ambiguityGrammatical ambiguity: Grammatical ambiguity occurs when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two different interpretations, each of which gives rise toa different meaning.5. Concord (or: Agreement)Concord (or: Agreement) could be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. For example, in English the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number as in “this man”, “these men”; “book”, “same books”.6. endocentric constructionEndocentric construction is one kind of syntactic constructions whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. An endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction, for example, in the noun phrase “all these last few days”, days is the head. And this phrase is an endocentric construction.V. Questions:1. What is the aim of IC analysis? Make an IC analysis of the following sentence bymeans of either brackets or a tree diagram.北外2010My brother said Mary liked the handbag.The aim of IC analysis is to discover and demonstrate the interrelationships of the words in a linguistic structure—the sentence or the word-combination. The IC analysis views the sentence not just as a linear sequence of elements but as sequence made up of “layers”of immediate constituents, each lower-level constituent being part of a higher-level constituent.Though IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.We can analyze the sentence like this:SNP VPVSˈNP VPN V NPDet N Det NMy mother said Mary liked the handbag. OrMy mother said Mary liked the handbag. 2. Why did Chomsky make the distinction between Deep and Surface structures?人大2006In generative grammar, deep structure is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence, the underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted. On the other hand, surface structure is the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear.According to Chomsky, it is necessary to make the distinction, since it is helpful to differentiate and analyze syntactic structures such as "John is easy to please" and"John is eager to please", and also to disambiguate structures like "the shooting of the hunters". More importantly, it reflects two of the stages of how the language is processed through the generative grammar: the deep structure, which is an underlying structure, has to be transformed to the surface structure via a set of transformational rules.3.Try to identify the possible paradigmatic relation between any items in thefollowing poem by Lu Xun (i.e. tell if there is such a relation between which and which items).岂有豪情似旧时，花开花落两由之。

Semantics Exercises 答案State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1.A grammatical sentence is also meaningful. F2.Some words are always superordinates while some others are always hyponyms.F3.Synonyms are those words that can be used interchangeably in all contexts.F4.All English words have their referents.FThe fact that we can understand the meaning of a sentence does not mean that the sentence is semantically well-formed.The hamburger ate the man.The television drank my water.His dog writes poetry.Do you find the sentences sound queer?If so, give your explanation for their oddness.(1) Do you find the sentences sound queer?Y es.(2) If yes, give your explanation for their oddness.a. The hamburger cannot eat because it is inanimate.b. The television does not drink water because it is inanimate.c. A dog does not write anything like poetry because it is not human.When applying componential analysis, we need to know that for a term void of a particular feature like [ MALE], we often use the notion [--MALE] instead of [ FEMALE].How are the following words be analyzed into semantic features? What feature is common to them ?Lamb calf piglet puppy kittenlamb [-ADULT]+[+OVINE]calf [-ADULT]+[+BOVINE]piglet [-ADULT]+[+POREINE]puppy [-ADULT]+[+CANINE]kitten [-ADULT]+[+FELINE][-ADULT] is common to all.Marked and unmarkedCan you determine the “unmarked” member in each of the following pairs?small-big cheap-expensive wide-narrownear-far many-few easy-difficultearly-late dangerous-safe full-emptyThe words that are underlined are the “unmarked” members in the pairs.small-big cheap-expensive wide-narrownear-far many-few easy-difficultearly-late dangerous-safe full-emptyCan you think of any special situations where the “marked” member is more appropriately used? For instance, when we talk about a dwarf, people will often ask how short the dwarf is. This shows that one’s expectation and social convention play important roles in using the words.•“How is bread made?”•“I know that!” Alice cried eagerly.•“Y ou take some flour—”•“Where do you pick the flower?” the White Queen asked. “In a garden, or in the hedges?”•“Well, it isn’t picked at all,” Alice explained; “it’s ground—”•“How many acres of ground?” said the White Queen.Which words are being played on in the conversation?flour-flower and ground (p.p. grind)-ground (n.)Are they cases of polysemy or homonymy?They are typical cases of homonymy.Semantic fieldEnglish are related to each other , and they form different semantic fields. Those that belong to the same semantic category, like color words, fall into the same semantic field. Here are some examples:a.vegetable: cabbage, cucumber, pepper, onion, tomato, etc.b.movement: run, walk, stroll, wander, stride, pace, etc.What are the advantages are there in the analysis of English vocabulary into semantic field?The kind of analysis helps to establish connection among words and thus facilitates memory and retrieval.Can you name a semantic field and list at least five members of it?Profession: teacher, banker, lawyer, doctor, engineer, etc.Look at the following sentences, and then answer the questions that follow:a.Lightning willingly hit the boy.b.My cat studied linguistics.c.A table was listening to some music.Q1. How would you describe the oddness of these sentences in terms of semantic features?(1) Lighting is non-human and thus cannot do anything willingly.(2) A cat is non-human and thus cannot study linguistics.(3) A table is inanimate and thus cannot listen.Q2. Semantic violations are frequent in poetry. For example, we may say “a week/hour/centuryago”, but usually do not say “a table/dream/mother ago”. However, Dylan Thomas does write “a grief ago”. How would you account for the effect of such usage?The usage adds a durational feature to grief for poetic effect.Which of the following opposites are gradable, complimentary or relational?1.absent present2. high low3. up down4. fail pass5. fair unfair6. left right gradable: high- low fair- unfairnon-gradable: absent- present fail- passreversives/converse antonyms/relational opposites: up- down left- rightStudy the following pairs of words. What is the basic lexical relation between these pairs of words?(1) shallow deep (2) mature ripe (3) suite sweet (4) table furniture(5) single married (6) move run(1) shallow deep antonymy (gradable)(2) mature ripe s ynonymy(3) suite sweet homonymy (homophones)(4) table furniture hyponymy(5) single married antonymy (non-gradable / complementary)(6) move run hyponymyFor “mature” and “ripe”, give an example where one can be u sed for collocation but not the other. For “suite” and “sweet”, give another pair with a similar semantic relation. For “move” and “run”, give more words that are in the same semantic relation to “move” as “run”.Mature/ripe: a mature player a ripe timeSuite/sweet: flour / flower past / passedMove/run: dash, hop, walk, jog, etc.The following are pairs of antonyms:Alive / dead male / female boy / girl east / west true / false hit / miss1.which pairs are complimentary opposites?alive-dead male-female boy-girl true-false hit-miss2.how do you account for the following usages or misuse?Half dead / alive * very dead / aliveMore dead than alive * A is more dead than B.“dead/alive” are complementary opposites and thus they do not ta ke degree modifiers. “half dead/alive” is a vivid though unusual way of description. It deviates from the normal usage by treating “dead/alive” as gradable. This usage has been conventionalized. “more dead than alive” is also an idiomatic usage that is mot ivated in a similar way.For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish the classes of the (a) words from the (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear(4) a. pine, elm, ash, weeping willowb. rose, dandelion, aster, tulip, daisy(5) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter(6) a. alive, asleep, dead, married, pregnantb. tall, smart, interesting, bad, tired(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ramBoth are “male”.(a) are “human”; (b)are “non-human”.(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mudBoth are “objects”.(a) are “countable”; (b) are “non-countable”.(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fearBoth are “objects”.(a) are “concrete”; (b) are “abstract”.(4) a. pine, elm, ash, weeping willowb. rose, dandelion, aster, tulip, daisyBoth are “plants”.(a) are “trees”; (b) are “flowers”.(5) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutterBoth are verbal acts.(a) are verbal acts at normal volume; (b) are verbal acts above or below normal volume.(6) a. alive, asleep, dead, married, pregnantb. tall, smart, interesting, bad, tiredBoth are adjectives.(a)are non-gradable adjectives. (b) are gradable adjectives.。

