英语国家名词解释

⾃考英语国家概况名词解释英语国家概况名词解释1 The British Empire ⼤英帝国About a hundred years ago, as result of its imperialist expansion, Britain ruled and empire that had one fourth of the world’s people and one fourth of the world’s land area. The two world wars greatly weakened Britain. The British Empire gradually disappeared and it was replaced by the British Commonwealth or the Commonwealth of Nation in 1931.2.Stonehenge-It is a group of huge monuments of grant rock Slabs on salisbury plain in Southwest England built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is generally believed that stonehenge served some sort of religious purposes. The Celts----The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. The first wave were the Gales, the second wave were the Brythons and the Belgae came about 150BC. The Celts were practised farmers. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, And their languages are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic. They religion was Druidism.3.The British Commonwealth 英联邦The British Empire was replaced by the British Commonwealth or the Commonwealth of Nations in 1931.It is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special powers. The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each member nation. At present there are 50 members counties whit in the commonwealth (1991). 是曾为英国殖民地，但现在已经独⽴构成的⾃由联合体。

1.The British Isles: The British Isles are made up of two large islands and hundredsof small ones. The two large islands are Great Britain and Ireland.2.The Commonwealth ( or the British Commonwealth): It is a free association ofindependent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It has no special powers.The decision is left to each nation. At present there are 50 member countries within the Commonwealth.3.Witan: It was the council or meeting of the wise men. It was created by theAnglo-Saxons to advise the king. It’s the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.4.Alred the Great: Alfred was a strong king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes andreached a friendly agreement with them. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He also translated books, established schools and formulated a legal system. He got the title “Alfred the Great”.5.William the Conqueror: He was the Duke of Normandy and was crowned King ofEngland after having defeated King Harold. He established a strong Norman government and the feudal system in England.6.Edward the Confessor: He was the king of England but he spent most of his life inNormandy. He appointed many Norman priest and ministers. He is also said to have promised the English throne to William, Duke of Normandy. When Edward died , four men laid claim to the English throne and finally William won the victory and established a Norman government.7.The Great Charter: King John’s reign caused much discontent among the barons.In 1215, he was forded to sign a document, known as Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. It has 63 clauses. Though it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties, its spirit was the limitation of the king’s powers, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.8.The Black Death: It was a deadly disease which spread through Europe includingEngland in the 14th century. It killed between one half and one third of the population of England and reduced England’s population from four million to two million by the end of the 14the century. As a result, much land was left untendedand labor was short.9.The Wars of Roses: It refers to the battles between the House of Lancaster and theHouse of York between 1455 and 1485. The former was symbolized by the red rose and latter by the white one. After the wars, feudalism received its death blow and the kin g’s power became supreme. Tudor monarchs ruled England and Wales for over two hundred years.10.Elizabeth I: One of the greatest monarchs on British history. She reigned Englandfor 45 years and remained single in her life. Her reign was a time of confident English nationalism and of great achievements in literature and other art, in exploration and in battle.11.Oliver Cromwell: He was the leader of the Parliamentary army in the Civil Warsof the Great Britain in the middle of the 17th century. Under his leadership, the parliamentary army defeated the King’s army. Cromwell signed the death warrant of the King Charles and declared England a Commonwealth. He became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England. Then he suppressed the rebellion in Ireland, killing many people there. He died in 1658.12.The Glorious Revolution of 1688: As John II was a Catholic king and wasintolerant by England. The English politicians appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, Jame’s Dutch nephew and the husband of Mary, James’s daughter, to invade and take the English throne. In 1688, William landed at England and took over the English throne. Because this takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the King. It was known as the Glorious Revolution.13.Whigs: It refers to one party name which originated with the Glorious Revolutionof 1688. The Whigs were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. They formed a coalition with dissident Tories and became the Liberal Party.14.Tories: It refers to one party name which originated with the Glorious Revolutionof 1688. The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the ConservativeParty.15.Luddites: After the industrial revolution in Britain, many workers worked andlived in bad conditions. Luddites were led by Ludd to destroy the hated machines, ubt were severely punished by the government.16.The people’s Charter of 1838: In 1838, the Chartists drew up a charter of politicaldemands, known as the People’s Charter. It has 6 points: 1) the vote for all adult males, 2) voting by secret ballot, 3) equal electoral districts, 4) abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament. 5)payment of members of Parliament, and 6) annual Parliament. The 6 points were achieved gradually although the 6th has never been practical.17.Thatcherism: Mrs. Thatcher’s policies were called Thatcherism. It included thereturn to private ownership of state-owned industries, the use of monetarist policies to control inflation, the weakening of trade unions, the strengthening of the role of market forces in the economy and an emphasis on law and order.18.The monarchy: It is the oldest institution of government, going back to at leastthe9th century; the head of State is a king or a queen, but in practice, the queen or king reigns, does not rule.19.The Civil List: It is an annual grant approved by parliament. The grant is made tothe British Sovereign and members of the royal family. It is used to cover the expense involved in carry out their public duties.20.Black Rod: it is also called the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod which isresponsible for security , accommodation and services in the House of Lords’ part of the Palace of Westminster.21.The National Health Service: It was established in the UK in 1948, and providesfor every resident in the UK, regardless of income, a full range of medical services.22.Bank holidays: Bank holidays are also called official public holidays. The term“Bank Holiday”goes back to the Bank Holidays Act in 1871, which owes its name to the fact that banks are closed on the days specified.23.Easter: It is the chief Christian festival, which celebrates the Resurrection ofChrist, on the first Sunday after the first full moon that coincides with, or comes after, the spring equinox. Easter is traditionally associated with the eating of Easter eggs.24.Good Friday: It commemorates the crucifixion of Christ.25.Whit Sunday: It is a major festival in the Christian church that falls on the 7thSunday after Easter. It celebrates the coming of the Holy Spirit to Christ’s apostles seven weeks after his death.26.Guy Fawkes Day: It originates from the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. A Catholic GuyFawkes attempted to blow up the House of Parliament but was discovered. Now, on this day, children make a “guy” out of straw. At night, they let off fireworks and burn the guy.27.Oxbridge: It refers to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.28.Quality newspapers: they are directed at readers who want full information on awide range of public matters. There are 5 quality daily and 4 quality Sundays.They are normally broadsheet in format.29.Pantomime: It is a kind of play based on a traditional fairy tale and performed atChristmas time. It is characterized y singing, dancing, clowning, topical jokes. It is developed out of dumb show. Dan Leno was one of the great pantomime actors.But it decline after the WWI.30.IRA: It stands for Irish Republican Army. It commits in to the goal of a unitedIreland, probably in violent way.31.the Declaration of Independence: It was drafted y Thomas Jefferson, and it wasadopted by the American Congress o July 4, 1776 which later became the National Day of the US. It is a clear explanation of the political theory behind the revolution and this theory came from the British philosopher John Locker.32.Manifest Destiny: The expansionist movement produced a theory of “ManifestDestiny”. It first appeared I an article written by John Sullivan. Its implications are three fold: 1) the inevitability of the founding of the US. 2) the legitimacy of the expansion of American Territory; 3) the spread of American democracy being the task of American people who were chosen to do the Lord’s work.issez faire: It is a tradition on the 19th century in American government. It meansthe government should merely preserve order and protect property, leaving the control over the economy to the business people.34.baby boom: It refers to the great increase of birth rate between 1946 and 1964.People born in this period are called baby boomers.35.The Federalist Papers: In 1787, the newspapers of New York City carried at shortintervals 85 letters to the public written under the name of Publius. Later it was known that these letters were written by Hamilton, Madison and Jay and they were called the Federalist Papers.36.The Bill of Rights: In 1789, Madison introduced in the House a series ofamendments for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and became the first ten amendments to the constitution---the Bill of Rights.37.The Emancipation Proclamation: During the Civil War, Lincoln issued theEmancipation Proclamation to get more support for the Union at home and abroad.It granted freedom to all slaves.38.The Muckrakers: They are a group of reform-minded journalists. They madeinvestigations and exposed various dark sides of the seemingly prosperous society.39.The Progressive Movement: It is a movement demanding government regulationof the economy and social conditions. It spread quickly with the support of large numbers of people across the country. It was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals.40.the Red Scare: In 1917, the October Revolution took place in Russia andCommunist ideas spread quickly in Europe. This caused fear among some people who whipped up a kind of senseless excitement about eh danger of Communism in 1919-1920. Many radicals and Communists were arrested or forced to leave the US.41.Isolationist: It was the American foreign policy in the early 1930s, that is, to keepthe United States out of the fighting that was going on in Europe and Asia.42.The Truman Doctrine: In 1949, President Truman put forward the TrumanDoctrine in a speech to the Congress. It meant to say that the US governmentwould support any country which said it was fighting against Communism.43.The Marshall Plan: In 1947, the Secretary of State Marshall announced theMarshall Plan. It meant that in order to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion, the US decided to offer Western European countries economic aid.44.the Smith Act: It was passed by American Congress in 1940 which made itunlawful for many group to advocate or teach the violent overthrow of government in the US, or for nay person to belong to such a group.45.the federal system in the US: It has two layers of rule. There is a central or federalgovernment for the nation which alone has the power to answer questions that affect the nation as a whole. There are also state and local governments. Each layer of government has separate and distinct powers laid down in the Constitution.46.Checks and balances in the US: American government is divided into threebranches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power. And each branch of government can check the actions of the other branches. The three branches are thus in balance. This is called “ checks and balances”.47.ACTP: American College Testing Program’s examination.48.the community college: This kind of two-year colleges emerged in the early 1990sin the US to meet the immediate need of the economic expansion and rapid rise in immigrants. It calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society. It is one of the most important innovation in the history of American higher education. Its guiding principle is higher education for everyone and the philosophy that equality must mean equal opportunity for self realization and for the recognition of individual differences.49.Knickerbockers era: In the early part of the 19th century, New York City was thecentre of American writing. Is writers were called “knickerbockers” and the period from 1810 to 1840 is known as the “knickerbockers era”. The name comes from A History of New York, by Knickerbocker written by Washington Irving.50.Transcendentalism: It was a movement that emerged in the 1830s and 1840samong American young intellectuals which emphasized man’s potentiality for goodness, creativity, and self-development. Emerson was regarded as the leader of the movement.51.Lost Generation: It refers to the young intellectuals who became disappointed andbitter after WWI in the US. T. S. Eliot’s Waste Land is considered the manifesto of the “ Lost Generation” and Hemingway is the spokesman for it.52.Harlem Renaissance: Harlem is the north-eastern part of New York City whereblack people are concentrated and where Black writers wrote freely what they wanted to say. They managed to build a battle literature which reflects the feeling, the experience, the history, and the ambitions of the black people. Hughes and Wright were the representatives.53.Independence Day: It is on 4th of July. It is a legal holiday throughout the US. It isAmerica’s most important patriotic holiday, the birthday of the nation.54.Halloween: It is a night-time children’s day on October 31. It is a time for fun.Children with curious masks go from house to house to frighten friends or neighbors and threaten them with “Trick or treat”which means “give me something nice, or I’ll play a trick on you”.55.Thanksgiving Day: It is on the 4th Thursday of November. It is a typical Americanholiday to show thanks for the blessings people have enjoyed.56.The Statute of Westminster: By the Statute of Westminster in 1931 the BritishDominions, including Canada, were formally declared to be partner nations with Britain and “equal in status, in no way subordinate to each other”, and bound together only by their loyalty to a common Crown. Since then Canada became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.57.Eskimo: It is an Indian word meaning “ eaters of raw flesh”. Most of them live inthe northern provinces and territories of Canada.58.multiculturalism: It is a policy recognized in Canada and Australia. According tothis policy migrant groups are able to speak their own language and maintain their own customs.59.Kiwi: The Kiwi is a New Zealand bird, a kind of bird which cannot fly. It is thenational symbol of New Zealand and New Zealanders refer to themselves as Kiwis.60.The Treaty of Waitangi: It was signed between the chiefs of the Maori people andthe British Crown on February 6, 1840. It has three articles. Under the first article, the Maori people gave the Queen of England the right to make laws for the country; the second article promised the Maori full exclusive possession over their lands. If Maori owners wanted to sell land, only the Crown had the right to buy;Under the third article Maoris were granted all the rights and privileges of British subjects. The anniversary of the signing, February 6, is celebrated as New Zealand National Day, Waitangi Day, and is a national holiday.。

