语言教学的基本概念总结资料
第一部分扫除障碍clearing the ground
Chapter one
L1
L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family. Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language. A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity. L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.
L2
The term second language has two meanings. First, it refers to the chronology of language learning. A second language is any language acquired later than the native language. This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired. At one extreme the second language learning process takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary. At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition process is virtually completed or slowed down. Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes. Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language. In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency. Hence second means also ‘weaker’or ‘secondary’.
Bilingualism
Bilingualism can be used in two situations. When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country. It does not necessarily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual. It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language.
The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies (a) notions of manner of language acquisition and (b) level of proficiency in the two languages. With regard to (a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning process in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language. With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages. In more technical discussions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed. It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism.
Second versus foreign language
In contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term
foreign language is commonly given. A second language usually has official status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language has not.
The purposes of second language are quite different from foreign language. Second language is needed for the full participation in the political or economical life of the nation since it is the official language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety of purposes in mind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.
A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away. A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measures compensating for the lack of environmental support. By contrast, a second language is often learnt informally because of its widespread use within the environment.
International language / intranational language
Second and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community or communities as a territorial reference or contact group. International or intranational language lack this characteristic. Thus, English in India which has the status of an official language but has no specified reference group, is learnt as a means of intranational communication. If English is learnt in many countries across the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speaking territories, but as a means of international communication across national boundaries among speakers of other language. For this role the term international language has been proposed.
Language learning
The psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge. It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think. Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.
From the perspective of the psychology of learning, learning has been approached in two main ways: (1) through theoretical and experimental studies and (2) through empirical studies in educational settings.
With regards to the (1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished. The first, derived from the British associationist school of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view of man. Modern milestone in the development of this position are Watson’s behaviorism, Skinner’s operate conditioning, etc. Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stimuli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept. The psychology of learning, according to this viewpoint, therefore, is a study of learning phenomena which disregards the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and internal processes of the learner.
The other trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an early representative was Gestalt psychology. It had laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social conduct. For Gestalt theory, it is impossible to represent human learning without concepts of subjective experience, such as the sudden click of understanding. Gestalt psychology was able to throw light on perceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitive experiences of the learner with such concepts as ‘whole and part’, field, structure, and
organization.
Without necessarily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning. They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure.
As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigated learning problems from the applied side in practical learning situations. Critics have deplored the wide gap between the classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning.
Categories of the psychology of learning, commonly applied to formal educational activities, refer to (a) characteristics of the learners and individual differences among learners, (b) different kinds of learning, (c) the learning process and (d) outcomes of learning.
(a)Among learner characteristics, factors that are frequently presented in the literature include: (1)
the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning; (2)the influence of heredity and environment on abilities and achievement; (3) specific aptitudes for particular learning tasks, for example, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc. (4) the influence of home and community on motivations and attitudes.
(b)What is being learnt has been frequently expressed as three psychological categories. They are
conceptual and verbal learning, skill learning and affective and social learning.
(c)As for the process of learning, a number of distinctions have been introduced. One is on the
time-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning; learning processes may further differ in the degree of awareness or volitional control on the part of the learner: the conscious learning and the latent learning,, the distinction introduced by Krashen between language learning and language acquisition refers to this identification. The contrast between mechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptual understanding of the learning task by learners.
(d)Lastly, the needs of assessing the outcome of learning have led to the development of tests of
achievement and proficiency. Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for the assessment of language learning.
Learning and acquisition
The American applied linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition’to describe second language learning which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires his first language, that is naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language development particularly in formal school-like settings.
A disadvantage of Krashen’s terminology is that it runs counter to the terms used in psychology which, as we have noted, comprise Krashen’s acquisition and learning as different ways of learning.
Language teaching
It can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning. All that need to be pointed out is that language teaching is more widely interpreted than instructing a
language class. Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualized instruction, self-study, computer-assisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio or television.
Chapter two: theory and practice
Definition of theory
The word theory is used in three fairly distinct but related senses. When we speak of theory of art, or educational theory, the term theory is used in the first and widest sense (T1). It refers to the systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, for example, art, music, or education.
Second, under T1, it is possible to subsume different schools of thought or theories (T2), each with their own assumptions, postulates, principles, models and concepts. What we often loosely referred to as language teaching method. Lastly, in the natural and human sciences the concept of theory is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3) as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation or experiment’’. The theory of evolution is a case in point.
Criteria for a good theory
We can identify the following criteria as relevant to theory development in language teaching (1) usefulness and applicability
Since a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities. It should be useful, effective or applicable. It proves its usefulness by making sense of planning, decision making, and practice. It should help decision making both on the broader policy level and at the level of classroom activity. The crucial test of language teaching theory is its effect.
Interlanguage
An interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1) in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物质的, 特殊的, 异质的) based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can ossify in any of its developmental stages. The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.
Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a "psychological structure latent in the brain" which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language. Larry Selinker proposed the theory of interlanguage in 1972, noting that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning. This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system. This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.
To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the interlanguage of the learner with two things:
Utterances in the native language to convey the same message made by the learner
Utterances in the target language to convey the same message made by the native speaker of that language.
Interlanguage yields new linguistic variety. Interlanguage is the basis for diversification of linguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence. Dialects formed by interlanguage are the product of a need to communicate between speakers with varying linguistic ability, and with increased interaction with a more standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor of a standard dialect. In this way, interlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language or dialect acquisition.