第一章词的概述Exercises answerChapter 1Ⅵ.All the words belong to the native stock.Ⅴ1. from Danish2. from French3. from German4. from Latin5. from Italian6. from Spanish7. from Arabic8. from Chinese9. from Russian10. from Greek英语参考资料Chapter 1A General Survey of a WordⅠ. Definition of a wordAristotle defined a word as the smallest significant unit of speech - a definition which held sway until recently. Modern methods of analysis have discovered semantic units below the word level. A new term is therefore needed to denote the smallest significant element of speech; in contemporary linguistic theory it is known as a morpheme.Bloomfield distinguishes between two types of linguistic forms: free forms and bound forms. Free forms can stand by themselves and sometimes act as a complete utterance whereas bound forms cannot. For example, the word nicely contains the free form nice, and the bound form -ly. The former can occur as an independent unit and even as a sentence (What about the other film? - Nice). But the suffix -ly cannot stand by itself, to say nothing of acting as a complete utterance. According to Bloomfield, a word is a minimal free form.Lexicology deals by definition with words and wordforming morphemes, that is to say, with significant units. It follows that these elements must be investigated in their form and in their meaning.Therefore, from the lexicological point of view, a word is a combination of form (phonological) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). In addition, a word acts as a structural unit of a sentence.Ⅱ. Sound and meaningThe Naturalists have argued that the origin of language lies in onomatopoeia, that people began talking by creating iconic signs to imitate the sounds heard around them in nature. They maintain that there is a natural connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. Facts have proved this argument to be valid. Words that convey the same meaning have different phonological forms in different languages - for example, English meat / mi:t /,Chinese ròu. Alternatively, the same phonological forms may convey different meanings - for example, sight, site, cite.Ⅲ. Meaning and conceptMeaning is closely related to a concept. A concept is the base of the meaning of a word. A word is used to label a concept. It acts as the symbol for that concept. The concept is abstracted from the person, thing, relationship, idea, event, and so on, that we are thinking about. We call this the referent. The word labels the concept, which is abstracted from the referent; the word denotes the referent, but does not label it. This approach to meaning can be diagrammed as follows:word - concept - referentThe formula shows that the word refers to the referent through a concept.A concept is an abstraction from things of the same kind.When someone says "chair" to you, how do you know it is a chair? It is simply because it shows certain characteristics shared by all the objects you call chairs. You have abstracted these characteristics from your experience of chairs, and from what you have learned about chairs. From this it can be deduced that a concept refers to something in general, but not something in particular. A word, however, can refer to both, as is shown in the following two sentences:...some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing.The automobile was stalled in a snowstorm.The word "automobile" in the first sentence refers to something in general whereas the word in the second sentence refers to a specific one.There are two aspects to the meaning of a word: denotation and connotation. The process by which the word refers to the referent is called"denotation". For example, the denotation of "dog" is "canine quadruped". The denotative meaning of a word usually refers to the dictionary definition of a word. As opposed to denotation, connotation refers to the emotional aspect of a word. For example, the connotation of "dog" might include "friend", "helper", "competition", etc.Ⅳ. Lexical item and vocabularyA unit of vocabulary is generally referred to as a lexical item.A complete inventory of the lexical items of a language constitutes that language's dictionary. In New Horizons in Linguistics, John Lyons points out that "Lexical items are often referred to, loosely, as words."The term vocabulary usually refers to a complete inventory of the words in a language. But it may also refer to the words and phrases used in the variants of a language, such as dialect, register, terminology, etc. The vocabulary can be divided into active vocabulary and passive vocabulary: the former refers to lexical items which a person uses; the latter to words which he understands.The English vocabulary is characterized by a mixture of native words and borrowed words. Most of the native words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. They form the basic word stock of the English language. In the native stock we find words denoting the commonest things necessary for life, natural phenomena, divisions of the year, parts of the body, animals, foodstuffs, trees, fruits, human activity and other words denoting the most indispensable things. The native stock also includes auxiliary and modal verbs, pronouns, most numerals, prepositions and conjunctions. Though small in number, these words play no small part in linguistic performance and communication.Borrowed words, usually known as loan-words, refer to linguistic forms taken over by one language or dialect from another.The English vocabulary has replenished itself by continually taking over words from other languages over the centuries. The adoption of foreign words into the English language began even before the English came to England. The Germanic people, of which the Angles and Saxons formed a part, had long before this event been in contact with the civilization of Rome. Words of Latin origin denoting objects belonging to that civilization (wine, butter, cheese, inch, mile, mint, etc.) gradually found their way into the English language.When the English were settled in England, they continued to borrow words from Latin, especially after Roman Christianity was introduced into the island in the sixth and seventh centuries. A considerable number of Latin words, chiefly signifying things connected with religion or the services of the church, were adopted into the English language. Among those which are still part of the language are bishop,candle, creed, font, mass, monk, priest and a great many others.To the Danes and Northmen the English vocabulary also owes a great deal. From these settlers, English adopted a surprising number of words of Scandinavian origin that belong to the core-vocabulary today: they (them, their), both, ill, die, egg, knife, low, skill, take, till, though, want, etc.The Norman Conquest in 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English vocabulary. French adoptions were found in almost every section of the vocabulary: law (justice, evidence, pardon...), warfare (conquer, victory, archer...), religion (grace, repent, sacrifice...), architecture (castle, pillar, tower...), finance (pay, rent, ransom...), rank (baron, master, prince...), clothing (collar, mantle, vestment...), food (dinner, feast, sauce...) and many others. As an indication of the tremendous influx of French words, we may note that, discounting proper names, there are 39 words of French origin in the first 43 lines of the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.The revival of art and literature based on ancient Greek learning, known as the Renaissance in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, opened up a new source from which the English vocabulary could be enriched. English has borrowed many words from Greek through the medium of Latin and a smaller number direct, such as rhapsody, crisis, topic, pathos, stigma, coma, tonic, cosmos, dogma. From Greek also comes a wide range of learned affixes, such as bio-, chrono-, geo-, hydro-, logo-, auto-, hemi-, hetero-, homo-, mono-, neo-, epi-, meta-, para-, -ism, -ise, -logy, -graph, -phile, -meter, -gram and many others.From the sixteenth century onward, there was a great increase in the number of languages from which English adopted words. French continued to provide a considerable number of new words, for example, trophy, vase, moustache, unique, attic, soup. The Italian element was particularly strong in the fields of art, music and literature, for example, model, sonnet, opera, vista, soprano, quartet. There was also a Spanish element in English, for example, sherry, potato, cargo, parade, cigar. German, Portuguese and Dutch were also fertile sources of loan words, for example, dock, carouse, plunder, zinc, quarts (German); flamingo, cobra, caste, buffallo, pagoda (Portuguses); booze, wainscot, tackle, buoy, skipper, dock (Dutch).At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, with a growth of international trade and the urge to colonize and dominate the unknown world, English made a number of direct adoptions from languages spoken outside Europe. Some examples are: sultan, sheikh, ghoul, roc (Arabic); boomerang, billabong, wombat, dingo (Australian); lichi, sampan, typhoon, ketchup (Chinese); shibboleth, kibbutz (Hebrew); schmozze, schmaltz (Yiddish); shah, divan, shawl, caravan (Persian); caften, yoghourt, kiosk, bosh (Turkish); bwana, safari (Swahili); hara-kiri. tycoon, kamikaze,judo (Japanese); guru, pundit, swami, pukka (Hindustani); proa, amok, raffia, sarong (Indonesian); rouble, czar, troika, commissar (Russian).Since the end of the Second World War, still more loanwords have been incorporated into the English vocabulary, for example, haute cuisine, discotheque, engagé (French), sushi (Japanese); gulag, apparatchik (Russian); mao tai (Chinese); favela (Portuguese); autostrada (Italian); autopista (Spanish); hamam (Arabic) and many others.In the present century it should be observed that English has created many words out of Latin and Greek elements, especially in the fields of science and technology, such as aerodyne, ambivert, androgen, antibiotic, astronaut, auto-visual, autolysis, barysphere, cacogenics, callipyous, chromosome, cartology, cryotron, cyclorama, dendrochronology, dromophobia, hypnotherapy, hypothermia, isotope... Because the lexical sources of Latin and Greek are treated as if they belonged to English, many neologisms combine elements from different sources: aqualung, television, microgroove, sonobuoy, etc. Although all these Latin-and Greek-derived words are distinctly learned or technical, they do not seem foreign, and are very different in this respect from the recent loanwords from living languages, such as montage, angst, cappuccino, sputnik, etc. Thus, for the Modern English period a distinction must be made between the adoptions from living languages and the formations derived from the two classical languages.第二章词的结构和词的构成方式练习答案Chapter 2Ⅲ:astir = in motion; in excited activityawhir = whirringanti-Marketeer = an opponent of Great Britain's entry into the European Common Marketanti-theatre = the theatre that lacks most of the traditional features of the theatredeplane = get out of an airplane after it landsdenationalize = deprive...of national rights or statusdisambiguate = rid...of ambiguitydisadapt = make...unable to adaptecocide = the destruction of the earth's ecology through the uncontrolled use of pollutantsecocatastrophe = a catastrophe (a large-scale disaster) resulting from the uncontrolled use of pollutantsmegajet = a jet airplane larger and faster than a jumbo jet (a jet airplane with a passenger capacity of about 500 people and a freight capacity of about 200 tons)mini-budget = temporary budgetnon-committed = not revealing one's positionnonnovel = lacking the usual characteristics of a conventional noveloutsmart = overcome by cunning or clevernessoutheadline = outshine...by making the headlinessupersecret = top-secretsupertax = an additional taxⅣ.cinerama = a form of cinema film projected on a wide-curved screencircusama = a large-scale show of acrobats, trained animals, clownsmeritocrat = a member of a ruling class in society consisting of those who are most talented or have the highest intellect Eurocrat = a staff member of the administrative commission of the European Common Marketinterviewee = a person who is interviewedconferee = a person who participates in a conferenceescapee = a person who has escapedblackmailee = a person who is blackmailedracketeer = a person who obtains money illegallyrocketeer = an expert in rocketrysecond-guesser = a person who uses hindsight in criticizing or advising someonetopsider = a