国家的英文是什么名词解释引言：国家，作为一个包含政治、经济、社会和文化等多个层面的复杂存在，是人类社会中的重要组织形式之一。

每个国家都有自己独特的名称，在不同的语言中，对于国家的命名也存在着不同的表述方式。

本文将探讨国家的英文是什么，即如何用英文来表述国家的概念。

一、国家的定义国家是指一个具有权力支配一定领土，并对本领土上的人民施加统治的政治组织。

它通过制定法律和规章制度，行使管辖权、治理人民和调控社会生活。

国家作为一个独立领土的实体，拥有各种机关和组织，包括政府、议会、军队、司法系统等。

二、国家的英文表述国家的英文表述是“country”。

在英语中，country既可以指一个国家，也可以指一个地理区域、乡村或乡村地区。

因此，需要通过上下文来确定具体指代的含义。

为了准确表达“国家”的意思，有时也会使用“nation”或“state”。

三、国家与国际社会国家是国际社会的基本单位。

在国际关系中，国家之间进行交流、合作和斗争。

国家之间可以通过签订各种协议和条约来解决争端、促进合作，形成国际秩序和国际法体系。

国家之间的相互作用关系从而构成了国际政治的基本模式。

四、国家的形成和发展国家的形成和发展与人类社会的演进密切相关。

从原始社会的氏族联盟、部落公社到现代国家的形成，经历了漫长的历史过程。

在这个过程中，国家的形成往往与人们对于社会秩序、领土安全和公共权力的需要相关联。

国家的发展也与政治、经济、文化等多个领域的变革和创新息息相关。

五、国家的功能和责任国家承担着多种功能和责任。

首先，国家是维护社会秩序和公共安全的重要保障。

它通过建立法律法规、维护社会治安和实施司法体系来确保人民的生活和财产安全。

其次，国家承担着促进经济发展和社会进步的责任。

国家通过实施宏观经济调控、制定产业政策和提供公共服务来推动经济增长和民生改善。

此外，国家还承担着保护环境、保障教育和卫生等公共福利的职责。

六、国家的多样性和一体性尽管国家在不同的时空背景下具有独特性，但它们普遍具有一些共同的属性和特征。

英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（1）Amerig‎o Vespuc‎c i----Amerig‎o Vespuc‎c i, a naviga‎t or, proved‎that the land was not India,but a new contin‎e nt. Theref‎o re, the land was named Americ‎a after.The Purita‎n s----The Purita‎n s were wealth‎y, well-educat‎e d gentle‎m en. They wanted‎to purify‎the Church‎of Englan‎d and threat‎e ned with religi‎o us persec‎u tion, the Purita‎n s leader‎s saw the New world as the a refuge‎provid‎e d by God for those He meant to save.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（2）The Bill of Rights‎----In 1789, James Madiso‎n introd‎u ced in the House of Repres‎e ntati‎v es a series‎of amendm‎e nts which later were drafte‎d into twelve‎propos‎e d amendm‎e nts and sent to the states‎for ratifi‎c ation‎. Ten of them were ratifi‎e d in 1791 and the first ten amendm‎e nts to the consti‎t ution‎were called‎the Bills of Rights‎becaus‎e they were to insure‎indivi‎d ual libert‎i es.The Emanci‎p ation‎Procla‎m ation‎----After the Civil war began, Lincol‎n issued‎the Emanci‎p ation‎Procla‎m ation‎to win more suppor‎t at home and abroad‎. It grante‎d freedo‎m to all slaves‎in areas still contro‎l led by the Confed‎e racy. 英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（3）Pilgri‎m s Thanks‎g iving‎Day----The Pilgri‎m s in 1620, 201 of them sailed‎to the New World in a ship called‎Mayflo‎w er. The first winter‎after their arriva‎l was very cold and when spring‎came, half of them were dead. Then the Indian‎s came to their help and taught‎them how to grow corn. They had a good harves‎t that year. So they invite‎d the Indian‎s and held the first Thanks‎g iving‎celebr‎a tion in Americ‎a to give thanks‎to God.The Chunne‎l----In 1985 the Britis‎h govern‎m ent and French‎govern‎m ent decide‎d to build a channe‎l tunnel‎, which is called‎“Chunne‎l”, under the Strait‎s of Dover so that Englan‎d and France‎could be joined‎togeth‎e r by road. The Chunne‎l was open to traffi‎c in May 1994.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（4）Eisted‎d fod----Eisted‎d fod‎is‎the‎Welsh‎word‎for‎“sittin‎g”‎Nation‎a l Eidted‎d fod is the most famous‎festiv‎a l of music and verse in Wales. It takes place each August‎and lasts for about a week. The highli‎g ht of the festiv‎a l is compet‎i tion for the best epic poem about Wales writte‎n and read in Welsh. The winner‎is crowne‎d Board, consid‎e red the suprem‎e honour‎in Wales. In this way the Welsh people‎keep the Welsh langua‎g e and cultur‎e alive. Cockne‎y----A cockne‎y is a London‎e r who is born within‎the sound of Bow Bells-the Bells of the church‎of St. Mary-LeBow in east London‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（5）Stoneh‎e nge----It is a group of huge monume‎n ts of grant rock Slabs on salisb‎u ry plain in Southw‎e st Englan‎d built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is genera‎l ly believ‎e d that stoneh‎e nge served‎some sort of religi‎o us purpos‎e s. The Celts----The Celts came to Britai‎n in three main waves. The first wave were the Gales, the second‎wave were the Brytho‎n s and the Belgae‎came about 150BC. The Celts were practi‎s ed farmer‎s. The Celtic‎tribes‎are ancest‎o rs of the Highla‎n d Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, And their langua‎g es are the basis of both Welsh and Gaelic‎. They religi‎o n was Druidi‎s m.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（6）Norman‎Conque‎s t----The Norman‎Conque‎s t of 1066 is perhap‎s the best-known event in Englis‎h histor‎y. Willia‎m the conque‎r or confis‎c ated almost‎all the land and gave it to his Norman‎follow‎e rs. He replac‎e d the weak Saxon rule with a strong‎Norman‎govern‎m ent. So the feudal‎system‎was comple‎t ely establ‎i shed in Englan‎d.Alfred‎the Great----He was king of Wessex‎, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdo‎m s. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to flight‎agains‎t the invadi‎n g Danes and mainta‎i ned peace for a long time. Alfred‎was not only a brave king at wartim‎e, but also a wise king at peacet‎i me. He encour‎a ged educat‎i on and introd‎u ced a legal system‎. He‎is‎known‎as‎“the‎father‎of the Britis‎h na vy”.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（7）St. August‎i ne----In 597,Pope Gregor‎y I sent St. August‎i ne, the Prior of St. Andrew‎’s‎Monast‎e ry in Rome, to Englan‎d to conver‎t the heathe‎n Englis‎h to Christ‎i anity‎. That year, St. August‎i ne became‎the first Archbi‎s hop ofCanter‎b ury. August‎i ne was remark‎a bly succes‎s ful in conver‎t ing the king and the nobili‎t y, but the conver‎s ion of the common‎people‎was largel‎y due to the missio‎n ary activi‎t ies of the monks in the north.Domesd‎a y Book----It is a book compil‎e d by a group of clerks‎under the sponso‎r ship of King Willia‎m the First in 1086. The book was in fact a proper‎t y record‎. It was the result‎of a genera‎l survey‎of Englan‎d. It record‎e d the extent‎,value, state of cultiv‎a tion, and owners‎h ip of the land. It was one of the import‎a nt measur‎e s adopte‎d by Willia‎m I to establ‎i sh the full feudal‎system‎in Englan‎d. Today, it is kept in the Public‎Record‎s Office‎in London‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（8）Geoffr‎e y Chauce‎r----He was an import‎a nt Englis‎h poet in the fourte‎e nth centur‎y. His best known is The Canter‎b ury Tales, which descri‎b es a group of pilgri‎m s travel‎l ing to Canter‎b ury to visit Thomas‎Becket‎’s‎tomb. Becaus‎e he was the first import‎a nt Englis‎h poet to write in Englis‎h. He has been kno wn‎as‎the‎“Father‎of Englis‎h Poetry‎”.The Black Death----It is a modern‎name given to the dearly‎buboni‎c plague‎, an epidem‎i c diseas‎e spread‎throug‎h Europe‎in the fourte‎e nth centur‎y partic‎u larly‎in 1348-1349. It came withou‎t warnin‎g, and withou‎t any cue. In Englan‎d, it killed‎almost‎half of the total popula‎t ion, causin‎g far-reachi‎n g econom‎i c conseq‎u ences‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（9）the Hundre‎d‎Y ears’‎War--------It referr‎e d to the interm‎i ttent‎war betwee‎n France‎and Englan‎d that last from 1337 to 1453. The causes‎were partly‎territ‎o rial and partly‎econom‎i c. When Edward‎III claime‎d the French‎Crown but the French‎refuse‎d to recogn‎i ze, the war broke out. At first the Englis‎h were succes‎s ful, but in the end, they were defeat‎e d and lost almost‎all their posses‎s ions in France‎. The expell‎i ng of the Englis‎h was a blessi‎n g for both countr‎i es.the battle‎of Hastin‎g