Stephen Krashen & SLA
Stephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist. Krashen has contributed to the fields of second language acquisition (SLA), bilingual education, and reading. He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the distinction between acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the Affective Filter, and the Natural Order Hypothesis.
The term "language acquisition" became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive "learning." However, "second language acquisition" or "SLA" has become established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.
Though SLA is often viewed as part of applied linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning processes themselves, whereas applied linguistics may focus more on the experiences of the learner, particularly in the classroom. Additionally, SLA has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.
The monitor theory 监控理论
It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:
①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence —acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.
②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three
conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language.
③The natural order hypothesis Same order —The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.
④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition—According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1. That is to say, language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.
⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose —It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success —motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors —learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.
Error analysis
Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues (Corder, 1967). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.
Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as "I angry" are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, "I angry" would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.
From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.
Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.
Pedagogical grammar
Pedagogical grammar serves as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy. Drawing on work in several fields such as linguistics, psychology and second language acquisition theory, pedagogical grammar is of a hybrid nature, which usually denotes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students. In its expanded view it involves decision making processes on behalf of the teacher which requires careful and time-consuming interdisciplinary work. This pr ocess is influenced by the teachers’ cognition, beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes about the teaching of grammar.
Noblitt bases his conception of a pedagogical grammar on a fivefold analysis: a pedagogical grammar requires descriptive and contrastive data and concepts, an ordering of the information in terms of skills( listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and in terms of levels of achievement (elementary, intermediate, and advanced), and evaluation procedures, bearing in mind objectives and educational settings for which the pedagogical grammar in intended.
What is the relationship between the linguistics and language teaching?
The relationship between linguistics and language teaching has moved through different phases. In spite of the early interest in phonetics around the turn of the 20th century, the language teaching remained unaffected until the interwar period. Equally, the linguists ignored the application of linguistics in the pedagogical activities.
From about the 1940s to 1960s, there is a confident application of linguistics in the teaching practice. Linguists in the forties in America were fully aware of their role in language teaching. Bloomfield suggested a professional and almost technical approach in teaching the language. The set of the approach was (1) a structural analysis of the language, forming the basis for graded material, (2) presentation of the analysis by a trained linguist, (3) several hours of drill per day with the help of a native speaker and in small classes, and (4) emphasis on speaking as the first objective. The structuralism forms the linguistic basis of the audiolingual method which was prevailing in the 40s and 50s.
The new perspective of language offered by transformational generative grammar led to a violent rejection of structuralism and everything it stood for. It shook the foundations of structuralism in linguistics and by implication of audiolingualism in language teaching.
Transformational generative grammar recognizes the language as a rule-governed system, therefore, learning a language involves internalizing the rules. Structural linguistics only treats a language as a collection of habits. In language teaching, therefore, it sanctions imitation, memorization, mechanical drills, ect. Chomsky accused the linguists of sharing the myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed of stock of patterns ia acquired through practice and used as a basis for analogy. The new version of Chomsky’s theory leads to the disorienting impact of linguistics to language teaching from 1965 to 1970.
The sudden ideological changes reopened the entire question of the contribution of linguistics to language teaching. A shift was taken place from applying linguistics directly to treating linguistics as a resource to be drawn on for the benefit of pedagogy with complete independence of mind. The conviction that linguistic studies cannot be applied to language pedagogy without modification led to the formulation of the concept of pedagogical grammar as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.
Now that we have traced the development of the relations between linguistics and language teaching we will attempt to draw some lessons for the development of our own view of language within a language teaching theory. We will investigate the relationship under the distinction of application and implication and recognize a twofold connection: (1) A language teaching theory incorporates a theory of language, (2) The description of particular language is brought to language teaching.
With regard to the theory of language in teaching, a language teaching theory expresses answers to questions about the nature of language. We should identify view of language implicit in language teaching theories from the following 5 aspects:
a.analytical and non-analytical approaches to language
A basic question to ask is to what extent the language teaching theory treats the language analytically and therefore adopts a linguistics point of view, or whether it presents the language non-analytically.
When we treat language non-analytically, the teaching approaches avoids deliberate study of the language, but the rationale underlying this teaching approach still implies a view of nature of language.
As we treat language as an object to be studied, practiced, or manipulated in any way, we must conceptualize it or at least to a certain extent.
b. the complexity of language
Linguistic theory has not presented us with a simple and unified picture of language. The second question to ask is : what aspects of language does our language teaching theory include or exclude, and among those that are included, which of these are espically emphasized?
We can ask ourselves to what extent the language teaching theory gives priority to phonology, grammar, vocabulary or discourses aspects. Going on from these, we can further ask how it handles these different components of language. Does it deal with them entirely as language forms or structures? Or does it teach them as meanings? And does it place language features into a social context and thus relate the language to the real world?
c. the humpty-dumpty effect
it is one thing to isolate and analyse different aspects of language, it is quite another to bring the different aspects of the language together. The categories which linguists have devised in order to study an aspect of language more effectively can become troublesome barriers. To overcome
these, linguistics has not only concerned itself with analysis but has also aimed to make a synthesis between the different parts of language. In the same way, the language teacher wishes to teach language as a whole.
d. rule versus creativity
a language teaching theory, like a linguistic theory, should take into account the regularities( rules, patterns, structures, habits) as well as the possibility of making use of the regularities in varied, novel, and sometimes unique ways as demanded by a given situation.
e. a theory of language --- a necessary artifact
the final question to ask is of a more general nature: what are the main characteristics of the view of language in this language teaching theory? Since the language is comprehensive by nature, both the linguistics and teaching should concern the complexity of language and convey it. However, it is impossible to justice to the whole of language, a language teaching theory inevitably demand choices based on an interpretation of language. That is to say, all language teaching theories are artifacts which highlight some aspects of language at the expense of the others.