top-ranking personanchormanese = a style of language or diction used by an anchorman (a newscaster who coordinates the reports broadcast from various sources; a moderator of a discussion group as on radio or television)engineerese = the sublanguage used by engineers and techniciansJohnsonese = a style of language used by Johnsoncablese = a style of language peculiar to a telegramsmoketeria = a cigarette, cigar and pipe storeroadeteria = roadside restaurantChomskian = Chomsky'sWoolfian = a style of language used by Virginia Woolfhawkish = warlikenarrowish = somewhat narrowconsumerism = an economic policy that emphasizes consumption, the theory or practice of protecting consumers' interests nuclearism = emphasis on nuclear weapons as a deterrent to war or as a means of attaining political and social goalsgolfitis = addiction to or preoccupation with golfprofessoritis = obsession with the idea of becoming a professor beatnik = one of the Beat Generation (-nik meaning a person who does or is connected with something)protestnik = a person who protests against conventions and traditional valuesdopester = a person who analyses or predicts trends as in politics or sportshuckster = a person who is engaged in advertising, esp. for radio and televisionfigurewise = in terms of figuresweatherwise = in terms of weather, skilled in predicting weatherⅤ.soap suds = suds produced by soapmosquito net = net used for protection against mosquitoesfire squad = squad which prevents the spread of a firefertility site = site which induces fertilityinfluenza virus = virus which causes influenzabattle fatigue = fatigue caused by a battlebrick mason = a person who lays brick or stoneguest conductor = corductor who appears or performs on a program by special invitationinterceptor plane = a fast-climbing military airplane used in fighting off attacks by enemy planesejector seat = a seat designed to be ejected with its occupant from an airplane in an emergency, another expression for ejection seat donor blood = donors' bloodvoter enthusiasm = voters' enthusiasmsurface vessel = vessel which moves on the surfacerecovery helicopter = helicopter used for getting back (recovering) astronauts who have splashed downinvestment money = money set apart for investmentrejection slip = a form or note from a publisher, rejecting a work submitted for possible publicationexport reject = something that has been rejected by export standardsⅥ.1. relief organization = organization of relief work2. feasibility study = a study to determine the feasibility ofa project or program3. gifts conspiracy = the act of working together secretly to use gifts as bribes4. smut hounds = censors with eyes for pornsⅦ.1. doctored = applied medicine to2. was telescoped = became shorter by crushing with one part sliding over another3. mandate a solution = work out a solution by issuing an authoritative order4. cataloguing = making a catalogue of; indexing = making an index of5. a repeat = a rebroadcast6. transplants = instances of transplanting7. the quaint = something quaint; the picturesque = something picturesque8. the condemned = the person who has been convicted9. moderns = modern painters10. heavies = big shots11. drearies = makes dreary (dull)12. broad-brushing = describing in broad outlineⅧ.donate ＜ donation helicopt ＜ helicopterautomate ＜ automation spring-clean ＜ spring-cleaningpettifog ＜ pettifogger sight-read ＜ sight-readingenthuse ＜ enthusiasm chain-react ＜ chain reactionⅨ.slurb: slum + suburb （城郊贫民区）educrat: education + bureaucrat （教育机构的官员或代表）Airveyor: air + conveyor （气压输送器）Glideriter: glide + writer （滑写笔）programmatic: program + automatic（能自动安排程序和计划的）narcoma: narcotic + coma （用麻醉剂引起的昏睡）slumlord: slum + landlord （贫民区房地产主）slurch: slink + lurch （鬼鬼祟祟地徘徊）reprography: reproduction + photography （原稿[如手稿或有版权的资料]影印本）mascon: mass + concentration （质量密集，指月球表面下层高密度物质的集中）glassphalt: glass + asphalt （作辅路用的玻璃颗粒物）peekture: peek + picture （色情影片）Ⅹ.EEC = European Economic CommunityOPEC = Organization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesSLAM = supersonic low altitude missile; strategic low altitude missileEDVAC = electronic discrete variable automatic computerGEM = ground effect machineNSC = National Security CouncilERDA = Energy Research and Development Administrationdyno = dynamicaggro = aggressivenesschute = parachutepro = professionalmemo = memorandumfridge = refrigeratornarc = narcotic agent or detectivefrag = fragmentation grenadefrat = fraternityⅪ.1. super = supermarket （自动售货商场）2. the Feds = Federal Agencies （美国各联邦机构）3. State = the State Department （美国国务院）4. Defense = the Defense Department （美国国防部）5. the Hill = Capitol Hill （指美国国会）6. the Penta = the Pentagon （美国五角大楼，指美国国防部的办公大楼，泛指美国国防部）英语参考资料Chapter 2Morphological Structure and Word-FormationⅠ. The component parts of a wordAs has been stated earlier, a morpheme is the minimal significant element. It is also the smallest unit of grammatical analysis. It can have or show a grammatical function. For example, -s shows plural in cats, locks and hopes; -ment shows noun form in movement, establishment and atonement; -ed shows past tense in walked, showed, tried.Words are composed of morphemes. Some words are formed by one morpheme, such as log, clerk, soldier, and others are formed by two ormore morphemes, such as lovely (love + -ly), unacceptable (un-, accept, -able).Ⅱ. Content morphemes, grammatical morphemes and allomorphsContent morphemes known as free morphems are those that may constitute words by themselves: cat, walk, kind, teach. Grammatical morphemes known as bound morphems are those that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free: cat + s, walk + ing, un + kind, teach + er. Sometimes words consist of two content morphems: lighthouse, housework.Grammatical morphemes may also be called affixes; affixes are segments that are added to a root. In English, this root is usually a free morpheme - for example, the word "acceptable" is formed by root accept and adjective marker -able. But in some cases this root is a bound morpheme - for example, the word "audience" consists of bound root audi- and noun marker -ence.Many morphemes have semantic meaning attached to them. Certainly all free morphemes do: dog, horse, room, house. Bound morphemes, however, may not. The plural marker -s and the past tense marker -d/-ed by themselves have no semantic meaning, they contain only grammatical meaning. The same applies to the suffixestion and -ise: -tion may be used to form a noun and -ise to form a verb.According to Stephem Ullmann, words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words: axe, glove. Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable (work + -able), doorman (door + man).A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction; it is a concept. It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographical forms. These forms are called morphs. It can be found that the same functional unit varies in form from one context to another: thus the terminal -(e)s of cats, dogs, horses has the regular meaning "more than one", yet has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, -iz/. The three forms are the variants of the same morpheme -s. They are called allomorphs.Ⅲ. Methods of word-formation1. AffixationThe process by which words are formed by adding affixes to a root is called affixation. English affixes can be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes that come before the root are called prefixes; those that come after the root are called suffixes. Most prefixes, when added to words, effect a change in meaning, but without converting oneword-class to another (natural - unnatural, like - dislike). Some prefixeshave the effect of converting one word-class to another (force - enforce, rich - enrich). Some suffixes, when added to words, can transform one word-class into another (laugh - laughable, willing - willingness); others merely modify without converting (cartoon - cartoonist, stat - starlet).Some of the most important productive prefixes are; anti- (anti-war, anti-European, anti-hero, anti-novel); de- (deplane, detrain, debug, deemphasize); dis- (disincentive, disbenefit, disinflation, disambiguate); mini- (miniskirt. miniboom); non- (nonaddict, nonnovel); out- (outsmart, outheadline); pre- (predigest, prenatal); re- (rethink, repaper); un- (unconventional, unrich, unperson, unbook).Some of the most productive suffixes are: -able (available, favourable); -age (breakage, shrinkage); -crat (technocrat, Eurocrat); -ee (interviewee, evacuee, retiree, escapee); -eer (racketeer, profiteer); -er (footballer, preschooler, second-guesser, marathoner); -ese (Johnsonese, Carlylese, engineerese, anchormanese); -ian (Dickensian, Chomskian); -ish (dovish, hawkish); -ism (computerism, consumerism); -ize (finalize, denuclearize), -itis (golfitis, jazzitis); -nik (beatnik, protestnik); -wise (weatherwise, figurewise); -y (tasty, splashy, goosey, brainy).2. ConversionConversion means using a form that represents one part of speech as another part of speech without changing the form of the word. In effect, a zero affix is added: for example, someone who knows he can say "The lights gleam in the night", uses "gleam" as a noun as in a sentence like "I can see the gleam in the night." A similar process may create verbs out of adjectives: "I made thy desk clean" - "I cleaned the desk" and nouns out of verbs:" I looked out of the window" - "I took a look out of the window." The process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zeroderivation.3. Compounding (Composition)Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. Words formed by compounding are called compounds. Compounds must be carefully distinguished from free phrases. The former typically have a single stress (a 'greenhouse) whereas the latter have a two-stress pattern of a normal syntactic group (a 'green 'house). A compound occurs as an inseparable semantic unit that differs in meaning from a free phrase. A greenhouse means "a building made of glass, in which the temperature and humidity can be regulated for the cultivation of delicate or out-of-season plants". and the colour of the greenhouse is not necessarily green. A compound does not allow modification of the first element as a free phrase does (a very green house). In other words, no adverb can be used to modify the first element of a compound. The first element of a compound is not allowed tobe turned into an adjective in the comparative degree, but this rule does not apply to a free phrase (a greener house).4. Back-formationBack-formation is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is also known as a reverse derivation. This means that a derived form has preceded the word from which (formally speaking) it is derived. Thus editor entered the language before edit, automation before automate, enthusiasm before enthuse.5. Abbreviation (Shortening)A. Clipped wordsClipped words are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. The shortening may