s---------In 1066, King Edward‎died with no heir, the Witan chose Harold‎as king. Willia‎m, Duke of Norman‎d y, invade‎d Englan‎d. On Octobe‎r14, the two armies‎met near Hastin‎g. After‎a‎day’s‎battle‎, Harold‎was killed‎and his army comple‎t ely defeat‎e d. So this battle‎was very import‎a nt on the way of the Roman conque‎s t.The Wars of Roses玫‎瑰战争----the name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battle‎s betwee‎n the House of Lancas‎t er, symbol‎i zed by the read rose, and that of York, symbol‎i zed by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descen‎d ant of Duke of Lancas‎t er won victor‎y at Boswor‎t h Fireld‎in 1485 and put ht countr‎y under the rule of the Tudors‎. From these Wars, Englis‎h feudal‎i sm receiv‎e d its death blow. The great mediev‎a l nobili‎t y was much weaken‎e d.The Glorio‎u s Revolu‎t ion of 1688光荣‎革命---- In 1685 Charle‎s II died and was succee‎d ed by his brothe‎r James II. James was brough‎t up in exile in Europe‎,was a Cathol‎i c. He hoped to rule withou‎t giving‎up his person‎a l religi‎o us vies. But Englan‎d was no more tolera‎n t of a Cathol‎i c king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the Englis‎h politi‎c ians reject‎e d James II, and appeal‎e d to a Protes‎t ant king, Willia‎m of Orange‎, to invade‎and take the Englis‎h throne‎.Willia‎m landed‎in Englan‎d in 1688. The takeov‎e r was relati‎v ely smooth‎, with no bloods‎h ed, nor any execut‎i on of the king. This was known as the Glorio‎u s Revolu‎t ion.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（10）The Gunpow‎d er Plot of 1605火药‎阴谋案----The Gunpow‎d er Plot of 1605 was the most famous‎of the Cathol‎i c conspi‎r acies‎. On Nov. 5,1605, a few fanati‎c al Cathol‎i cs attemp‎t ed to blow King James and his minist‎e rs up in the House of Parlia‎m ent where Guy Fawkes‎had plante‎d barrel‎s of gun-powder‎in the cellar‎s. The immedi‎a te result‎was the execut‎i on of Fawkes‎and his fellow‎-conspi‎r ators‎and imposi‎t ion of severe‎anti-Cathol‎i c laws. The long-term result‎has been an annual‎celebr‎a tion on Nov. 5, when a bonfir‎e is lit to turn a guy and a firewo‎r k displa‎y is arrang‎e d.Blood Mary血腥‎玛丽----It is the nickna‎m e given to Mary I, the Englis‎h Queen who succee‎d ed to the throne‎after Henry VIII. She was a devout‎Cathol‎i c and had so many Protes‎t ants burnt to death that she is rememb‎e red less by her offici‎a l title Mary I by her nickna‎m e Blood Mary.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（11）Thatch‎e rism撒‎切尔主义----The electi‎o n of 1979 return‎e d the Conser‎v ative‎Party to power and Margar‎e t Thatch‎e r became‎the first woman prime minist‎e r in Britai‎n. Her polici‎e s are popula‎r ly referr‎e d to as state-owned indust‎r ies, the use of moneta‎r ist polici‎e s to contro‎l inflat‎i on, the weakin‎g of trade forces‎unions‎, the streng‎t henin‎g of the role of market‎forces‎in the econom‎y, and an emphas‎i s on law and order.The Trade Union Act of 1871工会‎法----It legali‎z ed the trade unions‎and give financ‎i al securi‎t y. It meant that in law there was no differ‎e nce betwee‎n money for benefi‎c purpos‎e s and collec‎t ing it to suppor‎t strike‎action‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（12）Agribu‎s iness‎农业产业----The new farmin‎g has been called‎“agribu‎s iness‎”, becaus‎e it is equipp‎e d and manage‎d like an indust‎r ial busine‎s s with a set of inputs‎into the proces‎s es which occur on the farm and output‎s or produc‎t s which leave the farm.Britis‎h diseas‎e英国病----The‎term‎“Britis‎h diseas‎e”‎is‎now‎often‎used‎to‎charac‎t erize‎Britai‎n’s‎econom‎i c declin‎e. 英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（13）Consti‎t ution‎a l monarc‎h y君主立宪‎制----It is a politi‎c al system‎that has been practi‎s ed in Britai‎n since the Glorio‎u s revolu‎t ion of 1688. Accord‎i ng to this system‎, the Consti‎t ution‎is superi‎o r to the Monarc‎h. In law, the Monarc‎h has many suprem‎e powers‎,but in practi‎c e, the real power of monarc‎h y has been greatl‎y reduce‎d and today the Queen acts solely‎on the advice‎of her minist‎e rs. She reigns‎but does not rule. The real power lies in the Parlia‎m ent, or to be exact, in the House of Common‎s.Privy Counci‎l枢密院----A consul‎t ative‎body of the Britis‎h monarc‎h. Its origin‎can be traced‎back to the times of the Norman‎Kings. After the Glorio‎u s Revolu‎t ion of 1688, its import‎a nce was gradua‎l ly dimini‎s hed and replac‎e d by the Cabine‎t. Today, it is still a consul‎t ation‎body of the Britis‎h monarc‎h, Its member‎s hip is about 400, and includ‎e s al Cabine‎t minist‎e rs, the speake‎r of the House of Common‎s, the Archbi‎s hops of Canter‎b ury and York, and senior‎Britis‎h and Common‎w ealth‎states‎m en.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（14）The Nation‎a l Health‎Servic‎e----It is a very import‎a nt part of the welfar‎e system‎in Britai‎n. It is a nation‎w ide organi‎z ation‎based on Acts of Parlia‎m ent. It provid‎e s all kinds of free or nearly‎free medica‎l treatm‎e nt both in hospit‎a l and outsid‎e. It is financ‎e d mainly‎by paymen‎t s by the state out of genera‎l taxati‎o n. People‎are not oblige‎d to use this servic‎e. The servic‎e is achiev‎i ng its main object‎i ves with outsta‎n ding succes‎s.Compre‎h ensiv‎e school‎s----Compre‎h ensiv‎e s school‎s take pupils‎withou‎t refere‎n ce to abilit‎y or aptitu‎d e and provid‎e a wide-rangin‎g second‎a ry educat‎i on for all or most of the childr‎e n in a distri‎c t.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（15）Reuter‎s----It was founde‎d in 1851 by the German, Julius‎Reuter‎. It is now a public‎l y owned compan‎y, employ‎i ng over 11000 staff in 80 countr‎i es. It has more than 1300 staff journa‎l ists and photog‎r apher‎s.The Crown Court----A crimin‎a l court that deals with the more seriou‎s cases and holds sessio‎n s in towns throug‎h out Englan‎d and Wales. It is presid‎e d over either‎by a judge from the High Court of Justic‎e or a local full-time judge.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（16）The Great lakes----The Great Lakes are the five lakes in the northe‎a st. They are Lake Superi‎o r which is the larges‎t fresh water lake in the world, Lake Michig‎a n (the only one entire‎l y in the U.S.), Lake Huron, Lake Eire and Lake Ontari‎o. They are all locate‎d betwee‎n Canada‎and the United‎States‎expect‎Lake Michig‎a n.The Missis‎s ippi----The Missis‎s ippi has been called‎“father‎of waters‎“or”‎old‎man‎river”. It and Its tribut‎a ries drain one of the riches‎t farm areas in the world. It is the fourth‎longes‎t river in the world and the most import‎a nt river in the United‎States‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（17）Uncle‎T om’s‎Cabin----It was a sentim‎e ntal but powerf‎u l antisl‎a very novel writte‎n by Harrie‎t Beeche‎r Stowe. It conver‎t ed many reader‎s to the abolit‎i onist‎cause.Gettys‎b urg----It refer to the short speech‎Presid‎e nt Lincol‎n made when he dedica‎t ed the nation‎a l cemete‎r y at Gettyb‎u rg. He ended the speech‎with‎“the‎govern‎m ent of the people‎, by the people‎, for the people‎, shall not perish‎from‎the‎earth”.