When we come to the description of languages, there is often a discrepancy between descriptive information on a second language and the needs of pedagogy. Therefore an intermediate device, the pedagogical grammar , has been suggested and the following conceptual steps which link theoretical and descriptive linguistics with the development of a language curriculum can be indicated.
The descriptive relationship can be divided into six steps. Theoretical linguistics at step I is concerned with the development of general categories and research strategies for studies of particular language. Research at step II can be visualized as detailed studies of linguistic features of particular languages. These studies form the descriptions of given language at step III. The descriptions provide the basis for a pedagogical grammar at step IV. The pedagogical grammar forms the linguistic resource for curriculum development which takes place at step V, with the teaching of language aspect at step VI.
Maintaining the dual relationship between linguistics and language teaching is important for language pedagogy, but it is a complex undertaking. The continuing developments in linguistic theory and in language pedagogy as well as the constant changes in the language themselves, demand the permanent study of language and languages and a review of the relations between linguistic theory and language pedagogy.
What is communicative competence
Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a intuitive mastery that the native speaker possesses to use and interpret language appropriately in the process of interaction and in relation to social context.
This concept was coined by Hymes in 1972 to constitute a challenge to Chomsky’s linguistic competence which is confined to internalized rules of syntax and abstracts from social rules of language use. Communicative competence no doubt implies linguistic competence but its main focus is the intuitive grasp of social and cultural rules and meanings that are carried by any utterance.
The complexity of the entire rule system makes it impossible for anyone except the native
speakers to acquire communicative competence. This observation leads to the conclusion that communicative competence of second language learners must be conceived somewhat differently from that of a native speaker.
The definition of the second language learners’ communicative competence given by Canale and Swain (1980) has long been viewed as the standard one in applied linguistics. They prescribe this term into four components:
(1) Grammatical competence: this includes the knowledge of the lexicon, syntax and semantics, or words and rules in general.
(2) Sociolinguistic competence: it refers to the appropriateness of communication depending on the context including the participants and the rules of interaction.
(3) Discourse competence
This is concerned with the cohesion and coherence of utterances in a discourse
(4) Strategic competence
It means appropriate use of communication strategies especially when communication fails.
Language planning
Language planning consists of organized efforts to find solutions to language problems in a society. It is therefore an application of sociolinguistic concept and information to policy decisions involving language.
Language planning process is likely to go through a necessary series of stages 1)fact-finding The planning must be based on a survey and review of the language situation for which the plan is developed. (2) the selection stage At this stage the planner will attempt to identify language goals and choices open to the society or policy makers and suggest strategies for reaching these goals. (3) the development stage. At this stage, the traditionally recognized forms of language planning are employed : cultivation and development of the language or languages that have been selected in previous stage. (4) the implementation phase Defining the steps to take --- information, assimilation, instruction--- constitute the fourth phase of the planning process. (5) the final phase is one of feedback and evaluation.
Linguists recognize eleven language planning goals such as language purification, language revival, language reform, language standardization, language spread ect.
Language planning has been divided into three types: status planning, corpus planning and acquisition planning. Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language, Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning.
Proficiency
Proficiency can be looked at as a goal and thus be defined in terms of objectives or standards. These can then serve as criteria by which to assess proficiency as an empirical fact, which is the actual performance of given individual learners or groups of learners.
The native-like proficiency is a necessary point of reference for the second language proficiency concept used in language teaching theory. Proficiency in the first or second language can be summarized as:
1. The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language. It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them. This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.
2. The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.
3. The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and
4. The creativity of language use.
There are two sets of approaches that have been made to conceptualize and describe second language proficiency.
One set of options relates to the levels of proficiency the different degree of actual or required mastery of the second language, or the progression from a basic to a near-native level. This is what rating scales postulate, test measure, and interlanguage studies empirically investigate.
The second set of options lies in the components of proficiency which can be expressed in relatively general or abstract terms in increasingly concrete ways. Oller has opted for a single-concept expression of proficiency: expectancy grammar. Most error analysis and interlanguage studies appear to assume a single underlying linguistic competence. Cummins (1979) has recognized a twofold division between the linguistic competence and communicative competence. Canale and Swain’s division of proficiency into linguistic, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence is threefold. A fourfold interpretation is also implicit in the traditional division of proficiency into listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The Council of Europe inventories represent a multiple interpretation of proficiency combing roles, settings, topics, functions, and notions, while Carroll’s analysis of proficiency relates four behavioural to three or more linguistic categories.
Given the complexity of language it would seem more reasonable to assume that the proficiency in a language is multifaceted.
In future studies on proficiency the four approaches could no doubt complement each other and serve jointly to develop progressive approximations of a more definitive formulation of proficiency of second language learners.