occur at the beginning of the word (telephone → phone, helicopter → copter); at the end of the word (modern → mod, professional → pro); at both ends of the word (detective → tec, refrigerator → fridge). The clippe d form is normally regarded as informal.B. InitialismsInitialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters: IMF / 'ai em 'ef / = International Monetary Fund; IOC / 'ai au 'si: / = International Olympic Committee; C.O.D. / 'si: au 'di: / = cash on delivery.C. AcronymsAcronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words: NATO / 'neitau / = North Atlantic Treaty Organization; SALT / so:lt / = Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.6. BlendingAnother source of word formation which creates a word by combining parts of other words is called blending: smog, brunch, twirl, smaze, chortle, sprig. Each of these is made up of the first part of one word and the second part of another: smoke + fog = smog; breakfast + lunch = brunch; twist + whirl = twirl; smoke + haze = smaze; chuckle + snort = chortle. Words formed by blending are known as blends or portmanteaus.Blends are popularly supposed to have originated with Lewis Carroll, but the word "gingerly" goes all the way back to "ginger" crossed with Middle English "genitor", akin to "gentle" and "genteel". Blends originally occurred as humourous coinages. But with the passage of time, blending has become one of the important processes of word-formation and provided a considerable number of new words for contemporary English: carbecue (car + barbecue); plugola (plug + payola); memcon (memorandum + conversation); comsat (communications + satellite); mascon (mass + concentration); helicox (helium + oxygen); stagflation, (stagnation + inflation); reprography (reproduction + photography) and many others.。

Chapter 4 Syntax（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（蓝色为名词的修饰语，褐色为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （褐色为深层结构，蓝色为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.以下不用彩色而用斜体和划底线表示区别：Chapter 4 Syntax《教程》p.64（部分练习要求画树形图，这里只作初步的替代性的成分划分，仅供参考）1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Adv Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Infl V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleXP(AP) →specifier ( ) Deg.+head (full) A + complement (of people) PPb) a story about a sentimental girlXP(NP) →specifier (a) Det+head (story) N +complement (about a sentimental girl) PPc) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual+head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPd) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det+head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPe) move towards the windowXP(VP) →specifier ( ) Qual+head (move) V +complement ( ) NP+modifier (towards thewindow) PP XP(NP) →specifier ( ) Det+head (move) N +complement (towards the window) PP3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.S →NP (The jet)+VP (landed)b) Marie became very ill.S →NP (Marie)+VP (became very ill)c) What will you talk about?S →NP (you)+ Infl(will)+VP (talk about what)Move Infl to the left of the subject NP.Move the wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.d) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple)+ Infl(might)+VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He)+VP (often reads detective stories)4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.d) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.d) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.e) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.（此句有两个层面的嵌入从句）c) Gerry can't believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.e) The children argued over whether bats had wings.7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.b) The dog that he keeps bites.c) Herbert found the man she loved.d) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?You would come tomorrow.b) Can you pass me the newspaper?You can pass me the newspaper.c) Should the student report the incident?The student should report the incident.d) What did you eat for lunch?You eat what for lunch.e) Who should this be reported to?This should be reported to whom.f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Helen was bringing what to the party.。

Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in usinglanguage, i.e. to tell people what they should day and what they should not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is saidto be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning.There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Dobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce andunderstand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and socialfactors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [❖]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English.Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by the boldtype:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents Surface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produceand receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has onlya linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence,seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents.But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences inparticular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context. Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context. Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g.[+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same,one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed.The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinatesense and reference.Illocutuonary act:the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle theCooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows: "make yourconversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable tothe listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why andhow he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CooperativePrinciple (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin” is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door” is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’will be cancelled.11。

UNIT11.Which of the following is a main branch of linguistics?A.PsycholinguisticB.SociolinguisticsC.Macrolinguistics正确答案C，得2分2.(单选题，2 分)()refers to the system of a language, i. e. the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of a language have a shared knowledge of.municative competenceB.Linguistic potentialnguepetence正确答案C3.(单选题，2 分)The function of the sentence "Water boils at 100 degree Centigrade” is ().A.interrogativeB.performativeC.directivermative正确答案D，得2分4.(单选题，2 分)By()we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.A.displacementB.dualityC.arbitrarinessD.creativity正确答案D，得2分5.(单选题，2 分)When language is used to get information from others. it serves an()function.A.interrogativeB.expressiveC.evocativermative正确答案D6.(单选题，2 分)The functions of language do NOT include ().A.metacognitive functionrmative functionC.phatic functionD.interpersonal function正确答案A，得2分7.(单选题，2 分)Saussure took a(n) ()view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ()point of view.A.semantic. linguisticB.psychological. sociologicalC.sociological.. psychologicalD.applied. pragmatic正确答案C，得2分8.(单选题，2 分)The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called().A.performancenguage devicepetenceD.grammar rules正确答案A，9.(单选题，2 分)Saussure is closely connected with().nguepetenceC.paroleD.performance正确答案C，得2分10.(单选题，2 分)"A refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2, 000 years ago. " This shows that language has the design feature of().A.creativityB.arbitrarinessC.displacementD.duality正确答案C，得2分11.(单选题，2 分)According to F. de Saussure()refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.nguageB.performancengueD.parole正确答案C，得2分12.(单选题，2 分)The study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech is closely connected with().A.auditory phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.acoustic phonetics教师批阅正确答案C，得2分13.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature?A.ArbitrarinessB.ConventionC.DualityD.Culture transmission正确答案B，我的答案：D得0分14.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.bangB.crashC.treeD.typewriter正确答案C，我的答案：A得0分15.(单选题，2 分)The study of language at one point in time is a()study.A.descriptiveB.diachronicC.synchronicD.historical正确答案C，得2分16.(单选题，2 分)Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson 's framework of language functions?A.The emotive function is to convey message and information.B.The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meaning.C.The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.D.The phatic function is to establish communion with others.正确答案D，我的答案：C得0分17.(填空题，2 分)____grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while____grammars tell people what should be in the language. Most contemporary linguists believe that whatever occurs naturally in the language should be described.正确答案：(1) Descriptive(2) prescriptive18.(填空题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called____features.正确答案：(1) design19.(填空题，2 分)The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of____ ____relation.正确答案：(1) convention20.(填空题，2 分)____ can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.正确答案：(1) Pragmatics21.(填空题，2 分)Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as____ and.The former refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing.正确答案：(1) langue, parole22.(填空题，2 分)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and ____ of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is this feature of language that is more with noticing than its arbitrariness.正确答案：(1) conventionality23.(填空题，2 分)Chomsky initiated the distinction between ____and performance.正确答案：(1) competence24.(填空题，2 分)Syntagmatic relation in fact is a____ relation.正确答案：(1) positional25.(填空题，2 分)Linguistics is usually defined as the____ study of language.正确答案：(1) scientific26.(填空题，2 分)Our language can be used to talk about itself. This is the____ function of language.正确答案：(1) metalingual27.(填空题，2 分)By____ is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.正确答案：(1) duality28.(填空题，2 分)Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ____ theory.正确答案：(1) yo-he-ho29.(填空题，2 分)Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the ____ it is associated with.正确答案：(1) meaning30.(填空题，2 分)Semantics and ____ investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning.正确答案：(1) pragmatics31.(填空题，2 分)The relation between them is____.正确答案：(1) arbitrary32.(填空题，2 分)By____, we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.正确答案：(1) creativity33.(填空题，2 分)In linguistics, ____ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence.正确答案：(1) syntax34.(填空题，2 分)Modern linguistic is ____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.正确答案：(1) descriptive35.(填空题，2 分)____ mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.