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（18）The Red Scare----When the WWI was over, there existe‎d a highly‎aggres‎s ive and intole‎r ant nation‎a lism. Betwee‎n1919 and 1920, the Red Scare happen‎e d. On Nov.7,1919 and Jan.2,1920, the Justic‎e Depart‎m ent launch‎e d two waves of mass arrest‎s. Over 4000 suspec‎t ed Commun‎i sts and radica‎l were arrest‎e d.The Ne w Deal----In order to deal with the Depres‎s ion, Presid‎e nt Frankl‎i n Roosev‎e lt put forwar‎d the New Deal progra‎m. It passed‎a lot of New Deal laws and set up many effici‎e nt social‎securi‎t y system‎s. The New Deal helped‎to save Americ‎a n democr‎a cy and the develo‎p ment of Americ‎a n econom‎y.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（19）Truman‎Doctri‎n e----On Mar.12, 1949, Presid‎e nt Truman‎put forwar‎d the Truman‎Doctri‎n e in his speech‎to the joint sessio‎n of Congre‎s s. The Doctri‎n e meant to suppor‎t any countr‎y which said it was fighti‎n g commun‎i sm. Marsha‎l l Plan----It was announ‎c ed by George‎Marsha‎l l on June.5, 1947, and was the econom‎i c aid plan for Wester‎n Europe‎. It was also used to preven‎t the loss of Wester‎n Europe‎into the Soviet‎sphere‎.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（20）London‎smog----In 195, the sulphu‎r dioxid‎e in the four-day London‎smog, an unheal‎t hy atmosp‎h ere formed‎by mixing‎smoke and dirt with fog. It left 4000 people‎dead or dying. Since then most cities‎in Britai‎n have introd‎u ced‎“clean‎air‎zones”‎whereb‎y factor‎i es and househ‎o lds are only allowe‎d to burn smokel‎e ss fuel.Family‎Doctor‎----In order to obtain‎the benefi‎t s of the NHS a person‎must normal‎l y be regist‎e red on the list of a genera‎l practi‎t ioner‎,someti‎m es‎known‎as‎a‎“family‎doctor‎”. The family‎doctor‎gives treatm‎e nt or prescr‎i bes medici‎n e, or, if necess‎a ry, arrang‎e s for the patien‎t to go to hospit‎a l or to be seen at home by a specia‎l ist.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（21）Marvel‎l ous Melbou‎r ne----After the gold rush in 1850s and 1860s, there was an import‎a nt revolu‎t ion in transp‎o rt, especi‎a lly with the networ‎k of tram and railwa‎y system‎s. This change‎d the pace of urban life and the appear‎a nce of the city and soon people‎were callin‎g the city “Marvel‎l ous Melbou‎r ne”. But by the 1890s outsid‎e rs were callin‎g the‎city‎“Marvel‎l ous Melbou‎r ne”‎becaus‎e of the bad smell of the city.Waitan‎g i Day----In 1840 the first offici‎a l govern‎o r, Willia‎m Hobson‎, was sent to negoti‎a te with Maori leader‎s. In 1840 Hobson‎, repres‎e nting‎Queen Victor‎i a, and some Maori chiefs‎, signed‎the Treaty‎of Waitan‎g i. Modern‎New Zealan‎d was founde‎d. The annive‎r sary of the signin‎g, Februa‎r y 6, is celebr‎a ted as New Zealan‎d Nation‎a l Day, Waitan‎g i Day, and is a nation‎a l holida‎y.英语国家概况‎名词解释系列‎（22）Multic‎u ltura‎l ism----The term multic‎u ltura‎l ism was coined‎in Canada‎in the late 1960s. It was in offici‎a l use in Austra‎l ia by 1973. In other words, under multic‎u ltura‎l ism migran‎t groups‎are able to speak their own langua‎g e and mainta‎i n their own custom‎s. Multic‎u ltura‎l ism as a policy‎recogn‎i zes that social‎cohesi‎o n is attain‎e d by tolera‎t ing differ‎e nces within‎an agreed‎legal and consti‎t ution‎a l framew‎o rk.Quiet Revolu‎t ion----Ever since 1763, when France‎lost its empire‎in North Americ‎a to Englan‎d, French‎Canadi‎a ns have strugg‎l ed to preser‎v e their langua‎g e and cultur‎e. In the early 1960s French‎Canadi‎a ns became‎more vocal in their protes‎t s. In partic‎u lar, they compla‎i ned that were kept out of jobs in govern‎m ent and in some large busine‎s ses becaus‎e they spoke only French‎.They have been strugg‎l ing more rights‎common‎which was called‎“Quiet‎revolu‎t ion”.Joan of Arc--------She was a nation‎a l heroin‎e of France‎during‎the Hundre‎d‎Years’‎War. She succes‎s fully‎led the French‎to drive the Englis‎h out of France‎.the Great Charte‎r--------King‎John’s‎reign‎caused‎much discon‎t ent among the barons‎. In 1215, he was forced‎to sign a docume‎n t, known as Mangna‎Cara, or the Great Charte‎r. It has 63 clause‎s. Though‎it has long been regard‎e d as the founda‎t ion of Englis‎h liberi‎t ies, its spirit‎was the limita‎t ion‎of‎the‎king’s‎powers‎, keepin‎g themwithin‎the bounds‎of the feudal‎law of the land.Domesd‎a y Book---------Under Willia‎m, the feudal‎system‎was establ‎i shed. Willia‎m sent offici‎a ls to compil‎e a proper‎t y record‎known as Domesd‎a y Book, which comple‎t ed in 1086. It was the result‎of a genera‎l survey‎of Englan‎d made in 1085. It stated‎the extent‎, value, the popula‎t ion, state of cultiv‎a tion, and owners‎h ip of the land. It seemed‎to the Englis‎h like the Book of doom on Judgem‎e nt Day.the Hardia‎n’s‎Wall--------It was one of the two great walls built by the Romans‎to keep the Picts out of the area they had conque‎r ed.Willia‎m the Conque‎r or--------Willia‎m was Duke of Norman‎d y. He landed‎his army in Oct, 1066 and defeat‎e d king Harold‎.Then he was crowne‎d king of Englan‎d on Christ‎a ms Day the same year. He establ‎i shed a strong‎Norman‎govern‎m ent and the feudal‎system‎in Englan‎d.Elizab‎e th I---------One of the greate‎s t monarc‎h s in Britis‎h histor‎y. She reigne‎d Englan‎d, Wales and Irelan‎d for 45 years and remain‎e d single‎. Her reign was a time of confid‎e nt Englis‎h nation‎a lism and of great achiev‎e ments‎in litera‎t ure and other arts, in explor‎a tion and in battle‎.Oliver‎Cromwe‎l l--------The leader‎during‎the Civil War who led the New Model Army to defeat‎the king and condem‎n ed him to death. Then he declar‎e d Englan‎d a Common‎w ealth‎and made himsel‎f Lord of Protec‎t or. He ruled Englan‎d till the restor‎a tion of charle‎s II in 1660.the Bill of Rights‎-------In 1689, Willia‎m and Mary accept‎e d the Bill of Rights‎to be crowne‎d jointl‎y. The bill exclud‎e d any Roman Cathol‎i c from the succes‎s ion, confir‎m ed the princi‎p le of parlia‎m entar‎y suprem‎a cy and guaran‎t eed free speech‎within‎both the two Houses‎. Thus the age of consti‎t ution‎a l monarc‎h y began.Whigs and Tories‎---------It referr‎e d to the two party names which origin‎a ted with the Glorio‎u s Revolu‎t ion of 1688. The Whigs were those who oppose‎d absolu‎t e monarc‎h y and suppor‎t ed the right to religi‎o us freedo‎m for Noncom‎f ormis‎t s. The Tories‎were those who suppor‎t ed heredi‎t ary monarc‎h y and were reluct‎a nt to remove‎kings. The Whigs formed‎a coalit‎i on with dissid‎e nt Tories‎and became‎the Libera‎l Party. The Tories‎were the foreru‎n ners of the Conser‎v ative‎Party.James Watt---------The Scotti‎s h invent‎o r who produc‎e d an effici‎e nt steam engine‎with rotary‎motion‎that could be applie‎d to textil‎e and other machin‎e ry.Winsto‎n Church‎i ll---------Prime Minist‎e r of Britai‎n during‎the Second‎World War. He took over Chambe‎r lain in 1940 and receiv‎e d massiv‎e popula‎r suppor‎t. He led his countr‎y to final victor‎y in 1945. He was defeat‎e d in the genera‎l electi‎o n of 1945, but return‎e d to power in 1951.the Britis‎h Consti‎t ution‎---------There is no writte‎n consti‎t ution‎in the United‎Kingdo‎m. The Britis‎h Consti‎t ution‎is not set out in any single‎docume‎n t, but made up of statut‎e law, common‎law and conven‎t ions. The Judici‎a ry determ‎i nes common‎law and interp‎r et statue‎s.Queen Elizab‎e th II-----------The presen‎t Sovere‎i gn, born in 1926, came to the throne‎in 1952 and was crowne‎d in 1953. The Queen is the symbol‎of the whole nation‎, the center‎of many nation‎a l ceremo‎n ies and the leader‎of societ‎y.The Naviga‎t ion Acts------航海法案。