Model of second language learning ( the factors involving the second language learning) We can consider a diagram consisting of five factors as an uncontroversial synthesis representing the consensus among the different investigators.
In this diagram five sets of variables have been distinguished. Three of these----social context, learner characteristics and learning conditions--- are represented as determiners of the learning process and, through it , of the learning outcome.
Social context can be seen to be of great importance in language learning. First, language
must be treated in social context.. In addition, for language teaching, it is important to relate language to society, because languages are taught and learnt to establish contact and communication across language boundaries.
The factors in social context which respectively exert influence on language learning are: linguistic factors, social and cultural factors, the historical setting and the national or international political situation, geographical aspects, economic and technological development, and educational framework.
If we want to understand the influence of learner characteristics on learning and learning outcome, we’d better get a thorough understanding of the learner variables: age, sex, cognition, affection and personality.
Since the definitive answers to the major questions of learner psychology still elude us, in formulating a language teaching theory our conceptualizations of learner factors must remain somewhat tentative. With these caution in mind we will now look at a few crucial learner factors—the age question, language learning aptitude and other cognitive characteristics and affective and personality factors.
As for the age issue, a series of studies offer the following conclusions: 1. language learning may occur at different maturity levels from the early years into adult life, no age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for aspects of second language learning. 2. In some respects, all age levels face second language learning in similar ways. 3. The young children respond more readily and intuitively to language acquisition in social and communicative situations, while the older learners can learn languages more readily by means of cognitive and academic approach. 4.Each stage of development may have certain advantages and certain disadvantages for second language learning.
The language aptitude batteries include the ability to cope with a sound system and its written representation, the ability to absorb its grammatical rule system and verbal memory skills. More recent research has attempted, although quite tentatively, to identify basic cognitive characteristic underlying learning strategies such as field dependence/ independence, transfer/ inference, broad and narrow categorizing.
As for the affection and personality of the learners, Gardner distinguishes four main categories: group specific attitudes, course related characteristics, motivational indices, and generalized attitude. The first component consists of attitudes towards the community and people who speak the target language. The second component comprises attitudes towards the learning situation itself. The third category refers to the learner’s motives for learning the language. The fourth group of variables includes a general interest in foreign languages and certain personality characteristics: ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, anomie, Machiavelliannism and the need for achievement.
The learning conditions consist of two settings: language learning either inside the target language environment or away from it. The distinction between learning from exposure to the second language in the target language environment and learning from a teacher is not rigid. The two conditions can be visualized as a continuum.
The advance from zero competence to whatever level the learner wishes to attain in the second language goes through several stages.
At the beginning of the learning process, the second language learner has affective, cognitive and social consequences. Affectively, the second language learner has to come to terms with the
frustrations of non-communication. The lack of language contact and of means of expression and the absence of a safe reference system give the learner an initial intellectual and emotional shock. Cognitively, the learner at the start faces disorientation with regard to all linguistic, semantic, and sociolinguistic aspects of the second language. The task for the learner is to overcome the disorientation and constraints to build up, cognitively and affectively, a new reference system and a system of meaning to be able to respond to the communicative situations appropriately and spontaneously and to think in the second language. This process has been described as internalization. In social terms, the second language learner is dependent on the model given to him by the teacher, the native informant or the second language milieu. This linguistic and sociolinguistic dependence is necessary early phase, a satellization phase of language acquisition.
In the progressive pattern of language learning, the intermediate competence levels which have been referred to as transitional competence or interlanguage ideally become progressive approximations to the second language norm set by the native speaker or teacher.
Once the stage, experienced subjectively as a stage of greater freedom of communication, has been reached, the learner enters the desatellization phase.
Besides the question about the nature and stages of language development, the language learning process presents three main problems which we labeled as the (1) L1-L2 connection, (2)the explicit-implicit option and (3) the code-communication dilemma. The L1-L2 connection means the disparity between the inevitable dominance in the mind of the learner of the first language and the inadequacy of the learner’s knowledge of the new language. The second is the choice between deliberate, conscious, or relatively cognitive ways of learning a second language and more subconscious, automatic, or more intuitive ways of learning it. The third issue is the learner’s problem of how to cope with the dilemma that is presented by the fact that it is hard, if not impossible, for an individual to pay attention to linguistic forms, the language as a code, and simultaneously to communicate in that code.
We have argued that the three issues are dealt with by all the language learners and teachers. In doing so the learning process is best understand as threefold involving the learner intellectually/cognitively, socially and affectively.
From all these considerations and from the research, Stern and his colleagues derive four basic sets of strategies which they hypothesize good learners are likely to employ. They are an active planning strategy, an academic (explicit) learning strategy, a social learning strategy, and an affective strategy. For intelligent and intellectual adults, active planning strategy and academic learning strategy may be more important, while for young children, an emphasis on social learning strategy and affective strategy can be expected.
The aim of further learning research remains to improve our understanding of second language learning in different social contexts, under different language learning conditions, at different age and maturity levels, and at different levels of proficiency.
Acculturation theory
It was put forward by J.Schumann and R. Aderson in 1970s. The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through
the process of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture. It involves social and psychological adaptations. The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition. Factors which determine the degree of acculturation success: The social and psychological distance plays a decisive role in acculturation success. Negative psychological factors such as high ego boundaries, language shock, culture shock, low motivation that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.
What is your understanding of the curriculum?