正确答案：(1) phonetics36.(填空题，2 分)One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ____ and performance.正确答案：(1) competence37.(填空题，2 分)The most important function of language is ____function.正确答案：(1) informative38.(填空题，2 分)____ refers to the role language plays in communication(e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations(e. g. Religious, legal).正确答案：(1) Function39.(填空题，2 分)When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather thanexchanging information or ideas, its function is ____function.正确答案：(1) phatic40.(填空题，2 分)The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community is____.正确答案：(1) langue41.(判断题，2 分)It is conclusive that Chinese is regarded as the primeval language.正确答案错，得2分42.(判断题，2 分)Historical linguistics equals to the study of synchronic study正确答案错，得2分43.(判断题，2 分)Onomatopoeic words can show the arbitrary nature of language.正确答案错，得2分44.(判断题，2 分)Wherever humans exist,language exists.正确答案错，得2分45.(判断题，2 分)The bow- wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.正确答案对，得2分46.(判断题，2 分)According to Saussure, the relation between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary.正确答案对，得2分47.(判断题，2 分)When language is used to get information from other,it serves an informative function.正确答案错，得2分48.(判断题，2 分)Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.正确答案错，得2分49.(判断题，2 分)The features that define our human languages can be called DESIGN FEATURES.正确答案对，得2分50.(判断题，2 分)Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meaning.对UNIT21.(单选题，1 分)The vowel()is a low back vowel.A./i:/B./e/C./u/D./a:/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A.[w]B.[f]C.[z]D.[v]教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is true of an allophone?A.An allophone changes the meaning of the word.B.There is no possibility of an allophone becoming a phoneme.C.A phone can be the allophone of all English vowel phonemes.D.There are no restrictions on the distribution of an allophone.教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following CANNOT be considered as minimal par?A./s / /T/B./ai/ /Oi/C./s/ /z/D./p/ /b/教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分5.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A.voiced labiodental fricativeB.voiced labiodental stopC.voiceless labiodental fricativeD.voiceless labiodental stop教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)The consonant /s / in the word “smile” can be described as:().A.Voiceless oral alveolar fricativeB.voiced oral bilabial fricativeC.voiceless nasal bilabial liquidD.voiced oral alveolar plosive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence.A.residentB.restartC.resolutionD.resignation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分8.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhoneB.PhonemeC.MorphemeD.Syllable教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)An aspirated P and an unaspirated p are()of the p phoneme.A.analoguesB.allophonesC.tagmemesD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.A.RhymeB.StressC.ToneD.Coda教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB.articulatory phoneticsC.None of themD.auditory phonetics教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of word from another in a givenlanguage is a().A.phonemeB.allophoneC.phoneD.word教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分13.(单选题，1 分)()is one of the suprasegmental features.A.stopB.toneC.voicingD.deletion教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)Which one is different from others according to places of articulatory?A.[p]B.[m]C.[b]D.[n]教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Classification of English speech sounds in terms of manner of articulation involves the following EXCEPT(). DA.affricatesB.bilabialC. lateralD.fricative教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Of the consonants/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /m/ /z/and /g/, which has the features of voiceless and velar?A./p/B./t/C./g/D./k/教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分17.(单选题，1 分)Of the three cavities, ()is the most variable and active in amplifying and modifying speech sounds.A.none of themB.oral cavityC. pharynx cavityD.nasal cavity教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A.Glottal stopB.VoicedC.ConsonantD.Voiceless教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in()and vocabulary.A.grammarB.structureC.pronunciationage教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)Which of the allowing is not a minimal pair?A./keit/ /feit/B./sai / sei/C./li:f/ /fi:l/D./sip/ /zip/教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(填空题，2.5 分)Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel. And as a result are most conveniently described in terms of____and manner of articulation.正确答案：(1) place22.(填空题，2.5 分)The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____allophones教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) allophones23.(填空题，2.5 分)____are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.正确答案：(1) Consonants24.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /k/ can be described with "voiceless,____,stop”.教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) velar25.(填空题，2.5 分)According to ____, when there is choice as to where to place consonant put into the onset rather than the coda.(1) the Maximal Onset Principle26.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /b/can be described with" ____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiced27.(填空题，2.5 分)____transcription should transcribe all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades. Narrow28.(填空题，2.5 分)Most speech sounds are made by movements of the tongue and the lips, and these movements are called ____, as compared to those made by hands. These movements of the tongue and lips are made____ _so that they can be heard and recognized.正确答案：(1) gestures(2) audibles29.(填空题，2.5 分)Stress refers to the degree of ____used in producing syllable.force教师批阅得2.5 分正确答案：(1) force30.(填空题，2.5 分)In phonological analysis the words fail -veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes/f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating____minimal pairs教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) minimal pair31.(填空题，2.5 分)The syllable structure in Chinese is ____or____or ____正确答案：(1) CVC(2) CV(3) V32.(填空题，2.5 分)Voicing refers to the ____of the vocal folds.(1) vibration33.(填空题，2.5 分)____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.正确答案：(1) Assimilation34.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, the two words cut and gut differ only in their initial sounds and the two sounds are two different ____and the two words are a____pair.正确答案：(1) phonemes(2) minimal35.(填空题，2.5 分)In ____assimilation, a following sound is influencing a preceding sound.正确答案：(1) regressive36.(填空题，2.5 分)The sound /p/can be described with____, bilabial,stop”.正确答案：(1) voiceless37.(填空题，2.5 分)In English, consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow many consonant combinations, which is explained by the work of____.正确答案：(1) sonority scale38.(填空题，2.5 分)Phonetic similarity means that the____of phoneme must bear some phonetic resemblance.正确答案：(1) allophones39.(填空题，2.5 分)In English there are a number of ____which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.正确答案：(1) diphthongs40.(填空题，2.5 分)The present system of the____derives mainly from one developed in the 1920s by the British phonetician, Daniel Jones (1881-1967) and his colleagues at University of London.正确答案：(1) cardinal vowels41.(判断题，1 分)There are two nasal consonants in English.正确答案错，得1 分42.(判断题，1 分)In English, we can have the syllable structure of CCCVCCCC.正确答案对，得1 分43.(判断题，1 分)In the sound writing system, the reference of the grapheme is the phoneme.正确答案对，得0 分44.(判断题，1 分)Phonology studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received.正确答案错，得1 分45.(判断题，1 分)The “Minimal Pair” test that can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences in meaning do not work well for all languages.正确答案对，得1 分46.(判断题，1 分)The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modifications to acquire the quality of a speech sound.正确答案对，得1 分47.(判断题，1 分)Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.正确答案对，得0 分48.(判断题，1 分)Sound [p] in the word"spit "is an unaspirated stop.正确答案对，得1 分49.(判断题，1 分)Speech sounds are those sounds made by human beings that have become units in the language system. We can analyze speech sounds from various perspectives.正确答案对，得1 分50.(判断题，1 分)Tones in tone language are not always fixed. For example, tones in Chinese never change.正确答案错，得1 分51.(判断题，1 分)The International Phonetic Alphabet uses narrow transcription.正确答案对，得0 分52.(判断题，1 分)All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.正确答案对，得1 分The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.正确答案错，得1 分54.(判断题，1 分)Broad Transcription is intended to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades.正确答案错，得1 分55.(判断题，1 分)It is sounds by which we make communicative meaning.正确答案错，得0 分56.(判断题，1 分)All the suffixes may change the position of the stress.正确答案错，得1 分57.(判断题，1 分)The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.正确答案错，得0 分58.(判断题，1 分)The speech sounds which are in complementary distribution are definitely allophones of the same phoneme.正确答案错，得1 分59.(判断题，1 分)Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.正确答案错，得1 分60.(判断题，1 分)A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and the CODA.正确答案错，得1 分61.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "top can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得1 分62.(判断题，1 分)All syllables contain three parts: onset, nucleus and coda.正确答案错，得1 分63.(判断题，1 分)Larynx is what we sometimes call “Adam’s apple”.正确答案错，得1 分64.(判断题，1 分)Chinese is a tone language.正确答案对，得1 分65.(判断题，1 分)A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.正确答案对，得1 分When preceding /p/, the negative prefix “in-” always changes to “im-” .正确答案对，得1 分67.(判断题，1 分)The last sound of "sit"can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are not in complementary distribution.正确答案对，得0 分68.(判断题，1 分)The initial sound of"peak "is aspirated while the second sound of"speak"is unaspirated. They are in free variation.正确答案错，得1 分69.(判断题，1 分)[p] is voiced bilabial stop.正确答案错，得1 分70.(判断题，1 分)Pure vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.正确答案错，得0 分UNIT31.(单选题，1 分)“-s” in the word “books” is ().A.a stemB.an inflectional affixC.a derivational affixD.a root教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分2.(单选题，1 分)other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes.A.Poly-morphemic wordsB.Free morphemesC.Bound morphemes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分3.(单选题，1 分)Of the following sound combinations, only() is permissible according to the sequential rules in English.A.ilmbB.miblC.ilbmD.bmil教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分4.