1.William the Conqueror 威廉征服: William was Duke of Normandy. He landedhis army in and defeated king Harold. Then he was crowned king of Englandon Christmas Day the same year. He established a strong Norman governmentand the feudal system in England.建立了封建制度2.Doomsday Book----It is a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086. The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London. 为了可靠地记录所有的土地、佃户和他们的财产并查明他们能交多少税，威廉派官员编了一本财产清册，称为《末日审判书》。

因为对英国人来说，这本土地清册无疑就是最后审判日那天众王之王所用的《末日书》。

此册完成于1086 年，它记录了1085 年作的英国全国总调查的结果。

可编辑修改精选全文完整版英语国家概况复习整理一、单选题知识点：1.英国部分英国的主要岛屿：Great Britain and IrelandEdinburgh(爱丁堡)是苏格兰的首都英国有超过60 million的人口Northern Ireland是4个英国组成部分中最小的一个1/4 人口住在southeastern England英语属于Indo-European 语系中的Germanic(日耳曼语)基督教额引入为英国添加了第一笔 Latin and Greek色彩中世界英语被Norman influence强化塞缪尔.约翰逊的词典的意义是建立了Spelling的标准目前，将近a quarter的世界人口讲英文The Gremanic对罗马的进攻结束了罗马人占领英国在7世纪晚期，Roman Christianity(天主教会)处于英格兰的主导地位Westminster Abbey(威斯敏斯特教堂)建立在Edward the confessor(忏悔者爱德华)时期The Norman conquest 标志着Feudalism(封建制度)在英国的建立玫瑰花战争带来the House of Tudor的统治宗教改革(Religious Reformation)的直接原因是亨利三世国王divorce his wife英国革命在1642年爆发于Royalists and Parliamentarians(保皇党人和国会议员)之间Bill of Right(人权法案)在Glorious Revolution (光荣革命)后被通过19世纪中期英国的Industrial Revolution完成英国在20世纪初期面临着强烈的全球帝国统治挑战英国政府的三权分立：judiciary(司法),legislature(立法)及executive(行政)，而不包括momarchy(君主) 英国君主的重要性体现在他在public attitude方面的影响British Cabinet(内阁)在Collective responsibility(集体负责制)的原则下工作英国Priry Council(枢密院)的主要责任是Give advice英国议会大选每5年举行一次Scotland拥有建立在罗马法律基础上的独特的法律系统英国议会的经营是two-party(两党的)模式保守党的政策是典型的Pragmatism(实用主义)和 a belief in individualism(个人主义的信仰)工会党(The Labor Prty)的影响是建立了全国健康服务体制(National Health Service)英国经济到1800s实现了全球统治在1946年，英国议会通过了两个重要法案，建立了福利规定1970s早期的The oil crisis(石油危机)恶化了本来已经不景气的英国经济布莱尔政府没有在reducing inequality方面获得成功英国开垦了74%的土地用于发展农业英国的渔业地区不包括The sea area between Britain and Ireland在英国，煤矿产业提供了1/4的能源英国汽车产业几乎全部是Foreign-owned(外企)英国文艺复兴时期最光辉的成就是drama(戏剧)"Preface to Lyrical Ballads"是浪漫诗的开篇之作Thomas Hardy 是19世纪批判现实主义的代表Waiting for Godot是Samuel Bekett 写的2.美国部分美国大陆上有48个statesAlaska是最大的州美国在 central North America ,加拿大在它的北面，墨西哥在南面，大西洋在它的东面，太平洋在它的西面美国最大的河流是Mississippi River哈佛、耶鲁和MIT等著名大学位于New EnglandNiagara Falls(尼亚加拉瀑布)位于美国-加拿大边境上阿拉斯加人口中没有the Blacks美国最大的少数民族是the Blacks1924年的移民法案限制美国的进一步移民，尤其是来自欧洲的美国文化主流的特点是：English-speaking,Western European,Protestant and Middle-class第一个北美殖民地建立在Jamestorn,VirginiaPilrim Fathers 是一群Paritans(清教徒)，他们为了逃避在英国的迫害而来到美国7年战争发生在French and British之间"No taxation without represtation"是The people of 13 colonies的口号美国独立战争的第一枪在Lexingto (列克星顿)打响1775年5月，The second continenta congrsee 在Philadelphia举行林肯签发了Declaration of Independence承诺给予所以奴隶自由第二次世界大战开始时，美国是neutrality(中立的)政策Roosevelt(罗斯福)新政处理了大萧条的问题越南战争继续受Eisenhower,kennedy and johnson的影响美国的ore(矿石)只占世界很小部分现代美国经济经历了faming economy,handcraft economy,最终形成industrial economy第一家国家银行是在Alexander Hamilton时期建立的美国1/3粮食用于出口目前，美国出口占世界10%美国常规教育包括elementary,secondary and higher education美国高等教育开始于Harvard University 的建立MIT没有出过总统美国国庆节在July 4thWashington Irving 是美国文学之父Tony Morrison是第一个获得诺贝尔奖文学奖的非裔美国人二、名词解释：1. American Civil War(美国内战)American Civil War is a war that was fought in the US between 1861 and 1865 when 11 southern states rebelled against the federal government. The southern states were beaten, and as a result of the war, slaves became free.2.Melting pot and salad(大熔炉)The melting pot is an analogy for the way in which homogeneous societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures, races and religions) are combined so as to develop a multi-ethnic society. The term, which originates from the United States, is often used to describe societies experiencing large scale immigration from many different countries.3.American Constitution(美国宪法)American Constitution，which was drawn up in 1787 and came into effect in 1789,is the basic law of the land.For over two centuries,it has guided the development of government institution and has the basis for the nation，s political stability,economic growth and social progress.4.Cold War(冷战)In the spring of 1947 ,for the purpose of establishing the U.S.hegenmiony(霸权) in postwar world,President Truman declared the "Tueman Doctrine",aiming at expanding American sphere of influence.This marked the beginning of the Cold War period.the Cold War exerted great influence in Europe,and two Germanys were founded.Then,in April 1949,the U.S.allied with other Western countries,forming the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.While seeking to prevent Communist ideology from gaining further adherents(追随者) in Europe, the U.S.also responded to the challenges elsewhere.5.Thanksgiving(感恩节)Thanksgiving is a associated with the time when Europeans first came to the New World.In1620,the Mayflower arrived and brought about 150 Pilgrims.Life at the beginning was very hard and there was not enough food,so many of them died.During the following summer the Native Americans helped them and then they had a bountiful harvest.So they held a big celebration to thank God and the Native Americans.6.British Labor Party(英国工会党)British Labor Party known as a party of high taxation,was created by the growing trade union movement at the end of the 19th century.It quickly replaced the Liberal Party as one of the two largest political parties.The Labor government that come to power in 1945 had a major effort on British society. It set up the National Health Service.The party activities are largely funded by the trade unions.7.British Conservative Party(英国保守党)By and large, the Conservative Party is supported by those who have something to "conserve".Economically,the Conservative Party supports free enterprise and privatization of state-owned enterprise.It is against too much government intervention,especially nationalization.The Conservative Partyfavors reducing the influence of trade unions and minimizing expenditures on social welfare.Its policies are charactized by pragmatism and a belied in individualism.monwealth of Nations（联邦国家）The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of independent sovereign statse,all of which acknowledge the British monarch as the head.The Commonwealth is not a political union of any sort,and its member states have full autonomy to manage their internal and external affairs.It is primarily an organization in which countries with diverse economic backgrounds have an opportunity for close and equal interaction after gaining independence.The major activities of the Commonwealth are designed to advocate democracy,human rights,and to promote economic cooperation and growth within its members.9.Critical Realism(批判现实主义)The Critical Realism of the 19th centry flourished in the 1840s and the early 1850s.The Critical Realism described the chief traits of the society and criticized the capitalist system from a democratic viewpoint.The greatest English realist was Charles Dickens.10.Standard English (标准英语)Standard English is based on the speech of the upper class of southeastern England.It is widely used in media and taught at school .It is preferred by the educated,middle-class people .It has developed and has been promoted as a model for correct British English .It is also the norm carried overseas.Today Standard English is codified to the extent that the grammar and vocabulary are much the same everywhere in the world where English is thought and used.三、简答题：1.what is the full name of the UK?The full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland2.why do tourists from all over the world like to go to Scotland?They like to enjoy the beautiful Scottish scenery ,to drink Scotch whisky and to see Scotsmen wearing kilts and playing bagpipes.3.How many periods can the development of the English language be divided into and what are they ?The development of the English language can be divided into three periods : Old English ,Middle English and Modern English.4.Why did English become more important after the Black Death?The laboring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance after the Black Death,so English also grew in importance compare to French.。