The term of curriculum is commonly used in two related senses. It refers, first, to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational institution or system, such as the school curriculum, the university curriculum. In a more restricted sense it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum. In recent years, however, the term curriculum has come to refer not only to the subject matter or content, but also to the entire instructional process including materials, equipment, examinations and training of teachers, in short, all pedagogical measures related to schooling or to the substance of a course of studies. In other words, curriculum is concerned with “what can and should be taught to whom, when, and how.”
Curriculum theory is concerned with (1) the underlying ideological and philosophical assumptions of curriculum (curriculum philosophy); (2) the conceptualization of three main components of curriculum: purposes and content, instruction, and evaluation, and (3) curriculum processes: systematic curriculum development, the implementation of curriculum in educational institution and curriculum evaluation.
(1) Curriculum philosophies.
Discussions distinguished five major orientations: the school curriculum should develop cognitive processes. The principal function of the school is not to transmit a predetermined content but to train children in skills of enquiry. So the main object of language teaching is not to acquire a second language to perfection but to provide how to learn language.
A second orientation is described as self-actualization. According to this point of view, the curriculum should be meaningful at the given stage of the child’s growth rather than provide him with experience which are useful to him only when he is adult.
A third orientation, social reconstruction lays emphasis on the needs of the society which are to be met by education and curriculum. In this sense, bilingualism is very important as a binding force in the society across the linguistic divisions.
The fourth orientation is academic rationalism, emphasizes the heritage of classical scholarship and a common literacy as the main core and content of the curriculum.
The fifth orientation is described as curriculum as technology. In this approach values are not questioned or consciously established.
These five orientations are not mutually exclusive.
(2) Essential components of curriculum.
The basic concepts of curriculum are broadly agreed upon. Three major distinctions are commonly made.
a. Purposes and content.
Modern curriculum theory has laid a great deal of emphasis on the definition of goals and the clarification of content. American educationist Bloom has established an ordered classification of educational objectives. They were expressed in three major psychological categories: cognition, affect, and psychomotor skills. The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
b. Instruction
This concept centres around the process of teaching and learning to reach these objectives. Consequently, the how of education---- teaching methods, the time allocation, the selection and arrangement of content, the modes of presentation, the classroom, the media used, and so on ----can also be considered part of curriculum
c. Evaluation
The third aspect of curriculum, evaluation, refers to the assessment of whether teaching achieves its object.
(3) Curriculum processes. The development of a new curriculum, its implementation in a school system and its periodic evaluation have been recognized as activities that must be carefully planned.
a. Curriculum development.
What steps should be taken to develop new curricula and carry them into effect? The answers are concerned with efficiency of curriculum construction and its implementation in a school system.
b. Implementation and the management of curriculum change.
Even if the curriculum has been developed and assuming that the right kind of reaching materials have been created, there is still a problem of implementing the new curriculum. It involves the willing participation of the teachers which has been regarded as the essential aspect of introducing a new curriculum.
c. Curriculum evaluation.
The evaluation of curriculum is a quality control of the curriculum in answer to two main questions: first, has the curriculum selected goals and a content which are sound and educationally justifiable? Second, is the instruction of a kind that will lead to success among the students to whom the curriculum is directed?
With review of the three components in mind, the curriculum philosophy, the basic concept relating to curriculum, and curriculum development, we can get a thorough understanding of the term of curriculum.
Can you try to explain the model of teaching?
A teaching model proposed by Stern and his colleagues offer us the interrelated factors in the teaching, they are social context, learner characteristics, teacher characteristics, learning process, learning conditions and learning product.
The social context influences the learner as well as the teachers. It also directly influences the educational treatment. Considering the teaching model from the educational perspective, the
whole teaching should be fulfilled in curriculum terms.
Teaching, interpreted in terms of curriculum, is represented as planned action with certain ends in view and means to reach them. A means-end view of teaching is unavoidable in language pedagogy.
1. Ends
Let get an explanation of ends at first. When we talk about ends, both objectives and content should be identified in the analysis of teaching. Inspired by the Bloom taxonomy, we can attempt to identify four categories of objectives. It recognizes proficiency in the second language as a first and major objective. The second one is knowledge which comprises an explicit knowledge about the second language and knowledge about the corresponding culture. The third objective expresses the belief that the cultivation of affective objectives forms an integral part of the scheme. This objective includes values and attitudes related to the language and culture. A final behavioral category, which is described as transfer, acknowledge as an objective the possibility of learning a particular language with the purpose of generalizing beyond the language in question.
The content categories are broadly conceived as language, culture, communication, and general language education. Language implied the particular L2, culture means the target culture. Communication refers to activities which engage the learner as a participant in communication with speakers of the second language. General knowledge education is the content beyond the particular second language and target culture which will enable the learner to go beyond the language given.
2. Means
Making a conceptual distinction between ends and means is particularly important in language teaching because the confusion between them has been another constant source of trouble in the debate on teaching methods. Instruction brings us to the most intense controversy in the method debate. Therefore, we would like to select the concept of teaching strategies. It is not possible to propose a definitive and exhaustive list of teaching strategies, but we can begin by identifying those who can be derived from the three crucial issues which have been labeled as L1-L2 connection, the code-communication dilemma, and the explicit-implicit option.
(a) The intralingual-crosslingual (intracultural-crosscultural) dimensions concern the use or non-use of the L1 in L2 learning.