(单选题，1 分)Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: table-- tables, day+ break-- daybreak?A.inflection and derivationpound and derivationC.derivation and inflectionD.inflection and compound教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分5.(单选题，1 分)()is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.morphologyB.morphemeC.grammarD.syntax教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分6.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following words are formed by blending?A.televisionB.bunchC.girlfriendD.smog教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分7.(单选题，1 分)The word UN is formed in the way of().A.acronymB.clippingC.InitialismD.blending教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：A 得0 分8.(单选题，1 分)Language has been changing, but such changes are not so obvious at all linguistic aspects except that of().A.phonologyB.lexiconC.semanticsD.syntax教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分9.(单选题，1 分)There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is knownas a(n) ().A.derivational affixesB.free formC.free morphemeD.inflectional affixes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分10.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is not a boundary to morpheme? ()A.-putB.-mitC.-tainD.-ceive教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分11.(单选题，1 分)()modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A.AffixesB.PrefixesC.SuffixesD.Roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分12.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.free morphemeB.affixesC.bound momsD.roots教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：D 得0 分13.(单选题，1 分)Wife", which used to refer to any woman, stands for a married woman" in modem English. This phenomenon is known as().A.semantic narrowingB.semantic broadeningC.semantic shiftD.semantic elevation教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分14.(单选题，1 分)() are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way in English.A.derivational affixesB.inflectional affixesC.stemsD.free morpheme教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分15.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is under the category of “open class”? ()A.ConjunctionsB.NounsC.PreparationD.determinants教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分16.(单选题，1 分)Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as().A.lexical wordsB.invariable wordsC.grammatical wordsD.function words教师批阅正确答案A，我的答案：C 得0 分17.(单选题，1 分)The word “selfish” contains two().A.morphsB.phonemesC.allomorphsD.morphemes教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分18.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stems?()A.coinageB.inflectionpoundD.derivation教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分19.(单选题，1 分)Which of the following is an inflectional suffix?()A.-aryB.-ifyC.-istD.-ing正确答案D，得1 分20.(单选题，1 分)() is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A.MorphemeB.SyntaxC.MorphologyD.Grammar教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分21.(单选题，1 分)()is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.A.MorphemeB.RootC.WordD.Allomorph教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分22.(单选题，1 分)The number of morphemes in the word “girls” is().A.fourB.twoC.oneD.three教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分23.(单选题，1 分)() at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.A.prefixesB.suffixesC.free morphemesD.roots教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分24.(单选题，1 分)Compound words consist of()morphemes.A.freeB.either bound or freeC.boundD.both bound and free正确答案A，得1 分25.(单选题，1 分)Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the() while the latter does not.A.speech soundB.formC.MeaningD.word class教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分26.(单选题，1 分)A prefix is an affix which appears().A.in the middle of the stemB.below the stemC.before the stemD.after the stem教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分27.(单选题，1 分)() is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.A.AffixB.SuffixC.StemD.Prefix教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分28.(单选题，1 分)The words that contain only one morpheme are called().A.bound morphemeB.free morphemeC.rootsD.Affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：C 得0 分29.(单选题，1 分)The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is().A.morphemicB.prefixesC.semanticD.grammatical教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分30.(单选题，1 分)()refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person, or number.A.DerivationB.InflectionC.affixationD.Conjunction教师批阅正确答案B，得1 分31.(单选题，1 分)Those that affect the syntactic category and the meaning of the root as well are ().A.prefixesB.suffixesC.stemsD.affixes教师批阅正确答案B，我的答案：D 得0 分32.(单选题，1 分)() is the smallest meaningful unit of language.A.PhonemeB.WordC.AllomorphD.Morpheme教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分33.(单选题，1 分)The number of the closed-class words is() and no new members are regularly added.A.fixedrgeC.smallD.limitless教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分34.(单选题，1 分)Words like pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles are()items.A.open-classB.variable wordsC.closed-classD.lexical words教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分35.(单选题，1 分)Bound morphemes do not include().A.wordsB.rootsD.suffixes教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分36.(单选题，1 分)Inflectional morphemes manifest the following meaning EXCEPT().A.caseB.numberC.toneD.tense教师批阅正确答案C，我的答案：D 得0 分37.(单选题，1 分)It is true that words may shift in meaning, i.e. semantic change. The semantic change of the word tail belongs to().A.widening of meaningB.meaning shiftC.narrowing of meaningD.loss of meaning教师批阅正确答案A，得1 分38.(单选题，1 分)The word “hospitalize” is an example of() in terms of word formation.poundB.inflectionC.clippingD.derivation教师批阅正确答案D，得1 分39.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “vision” in the word “television” is a /an().A.inflectional morphemeB.bound formC.free morphemeD.bound morphine教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分40.(单选题，1 分)The compound word "bookstore"is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound().A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD.None of the above正确答案D，得1 分41.(单选题，1 分)The morpheme “ vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)().A.bound formB.bound morphemeC.free morphemeD.inflectional morpheme教师批阅正确答案C，得1 分42.(填空题，1 分)____is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form.正确答案：(1) Word43.(填空题，1 分)Words can be classified into variable words and invariable words. As for variable words, they may have ____changes. That is, the same word my have different grammatical forms but part of the word remainsrelatively constant.inflective教师批阅得1 分正确答案：(1) inflective44.(填空题，1 分)Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ____and ____ root.正确答案：(1) affix(2) bound45.(填空题，1 分)A word formed by derivation is called a____and a word formed by compounding is called a____.正确答案：(1) derivative(2) compound46.(填空题，1 分)According to Leonard Bloomfield, word should be treated as the minimum ____.morpheme教师批阅得0 分正确答案：(1) conjunction47.(填空题，1 分)Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by。

Chapter 5 Semantics⏹Semantics----the study of language meaning.⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studiesmeaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis ofconventional meanings in words and sentences out of context.⏹Meaning is central to the study of communication.⏹Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist)⏹ 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part ofwhat language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.⏹ 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embracesthe properties of the referent, peripheral⏹ 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of alinguistic expression⏹ 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writertowards what is referred to⏹ 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ⏹Taboos⏹ 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words whichtend to co-occur with it⏹(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific )7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order⏹What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.Some views concerning the study of meaning⏹Naming theory (Plato)⏹The conceptualist view⏹Contextualism (Bloomfield)⏹BehaviorismNaming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things.The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things⏹Limitations:1) Applicable to nouns only.2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…The conceptualist view⏹The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.⏹⏹The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;⏹Thought or reference refers to concept.⏹The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.⏹Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:⏹Situational context: spatiotemporal situation⏹Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s c o-occurrence or collocation.⏹For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.calls forth in the hearer⏹Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.⏹The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________RLexical meaning⏹Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.⏹Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.⏹Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between thelinguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects of meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world. But the referentialtheory fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.⏹Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix,unicorn, and mermaid.⏹It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.⏹Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle although there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental representation, the association withsomething in t he speaker’s or hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the representational approach.Note:⏹Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star, rising sun in the morning and the sunset at dusk.Major sense relations⏹Synonymy, Antonymy, Polysemy, Homonymy, HyponymySynonymy⏹Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline，lift/elevator, flat/apartment…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence; gentleman/guy…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator- accomplice, attract/seduce4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound,…◆Synonyms are frequently used in speaking and writing as a cohesive device. In order to avoidrepetition the writer/speaker needs to use a synonym to replace a word in the previous co-text whenhe/she wants to continue to address that idea. The synonyms together function to create cohesion ofthe text.Antonymy◆Antonyms are words which are opposite in meaning.