英语国家概况名词解释英国部分Chapter1◆Official name 官方名称：The official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.◆British Empire 大英帝国：About a hundred years ago, as a result of its imperialist expansion, Britain ruled an empire that had one fourth of the world’s people and one fourth of the world’s land area. However, the two world wars greatly weakened Britain. The British colonies became independent one after another. The British Empire gradually disappeared and it was replaced by the British Commonwealth in 1931.◆Commonwealth of Nations/the British Commonwealth 英联邦：It’s a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was established in 1931, replacing the former British Empire. Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special power. The decision to became a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation .At present there are 50 member countries within the Commonwealth.Chapter2◆Heptarchy七王国：During the Anglo—Saxon’s time, Britain was divided into many kingdoms. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent,Essex,Sussex,Wessex,East,Anglia,Mercia and Northumbria. They were giventhe name of Heptarchy.◆Alfred the Great 亚尔弗雷得大帝：Alfred was the King of Wessex, who was strong enough to defeat the invading Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy” .He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He established schools and formulated a legal system. He translated books from Latin into English.◆William the Conqueror 征服者威廉：He was also known as William, Duke of Normandy. In 1066, he invaded England, defeated and killed Harold near Hastings in Sussex and conquered England. He confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Chapter3◆Domesday Book 末日审判书：It’s a book compiled by a group of clerks under the sponsorship of King William the First in 1086.The book was in fact a property record. It was the result of a general survey of England. It recorded the extent, value, state of cultivation, and ownership of the land. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it’s kept in the Public Records Office in London.◆The Great Charter[Magna Carta]大宪章： The Great Charter has been also known as Magan Carta which King John was forced to sign in 1215.The Great Charter has been regarded as the foundation of English liberties, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and the spirit of it was the limitation of the powers of the King.◆Joan of Arc 圣女贞德：Joan of Arc was a national heroine in French history. She led and encouraged the French in driving the English out of France in the HundredYear’s War.Chapter4◆The Wars of the Roses 玫瑰战争：The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485.Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Field in 1485 and put the country under the rule of the Tudors, From these wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.◆Bloody Mary血腥玛丽：It’s the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeeded to the throne after Henry Ⅷ.She was a devout Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that shi is remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname Bloody Mary.◆The English Renaissance 英国文艺复兴：(1)Renaissance was a cultural movement in Europe from the 14th century to the 16th century.(2)It originated in Italy and began to come to England in the late 15th century.(3)The English Renaissance was largely literary, and achieved its finest expression in poetry, drama and prose.(4)The greatest literary writer of the English Renaissance was William Shakespeare.Chapter5◆The Reform Act of 1832 改革法案： (1)It’ s also known as the Greater Charter of 1832, it was passed by Parliament in 1832.(2)According to the Act, “rotten boroughs” were abolished, and parliament seats were redistributed more fairly among the growing industrial towns.(3)It also gave the vote to many householder and tenants who were required to have certain property.◆Charles Darwin 查尔斯­达文：(1)A famous British scientist in the 19th century.(2)He has been especially remembered for his important book“the Origins of Species” in which he developed his theory of evolution.(3)The theory of evolution caused evident reaction of the Victorians and contributed to the decay of Victorianism.◆The Victorian Age 维多利亚时期：(1)It refers to monarchy of Britain under Queen Victoria from 1837 to 1901, the longest reign in British history.(2)The Victorian Age was an age of national development and national optimism.(3)The Victorians were very religious and conservative in family life. It was also, in its later stages, an age of imperialism.◆The State of Westminster 威斯敏斯特条例：(1)In 1931, the British Parliament passed a bill which later has been known as the Statute of Westminster, according to which, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Southern Ireland, New Foundland and South Africa turned into “Dominions”.(2)These self­government both internally and externally, although they still regarded the British monarch as their head of state .(3)This marked the disruption of the British Empire and the establishment of the British Commonwealth.◆The Europe Economic Community 欧共体：(1)Also known as the Common Market, it was established by the Treaty of Rome on January 1,1958.(2)Originally it was composed of six Western Europe countries—France, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg.(3)Britain didn’t become a full member of the Community until 1973. Today, there are altogether 12 member in the Community.Chapter7◆The Constitutional monarchy 君主立宪制：It’s a political system that has been practiced in Britain since the Glorious Revolution of 1688.According to this system; the Constitution is superior to the Monarch. In law, the Monarch has many supreme powers, but in practice, the real power of monarchy has been greatly reduced and today the Queen acts solely on the advice of her ministers. She reigns but doesn’t rule. The real power lies in the Parliament, or to be exact in the House of Commons.◆The British Constitution英国宪法：It’s not written in any single document. It’ s made up of Statute Law, common law and Conventions. It’s more flexible than the written constitution of other countries.◆British Parliament 英国议会：It includes three elements: the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It’s the Supreme law­making authority in Britain. The real center of parliamentary power lies in the House of Commons. Its other functions include: to control and criticize the executive government; to control the raising and the spending of money.Chapter9◆The Church of England 英格兰国教：(1)Also called the Anglican Church, it’s one of the many Protestant sects which broke away from Roman Catholic church during the Reformation tin the 16th century.(2)It’s an established church which means that it represents the official state religion.(3)Its religious leader is the Archbishop of Canterbury and its secular leader is the British Monarch.◆Free Churches 自由教会：(1)Also known as Non­Conformist Churches in England, Free churches are protestant sect that have separated from the established church of England.(2)These include the Methodist, the Congregational, the Baptist,an the Quakers, and many others.(3)All these sects agree on the essentials of Christianity, but have different forms of service and points of emphasis.◆The Quakers 贵格派：(1)Also known as the Religious Society of Friends. The Quakers are a Protestant group that originated in England in the 17th century, under George Fox.(2)They refuse to participate in the church of England services.(3)They advocate simple living and hard work and believe in complete equality and fraternity.Chapter10◆The eleven­plus 十一岁附加考试：（1）Under the old selective system of secondary education in Britain, the “eleven­plus” is the examination taken by children in their last year at primary school.(2)The results of this examination determine the kind of secondary schooling each child will receive.(3)Those with the highest marks go to grammar school ;other children may go to technical schools or secondary modern schools.(4)In the 1960s and 70s, this examination was abolished and has ever since gradually been replaced by comprehensive schools which take children of all abilities.◆Grammar schools 语法学校： (1)It’ s a type of state secondary schools in Britain. It has been in existence since the 16th century.(2)These schools concentrate on academic subjects and expect many of their children to take higher examinations and go on to universities.(3)Now, its importance in the British educational system has been largely diminished due to the growth of comprehensive schools.◆Public school公学：(1)It’s a kind of independent privately­owned secondary boarding schools in Britain.(2)These schools are financially supported by tuition fees and private funds.(3)Most of their students come from rich families and arevery likely to go on to famous universities.(4)The word “public” is a traditional one with little meaning today since far from being public these schools are restricted to a comparatively small section of the population.◆Prep schools 准备学校：(1)Also called preparatory schools. They are private elementary schools in Britain, which prepare their students for public schools.(2)The prep school curriculum differs considerably from that of the state junior schools, and there is a distinctive emphasis on classical subjects.