(b) The objective-subjective (analytical-experiential) dimension results from the code-communitcation dilemma. It refers to treat the target language as codes and as such as objects of study or as something to experience subjectively.
(c) The explicit-implicit dimension relates to techniques which encourage the learner either to adopt a cognitive approach or to employ the techniques which encourage more intuitive absorption and automatically.
3. Stages and sequences.
Since a language can not be mastered in a single stride a pedagogical progression and division of stages are inevitable. Such progression would be based on several content criteria such as what is known about language learning as a developmental process, the definition of mastery levels, learning objectives, and our knowledge about learners and learning, etc.
4. Learning outcome.
Learning outcome means the proficiency obtained by the learners. It can be summarized as:
(1) The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language. It means the language user knows the
rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them. This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progress.
(2) The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expressed by the language forms.
(3) The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and
(4) The creativity of language use.
Besides proficiency, there are cognitive and affective learning outcomes to bear in mind.
We should try to distinguish the immediate outcome from the long-term outcome. The immediate outcomes are important for feedback to further teaching and learning.
The long-term outcome can be considered from the point of view of the individual learner, the teacher, and the society.
For the individual learner, the outcome should be a permanent acquisition of a second language including the permanent attitude towards L2 learning.
For the individual teacher, the evaluation of his own teaching provides feedback for further teaching.
For the society, the language learning outcome may influence and modify the sociocultural and sociolinguistic context which forms the background against which the processes of teaching and learning are initiated.
The teaching-learning model which has been outlined is intended to enable us to view different aspects of language teaching in relation to one another and in this way to obtain a more balances view of the teaching component for the threefold purpose of theory development, practical decision making, and for research.
《语言教学原理》教学大纲 课程编码：010536 课程名称：语言教学原理 学时/学分：18/2 先修课程：无 适用专业：对外汉语 开课教研室：汉语教研室 一、课程性质与任务 1．课程性质：本课程对外汉语专业的专业课 2．课程任务：《语言教学原理》是面向国际汉语教育专业学生开展的关于对外汉语教学的基本语言理论课程，这门课系统的论述了第二语言教学，特别是对外汉语教学的基本理论、主要概念、总体设计中的主要环节和教学过程中的重要问题，探索了第二语言教学发展的方向。 二、课程教学基本要求 本课程是探索语言教学的理论基础，语言教学的规律、原则、方法、技巧和手段，目的在于建立一个比较完整的语言教学理论体系，从理论上说明语言教学是一门独立的学科。本课的重点是阐述基本理论和基本概念，帮助学生形成自己的语言教学法。 成绩考核形式：课程成绩=期终成绩（70%）＋平时成绩（期中考核、作业、课堂提问等）（30%）。成绩评定采用百分制，60分为及格。 三、课程教学内容 从对外汉语教学到汉语国际推广（代序） 综述 一、教学基本要求 让学生了解本学科的研究现状与学科定位，以及未来展望；激发学生对专业学习的兴趣和将要从事本专业工作的责任感和自豪感。 二、要求学生掌握的基本概念、理论、技能 通过本章教学使学生汉语作为第二语言教学有一个基本的了解，主要是本学科的研究领