⏹Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …⏹Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Relational/ Reversal opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, … Gradable antonyms⏹Gradable antonyms ----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …Complementary antonyms⏹Complementary antonyms ----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …⏹Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based onantonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to fuzziness.Polysemy⏹Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:⏹A piece of furniture⏹All the people seated at a table⏹The food that is put on a table⏹A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.⏹Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.Homonymy⏹Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.⏹Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …⏹Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …⏹Complete/full homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …⏹Note: Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.⏹A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word (the etymology of the word); while complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.Hyponymy⏹Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.⏹Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.⏹Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.⏹Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.Hyponymy⏹Superordinate: flower⏹Hyponyms: rose, tulip, li ly, chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …⏹Superordinate: furniture⏹Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …⏹This kind of vertical semantic relation links words in a hierarchical work.Sense relations between sentences⏹(1) X is synonymous with Y⏹(2) X is inconsistent with Y⏹(3) X entails Y⏹(4) X presupposes Y⏹(5) X is a contradiction⏹(6) X is semantically anomalousX is synonymous with Y⏹X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never got married all his life.⏹X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.⏹If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.X is inconsistent with Y⏹X: He is single.⏹Y: He has a wife.⏹X: This is my first visit to Beijing.⏹Y: I have been to Beijing twice.⏹If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.X entails Y⏹X: John married a blond heiress.⏹Y: John married a blond.⏹X: Marry has been to Beijing.⏹Y: Marry has been to China.⏹Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.⏹If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y⏹X: His bike needs repairing.⏹Y: He has a bike.⏹Paul has given up smoking.⏹Paul once smoked.⏹If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.X is a contradiction⏹*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.⏹*The orphan’s parents are pretty well-off.X is semantically anomalous⏹*The man is pregnant.⏹*The table has bad intentions.⏹*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.⏹Analysis of meaning :⏹Componential analysis⏹Predication analysis⏹Componential analysis⏹Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,⏹Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]⏹Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⏹Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENT⏹Daughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENTPredication analysis⏹1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man”is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.⏹2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g.⏹*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.⏹*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.⏹Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.⏹Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).⏹Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.⏹An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence. ⏹A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.⏹According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:⏹One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …⏹Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat,…⏹Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …⏹No-place predication: It is hot.Predication analysis⏹Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE)⏹The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)⏹The kids like apples.→ KIDS (LIKE) APPLE⏹I sent him a letter.→ I (SEND) HIM LETTERSupplementary Exercises to Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD.behaviourism23. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.24. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “ You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world ofexperience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresIV. Define the following terms:31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis43.grammatical meaning 44. predication45. Argument 46. predicate47. Two-place predicationV. Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?Suggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the following terms:31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.33. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience34. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.37. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones38. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.44. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.45. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.Answer the following questions:48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example;(A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog.If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.Componential analysis, proposed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man” is ana lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE]50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values?Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y:X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows:Suppose there are two sentences X and YX: John' s bike needs repairing.Y: John has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike.If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Ye.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never married all his life.Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Ye.g. X: John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups.i. Dialectal synonymsThey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples:British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorThen dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.ii. Stylistic synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still others are neutral in style. For example:old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentchap, pal, friend, companioniii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningThey are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For example, “collaborator”and “accomplice”are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in doing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.iv. Collocational synonymsThey are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different prepositions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonymsSemantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. "53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ?One of the oldest was the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context.For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined according to the context in which the sentence occurs:The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.(seal meaning an aquatic mammal)The seal could not be found. The king became worried.(seal meaning the king's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".。

Chapter 1Introduction 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguisticsign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look likea dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e.performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct fromthe knowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguisticfeatures.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere ormaintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to theirsocial function in communication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internalrelations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are usedat a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.2. No, language is human-specific. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connectionbet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu”in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language 1. Define each of the following terms briefly.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocaltract to produce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phoneticallysimilar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a [+nasal] consonant.(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of partof the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction.Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythmto the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identified as being distinctivein a particular language.(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds oflanguage.(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from thelungs passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstreamfrom the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described asvoiceless sounds.(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without significant constriction of theair flowing through the oral cavity.2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds representdifferent phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, fine/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable. (2) Syllable representations of the words:collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]Chapter 3Morphology 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning orserves a grammatical function.(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance onthe level of parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es,and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words ormorphemes in morphology and word formation.(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllablehave been cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.(9) acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series ofwords and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the first letters of aseries of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism.(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separateforms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example,brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complexword, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.(13) stem: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish.(14) prefix: Affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, inwhich case they are called prefixes.