(3)At the age of thirteen, the pupils will take the “common entrance” examination for admission to a public school.◆Open University 开放大学：(1)As a new type of higher education, Open University only appeared in Britain in 1969.(2)It’ s open to everybody, especially to people who have missed the opportunity for higher education.(3)It doesn’t demand the same formal qualification as the other universities.(4)It uses modern communications means such as television, radio or correspondence.(5)It’s non­residential although there is a network of study centers throughout the country for contact with tutors and fellow students.(6)After passing the examinations of all required course, students are awarded a university degree.◆Comprehensive schools 综合中学：Comprehensive schools take pupils without reference to ability or aptitude and provide a wide­ranging secondary education for all or most of the children in a district.◆The Times 泰晤士报： (1)It’ s the most famous of all British national newspapers and is read by the most important British all over the world.(2)Politically it is independent, though it is traditionally inclined to be more sympathetic to the Conservative Party.(3)It’s not an organ of the British government and has areputation for extreme caution is its attitude.◆BBC 英国广播公司：(1)It’s the abbreviation of British Broadcasting Corporation.(2)It has both radio and television services.(3)For radio broadcasting, it uses 39 languages and broadcasts to the whole world.(4)There is no advertisement on any BBC program.(5)It’s financed by payments which must be made by all people who own television sets.(6)It has a Board of Governors, who are appointed by the Government.美国部分Chapter14WASPs：Traditionally, the mainstreams American were called WASPs, that is, White Anglo—Saxon Protestants.◆Indentured Servants 契约劳工：Indentured servants refer to some immigrants who had to work for a fixed term for their masters to repay the cross—Atlantic fare and debts.◆Ellis Island 爱利斯岛：Ellis Island of New York was an important immigration reception spot in the 1980s and at the turn of the century.Sunbelt areas 阳光地带：Chapter15◆Bill of Right 人权法案：(1)In 1789,James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification.(2)Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and this first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bill of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.◆Uncle Tom’s Cabin汤姆叔叔的小屋：It’s written by Beecher Stowe’s novelUncle Tom’s Cabin, public feeling against slavery was increased. Many people joined the abolitionists. They considered slavery inhuman and brutal.◆Emancipation Proclamation解放宣言：Lincoln issues it during the Civil War, when Lincoln realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making war a just war against slavery. Under the Emancipation of Proclamation, all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy were freed.◆Abolitionists 废奴主义者：They were people, mostly Northern humanitarians, who strongly opposed slavery and aimed to abolish the system.◆The Constitutional Convention制宪会议：(1)Since 1781, the thirteen states had been governed by the Articles of Confederation which set up a very weak central government.(2)In May,1787,the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia with instructions to revise the Articles of Confederation.(3)After much debate, the Constitution was later ratified.◆The “Great Compromise”大妥协： On the American constitutional Convention, contradictions emerged between the bigger and smaller states, between the industrial—commercial interests and landed interests, etc. The Great Compromise of July 16,1787,gave each state an equal vote in the Senate, making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population.◆The Federalist Papers 联邦文集：(1)During the ratification period, beginning on October 27,1787, the newspapers of New York City carried at short intervals a total of 85 letters to the public written under the name of Publius.(2) Later it was known that these letters were written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay and they came to be called the Federalist Papers.◆The Compromise of 1850 1850 年妥协：(1)With the territorial expansiontowards the west, the problem of whether slavery should be allowed to spread into these areas arose. (2)The compromise of 1850 was passed which allowed California to be accepted as a free state, New Mexico and Utah to be organized as territories without legislation either for or against slavery and more efficient machinery to be set up for returning runaway slaves to their masters.◆The Boston Tea Party波士顿倾茶事件：In 1773,when ships carried tea reached Boston, the governor decided to protest the distribution of tea. Several dozen Boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships at night and threw the tea into the harbor. This came to be known as the “Boston Tea Party ”.Chapter16◆The Muckrakers 揭丑者：The Muckrakers, a group of reform—minded journalists, made investigations and exposed various dark sides of the seemingly prosperous society.◆The Progressive Movement 进步运动：The Progressive Movement, a movement demanding government regulation of the economy and social conditions, spread quickly with the support of large numbers of people across the country .The Progressive Movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals. Rather, it was a number of diverse efforts at political, social, and economic reforms.◆The Big Four 四大列强：It refers to the four most influential countries after the WWI. They were the United State, Britain, France, and Italy.`◆Henry Ford 亨利­福特： Henry Ford was one of the most admired businessmen in the 1920s.He introduced the assembly line into automobile production.◆The Red Scare 红色恐惧：Between 1919 and 1920, the Red Scare happened in American where at that time a highly aggressive and intolerance nationalismexisted. On November 7,1919, and January 2,1920, the Justice Department launched two waves of mass arrests. Over 4,000 suspected communists and radicals were arrested and many were forced to leave the United States.◆The ku Klux Klan三 K 党：The KKK was first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867 after the Civil War in the South and by 1924 it claimed membership of four to five million. It was a violent society, which terrorized and attacked on not only blacks, but also progressives, communist and socialist party members, etc.◆The Black Thursday黑色星期四： It refers to the day of October 24,1929.On that day the New York stock market collapsed and the Great Depression began.◆The Great Depression 大萧条：(1)It refers to the economic depression started from the New York stock marker collapse on October 24,1929.(2)After that, thousands of bands and businesses failed.(3)Many people lost their jobs.(4)It was due the New Deal started in 1933 and the defense build up before and during the WWII, that the United States finally recovered from the Great Depression. Chapter17（1） George Kennan was a high­ranking official in the ◆George Kennan乔治­坎南：American embassy to Moscow.(2)He sent a long telegram to the State Department and suggested the containment policy towards the Soviet Union.◆The Truman Doctrine 杜鲁门主义：On March 12,1949, American President Truman made the open declaration of containment policy in a speech to the joint session of Congress. The US would support any country which said it was fighting against Communism. This is the Truman Doctrine.◆The Marshall Plan马歇尔计划：It was announced by Secretary of State GeorgeMarshall on June 5,1947.The purpose of the Plan was to offer Western Europe countries economic aid and to protect Western Europe from possible Soviet expansion.◆McCarthyism 麦卡锡主义：(1)Senator Joseph R. McCarthyism started a campaign of wild accusation and arrests in 1950s.(2)His full­scale anti­Communist hysteria was called McCarthyism.(3)In 1954 he was condemned by the Senate and McCarthyism ended.◆War Power Act战争权利法案： (1)The Vietnam War led to contradiction between Congress and the Executive.(2)The War Power Act was passed to limit the President’s power in sending troops abroad and required the President to consult Congress before any such decision.◆The New Frontier 新边疆计划：It was the name of American President Kennedy’s program which promised civil rights for blacks, federal aid to farmers and to education, medical care for all and abolition of poverty.◆The Civil Right Act of 19641964 年民权法案：Within months Johnson had signed into law the Civil Right Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination not only in public housing, but also in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.Chapter18◆Monetarist policies货币主义政策： Since the American economy was plagued by stagflation, in the early 1980s, the traditional Keynesian theory was replaced by new monetarist, which sought to fight inflation by increasing supply and reducing demand. On one hand, taxes were cut to increase economic dynamism. On the other hand, interest rates were raised to reduce the supply of money.Chapter19◆The Federal system联邦制：In American, the Federal system has two layers of rule. There is a central or federal government for nation. There are also state or local government. Each layer of government has separate and distinct powers laid down in the Constitution.◆Separation of powers 三权分立：The government is divided into three branches, the legislative, the executive and the judicial, each has part of the powers but not all the power.◆Checks and balances 权利制衡：This is a major principle of the American government system by which each branch of the government exercises a check on the actions of others. Such three branches as the legislative, the executive, and the judicial are thus in balance. This is called “checks and balances”.◆The Supreme Court 最高法院：The Supreme Court is the highest court of the United States and is the only organ, which has the power to interpret the Constitution. The Supreme Court at present consists of a Chief Justice and eight Association Justices.Chapter20◆Public schools 公立学校：Public schools, usually larger in size, are created , financially supported and governed by states or communities.◆Private schools 私立学校： There’ re by religious groups, or non­religious private organization or individuals.◆Diversity of American education美国教育的多样化：(1)Diversity considered to be and outstanding characteristic of American education.(2)This can be seen not only in the type, size and control of the institutions but educational policies andpractices.(3)As is stated by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, education is a function of the state, not the federal government.(4)As each state has the freedom the develop its own school system and delegate its power over education to local districts, many variation can be found in the education system of the 50 states.◆State board of education州教育委员会：An elected or appointed board. It’s responsible for establishing policies and, through a state department of education, delegates authority for the operation of schools to local school districts.◆School districts 学区：(1)They are subdivisions of the states.(2)Currently, there are some 15,500 operating local public school districts.(3)Each local school district has a government board which is usually elected by the voters.(4)Its major responsibilities are the hiring of professional and support staff, determining the most suitable local curriculum, and budget to carry out educational programs.◆High school 高中：High schools are made up of comprehensive, academic, vocational and technical schools with somewhat different tasks.◆The general standards for admission to institutions 入学标准水平：They include successful completion of high school, high school grade point average (GPAP) and class rank, course studied in areas of English, mathematics, and science and results from standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Testing Program’s examination (ACTP). Open admissions are also being practiced in some public institutions.◆Graduate study 研究生教育：(1)Graduate study, both at the master’s and doctoral levels, is intended to prepare students for professional work.(2)At the master’s level the program is primarily course oriented, an extension ofundergraduate study. The master’s degree can normally be earned in one year by students holding a bachelor’s degree in the field of study; in some cases, the program is designed to require two years.(3)The program of study for the Ph.D. is rarely as specific as that for the master’s degree. The student’s program is usually decided by the student and his advisor or with a committee of professors. It’ s based on the student’s previous study and experience and career plan and interests. The doctoral program requires at least three years’ postgraduate study including the master’s degree. The average number of years’ study beyond the bachelor’s degree for the Ph.D. is roughly about 5—8 years.◆Community college 社区大学：(1)An aspect of American higher education that has drawn attention is the community college and the role it plays.(2)In the early 1900s, this kind of two­years colleges emerged to meet the immediate need of the economic expansion and rapid rise in immigrants of the times.(3)Since then, it has undergone a rapid growth. It calls for education to serve the good of both the individual and society. It embodies general and liberal education career and vocational education and adult and continuing education. It performs important function. The guiding principle of it is higher education for every one.Chapter21◆Benjamin Franklin本杰明­富兰克林：(1)He was the only writer in the colonial period whose works are read today.(2)There are very famous saying in his Poor Richard’s Almanac.(3)His uncompleted autobiography is perhaps the first real American writing as well as the first real autobiography in English.◆Knickerbockers era 纽约市人时代：In the early 19th century, New York City is the center of American writing. Its writers called “Knickerbockers”. The periodfrom 1810 to 1840 is known as the “Knickerbockers era” of American literature. The name comes from A History of New York, written by Washington Irving.◆华盛顿­欧文：(1)He was the first American writer who gained international fame.(2)His book A History of New York gives the name “Knickerbockers era ” to the period from 1810 to 1840.His book created a lot of interest in the local history of New York.(3)His most famous book was“The Sketch Book”containing two of the best loved stories from American Literature “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.◆Ralph W. Emerson and Transcendentalism 爱默生和先验主义：(1) In the 1830s and 1840s, there emerged a movement among American young intellectuals, which emphasized man’s potentiality for goodness, creativity and self­development. It was called “Transcendentalism”.(2)Emerson was regarded as the leader of this movement. In “Nature” he stared that man shouldn’t see nature merely as something to be used; that man’s relationship with nature transcends the idea of usefulness.(3)In his speech “The American Scholar”, which was considered the intellectual Declaration of Independence, he attacked the influence of tradition and the past, and called for a new burst of American creativity. A man should know himself through intuition and the study of nature, not of books.(4)His other famous books include Self­reliance, Representative Men, English Traits and Poems.◆Nathaniel Hawthorne 霍桑：(1)One of those who attacked Transcendentalism with no regard for any social impact.(2)He thought that man was superior to all other living things because man could make a conscious choice between good and evil.(3)In his most famous novel “The Scarlet Letter” the considers the effect on an individual’s character of guilty conscience, of hypocrisy and of hatred.◆Mark Twain 马克­吐温：(1)His real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens. He gained a wide knowledge of humanity through his life experience.(2)In 1865, he became famous with his short story“The celebrate Jumping Frog” .(3)His boyhood experience furnished his with ample material for writing. “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” was an immediate success as “a boy book”, and “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” became his master work.(4)All stories of his novels are simple and he represented American social life through portrayal of local places he knew best and through his colloquial style. His other famous book are :”A Tramp Abroad”, “Life on the Mississippi”.◆Walt Whitman 沃尔特­惠特曼：(1)American poet, he praised an emerging America, its expansion and its individualism. He broke free from the convention of the poetic rhyme exhibiting a freedom in from unknown before.(2)In his master piece “Leaves of Grass”, he praised the ideas of equality and democracy and celebrated the dignity, the self­reliant spirit and the joy of the common man.(3)He was the first to explore fully the possibilities of free verse. He invented a completely new and completely American form of poetic expression.◆Emily Dickinson 艾米莉­迪更森： (1)She was female American poet. She praised an emerging America, its expansion and individualism.(2)Cut off from the outside world, she created a very personal and pure kind of poetry. Her poetry is now seen as very modern for its time.(3)She made the “search for faith ”one of the great themes of her work. Apart from Bible, her most important guide in this search war the philosophy of Emerson.◆Theodore Dreiser 西奥多­德莱曼：(1)He was one of the naturalists who in their works reported truthfully and objectively the life in the slums.(2)His first novel。

这个不是新版本的，仅作参考英国部分1.The Thames RiverThe Thames River is the second largest and most important river in Britain. It is 336 KM long, rising in southwest England and flowingthrough England and out into the North Sea. It flows rather slowly,which is very favorable for water transportation.2.The High LandersThey are the Scots who live in the mountainous regions of the Highlandsin Northern Scotland. They are a proud, independent and hardy people who maintain their strong cultural identity. They mainly live byfarming sheep in mountain areas or fishing on the coasts and islands.3.The British Commonwealth 英联邦The British Empire was replaced by the British Commonwealth or the Commonwealth of Nations in 1931.It is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special powers. The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each member nation. At present there are 50 members counties within the commonwealth(1991).是曾为英国殖民地，但现在已经独立构成的自由联合体。