(15) suffix: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which casethey are called suffixes.2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: fly tree suite(2) bound morpheme rootfly / flyreuse re- usespiteful -ful spitepreplan pre- plandesks -s desktriumphed -ed triumphsuite / suiteoptionality -ality optionuntie un- tiedelight de- lightfastest -est fastprettier -ier prettytree / treejustly -ly justdeform de- formmistreat mis- treatdislike dis- likepayment -ment paydisobey dis- obeypremature pre- mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modification)Column II: suppletionColumn III: stress modification(2) The process in the Column I is finished by changing the vowel of each word,while in Column II, the process is finished by changing vowel and consonant of each word.(3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/aroseblow/blew bite/bit hide/hidlie/lay know/knew foot/feetgoose/geese tooth/teeth louse/liceColumn II: bad/worse are/were many/moreColumn III: ‘combine/com’bine ‘compress/com’press7‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern5. (1) Omitted.(2) Other examples:‘rerun (n.) – re’run (v.) ‘contrast (n.) – con’trast (v.)‘convert (n.) – con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) – de’sert (v.)‘export (n.) – ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) – in’crease (v.)‘conduct (n.) – con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) – ob’ject (v.)‘content (n.) – con’tent (v.) ‘protest (n.) – pro’test (v.)‘insult (n.) – in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) – pro’duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on the first syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.(2) It means “the person who does”.(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er –– n.”, and thelast phoneme of the noun, which the suffix -er is added to, should be aconsonant.(4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phoneme of discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) inflection (2) derivation (3) inflection (4) inflection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the studyof sentence structure.(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which aregrouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms, etc.(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set ofrules for the 8“proper”use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with whichlinguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediateconstituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimateconstituents. For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car”are the man and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car”at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study thedistribution of linguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”.(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The first division or units are known as immediate constituents.(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The final division or units are known as ultimate constituents.(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzessentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to define anddescribe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences(without ungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure toour experience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social rolesand interacting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used. 2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, weusually use “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise” for “suggest”(4) The word “request”is a transitive verb which should take an object directly,so the word “for” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donatesomebody something”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write”is usually a human; an “article”cannot writeitself. In this case the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reflexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, andit should be replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so theexpression “…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, and it can bereplaced by “surprise somebody (with something)”or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t takean object. The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb aresemantically limited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep3 people”.4. It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve asthe subject, while “she”is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object.The sentence should be “We visit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you”and “it” have the same form whether used as the subject or object.5. (1) NP: A Guns “N”Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, a full-fledged riot,A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena near ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, the front of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis, in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: staged a full-fledged riot, asked venue security, confiscate a camera.(2) N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl 10Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage, start, ask, confiscate, see.6. (1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split infinitives7. (i)(ii)8. (1) a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife,too. b. I love my wife as well as Terry loveshis wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go. b. She would go yesterdayas they said.(3) a. The governor is a street fighter who is dirty.b. The governor is a fighterin a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big. b. The designhas big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circlesare not mentioned.)Chapter 5Semantics 1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning ofthe sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentenceis true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowingthe part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containingit.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refersto, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is definedas observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning ofan expression is determined by its use in communication and moregenerally, in social interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with thecontext, determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense ofa noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows oneto determine that George W. Bush is the referent.(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and thethings, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in Englishis the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree”(referent) in the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed interms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitivemeaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he”in English is any male personor male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word ora combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purelyconceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” isemotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressionsinto a system which shows their relationship to one another. For example,kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belongto a semantic field whose relevant features include generation, sex,membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic fieldof a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister,son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male”and “female”cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaningwhich analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semanticfeatures. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shownas [+human][+male][-adult].(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaningof word may be described as a combination of semantic components orfeatures. For example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature [+adult], but other features are needed tomake up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features areestablished by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and [-], e.g. womanhas the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where amore particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not onlysections of the body but defined in terms of specific functions. For example,the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs,i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involvedin the situation described or represented by the clause, forexample as agent, patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truthof one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Cordayassassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the first is true, the second mustbe true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the financial institution which people can keep their money inor borrow from.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morphemeand are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broaderin meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthesame field.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace,house homonyms: ear.7. In a semantic field, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status.The less marked members of the same semantic field (1) are usuallyeasier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consistof only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member of the same field; (4) tendto be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaningthan more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usageof the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.Chapter 6Pragmatics 1.Define the following terms briefly.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities andsituations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place(here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events, and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to anotherword or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to makean utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has beendeveloped by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “dothings”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location)and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher PaulGrice whereby those involved in communication assume that bothparties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutorsas a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achievevarious purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintainingharmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requiresspeakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.。