域、现状、进展、特点与有待改进的问题；掌握汉语作为第二语言教学的基本情况和特点。 三、教学重点和难点 教学重点是汉语作为第二语言教学的的基本情况和特点。教学难点是汉语作为第二语言的教学研究。 四、教学内容 1.汉语作为第二语言教学的理论研究 2.关于学科研究领域 3.关于汉语作为第二语言研究 4.关于汉语作为第二语言教学研究 5.关于汉语作为第二语言的学习研究 6.汉语习得过程研究的新进展、新特点 7.有待改进的问题、展望 第一章第二语言习得研究综述 一、教学基本要求 让学生了解本学科的研究现状和研究成果；加深学生对专业学习和将要从事本专业工作的了解，为后续学习打下基础。 二、要求学生掌握的基本概念、理论、技能 本章主要介绍国内外关于第二语言习得的研究综述。通过本章教学使学生对汉语作为第二语言教学有一个基本的了解，主要是本学科的研究现状、成果。 三、教学重点和难点 教学重点是对外汉语教学概论的基本性质和任务。教学难点是对外汉语教学的性质。 四、教学内容 1.国外第二语言习得研究回顾 2.美国汉语习得研究述评 3.国内第二语言习得研究概述 4.第二语言习得研究方法 第二章语言迁移研究
绪论 0.1 建筑设备工程概述 建筑设备是指为了改善人类生活、生产条件，与建筑物紧密联系并相辅相成的所有水力、热力和电力设施。建筑设备能够通过由各种机械、部件、组件、管道、电缆及其他多种材料组成的有机系统，消耗一定的能源和物资，实现某种人类需要的功能。这些有机系统大多依附于建筑物上。 通常意义上的建筑设备工程包含水、暖、电三个专业的内容。 建筑设备安装工程是与建筑主体工程相辅相成的重要建设过程，此过程一般可描述为识图—施工。“按图施工”成为建筑设备安装工程的主要工作方针。建筑设备安装工程施工人员必须要通读相应施工图，然后完成工程备料、施工组织、选定工作面、工程实施等各项工作。 0.2 建筑设备施工图识图概述 建筑设备施工图识图包括：前期知识能力要点准备、建筑设备施工图情况初步了解和建筑设备施工图识图顺序与方法的选择。 0.2.1 前期知识、能力要点准备 1. 具备建筑构造识图制图的相应基本知识 (1) 具备建筑构造识图制图的基本知识：建筑平面图、立面图、剖面图的概念及基本画法。 (2) 掌握建筑识图投影关系的概念。 2. 具备画法几何的相应基本知识 (1) 掌握画法几何中轴测图的基本概念。
(2) 具备将平面图转换为轴测图的基本能力。 3. 具备空间想象能力 (1) 具备将平面图、原理图或者系统图中所表现出来的管道系统在脑海中形成立体架构的形象思维能力。 (2) 具备通过文字注释和说明将简单线条、图块所表达的给排水专业的图例，等同认识为本专业不同形态、不同参数的管道和设备的能力。 0.2.2 建筑设备施工图情况初步了解 建筑设备施工图，特别是本书所提供的某综合楼建筑的建筑设备施工图包含的系统较多，在识图过程中，不宜过早进入具体的平面图和系统图的识图，一般需要先期阅读图纸目录、设计施工说明、设备材料表和图例等文字叙述较多的图纸，建立起本套设计图纸的基本情况、本工程各系统的大致概况、主要设备材料情况以及各设备材料图例表达方式的综合概念，然后再进入具体识图过程。 各建筑设备图纸基本情况相差不大，下面就以给排水工程施工图为例，对建筑设备施工图情况做初步的了解。 1. 图纸目录 图纸目录是为了在一套图纸中能快速地查阅到需要了解的单张图纸而建立起来的一份提纲挈领的独立文件。以给排水专业的图纸目录为例，在本书所提供的某综合楼建筑的给排水专业施工图中，第一张图纸就是目录。识图过程从阅读图纸目录开始，这有助于帮助工程人员熟悉整套图纸的基本情况。图0.1所示为图纸目录。 图0.1 图纸目录的组成 (1) 给排水工程施工图图纸目录的内容一般有：设备表、材料表、设计施工说明、平面图、原理图、系统图、大样和详图等。 (2) 一般因不同的设计院、设计师的传统和习惯不同，目录内容编制的顺序会有所差别，不过一般会按照说明—平面图—系统(或原理图)—大样、详图的基本顺序进行编排。
《绘画中的透视原理》教案 彭富江08345820 教学目标：通过观察分析，理解现实生活中的基本透视原理并且能够基本正确的运用到今后的各种绘画中 教学重点：学生能初步了解生活中的透视现象 教学难点：如何运用所学知识把透视原理基本正确运用到绘画中 教学过程： 一，导入 同学们，在我们上课之前，线看看这张图片，在图片中我们可以看到铁路随着距离的变化有呢些不同呢？旁边这个电线架子随着距离的变化又有什么不同呢？ 我们再想，（示意图）公路是属于哪一个属性呢？（近宽远短窄 公路旁边的树呢？（近高远低 这同学们，种现象就是我们今天要学习的绘画中的透视原理 二，具体理解 现在我们把这个粉笔盒可以画成这样的样子
（平行透视）在我们这幅一点透视中就能够基本涵盖刚才所讲的透视关系 我们观察相等的横线近处与远处的横线由长到短的关系。 相等竖线由距离的变化的由高到低的关系 我们把这个粉笔盒再这么旋转一下，就可以画成这样的成角透视
同样的能够发现大小高低的变化 我们再观察下面这幅图片 在图片中我们看到，相同大小的船随着距离的变化有呢些变化？能够得出哪样的透视关系呢？（近大远小） 我们同样可以想到生活生活中很多这样的现象，比如公路上的小汽车等近处和远处的大小变化
但是在我们的绘画过程中，还有一个非常重要的透视原理同学们知道是什么吗？ 我们先看这张图片
在图片中我们可以看到，人的脸随着距离的变化出现，近处我们可以清楚的看到人的五官，但随着距离的变化，五官越来越模糊，最后只剩下一个影子我们用简笔画就可以这样变现出来（简笔画 为什么我们说这个关系很重要呢？是因为在我们绘画的过程中，不管是油画还是国画素描水粉等绘画中，空间层次的前后关系的区别拉开这个关系就起了很大的作用，在同学们今后的作画中能够切身体会到 比如下面这幅画 综上所述，我们在绘画中用线和面表现出物体空间位置，轮廊和投影的绘画原理就叫透视 三，透视在绘画中的运用 好了，同学们，现在我们已经对透视这个基本概念有所了解，那么我们怎么
语言教学的基本概念总结资料 第一部分扫除障碍clearing the ground Chapter one L1 L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family. Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language. A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity. L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction. L2 The term second language has two meanings. First, it refers to the chronology of language learning. A second language is any language acquired later than the native language. This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired. At one extreme the second language learning process takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary. At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition process is virtually completed or slowed down. Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes. Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language. In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency. Hence second means also …weaker?or …secondary?. Bilingualism Bilingualism can be used in two situations. When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country. It does not necessarily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual. It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language. The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies (a) notions of manner of language acquisition and (b) level of proficiency in the two languages. With regard to (a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning process in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language. With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages. In more technical discussions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed. It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism. Second versus foreign language In contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term
《建筑概论》课程教学大纲 课程编号：08140060 课程类别：专业选修课程 授课对象：建筑环境与设备工程专业 开课学期：第三学期 学分：2学分 主讲教师：吴世凤 指定教材：姜丽荣，崔艳秋，柳锋，《建筑概论》，中国建筑工业出版社，2002年 教学目的： 本课程是建筑环境与设备工程专业本科生的一门学科基础课，是为对建筑的基本知识感兴趣的同学开设的。本课程是学习专业课前必须要学习的一门基础课，特别是学习建筑内的供热、通风与空调所必须选修的基础课。 本课程的基本任务，是使学生掌握简单的建筑设计的基本原理与基本方法，熟练掌握建筑构造的原理和建筑各组成部分的基础知识，具备进行一般民用房屋建筑设计的基本能力。能够绘制简单的施工图和熟练地识读施工图。为后续的专业课学习打下基础。 绪论 课时：共0.5课时 教学内容 一、建筑的产生和党的建筑方针 二、建筑的分类 三、建筑的分级 思考题： 1、按建筑的使用性质，可分为哪几类？ 2、按主要承重结构的材料，建筑可分为哪几类？ 3、建筑物的耐久年限是如何划分的？ 第一章房屋建筑识图 课时：共3.5课时 教学内容 第一节房屋建筑识图的一般知识 一、房屋的组成和作用 建筑物的基本组成部分及各部分的作用。 二、施工图的内容和用途 一套完整的施工图包括的内容和各部分的用途。
三、施工图中常用的符号 施工图中常用的六种符号。 思考题： 1、房屋的六大组成部分的内容？哪几部分是承重构件？ 2、一套完整的建筑施工图包括哪些图纸？ 3、我国的绝对标高零点是如何规定的？ 第二节建筑总平面图 建筑总平面图的作用及它所包含的内容。 思考题： 建筑总平面图的作用及它所包含的内容？ 第三节建筑平面图 建筑平面图的作用及它所包含的内容。 思考题： 建筑平面图的作用及它所包含的内容？ 第四节建筑立面图 建筑立面图的作用及它所包含的内容。 思考题： 建筑立面图的作用及它所包含的内容？ 第五节建筑剖面图 建筑剖面图的作用及它所包含的内容。 思考题： 建筑剖面图的作用及它所包含的内容？ 第六节建筑详图 一、外墙身详图 外墙身详图的绘图比例、包含的主要内容。 二、楼梯详图 楼梯平面图和剖面图的内容和画法。 思考题： 1、外墙身详图表示了房屋哪些局部构造的情况？ 2、楼梯详图中包括哪些图纸？ 第二章民用建筑设计 课时：2周，共4课时 教学内容 第一节概述 一、建筑的构成要素
教案纸系环艺专业 08艺术1 班级任课教师 章节 第章 节题目透视的基本概念、平行透视 时间2008年 9 月 22日星期一第三四节 教学 目的 认识透视的概念与用途；初步了解平行透视（一点透视） 教学重点 （结合高职特点提出重点思路）1、透视图的形成原理 2、视域、画面、物体与视点的关系 3、近大远小与消失 4、平行透视中的消失点的变化 教学难点（提出解决难点的思路）1、视域、画面、物体与视点的关系 2、近大远小与消失 3、掌握透视的基本原理及透视中几个重要关系 4、平行透视中的消失点的变化
教学方法（结合学生实际，拟采用的教学方法） 理论和实践相结合，先让学生亲自感受，再进行边画边讲，在最后示范给学生看总结。在教学过程中要采取不同程度的教学方法，且要重复讲述。 教 具、 图表 投影仪、计算机、黑板 板书设计及讲解要点教学内容及设计时间分配 1、透视图的形成原理 "透视”是一种绘画活动中的观察方法和研究视觉画面空间的专业术语，通过这种方法可以归纳出视觉空间的变化规律。客观物体占据的自然空间有一定的大小比例关系，然而一旦反映到眼睛里，它们所占据的视觉空间就并非符合原来的大小比例关系了。正如一只手与一幢高楼相比微不足道，手在远处几
乎观察不到，但若将其向眼前移动，它的视觉形象就会越来越大，最后竟能遮住高楼，甚至整个蓝天，这就是常言所说一手遮天的道理。根据这个道理，可以通过玻璃窗子，向外观察，外面的景物，或树木，或山峰，或高大建筑，或人群，都可以在很小的窗框内看到。如果一只眼睛作固定观察，就能用笔准确地将三度空间的景物描绘到仅有二度空间的玻璃面上，这个过程就是透视过程。用这种方法可以在平面上得到相对稳定的具有立体特征的画面空间，这就是"透视图”。把这个透视图转画到纸面上就叫做写生。从透视图中推导出的视觉形象近大远小、缩形的变化规律，就构成了绘画中特定的"透视学”。 一、基本术语：视平线：就是与画者眼睛平行的水平
课题：1、断面图的基本概念 2、断面图的分类 3、剖切位置与标注 课堂类型：讲授 教学目的：1、介绍断面图的概念和分类 2、讲解断面图的概念和分类 教学要求：1、理解断面图的概念和分类 2、掌握断面图的画法和标注方法 教学重点：移出断面图的画法 教学难点：断面图的标注 教具：挂图：“轴的断面图” 教学方法：讲课时需讲清三个问题： （1）举例说明断面与剖视的区别，防止学生将这两个概念混为一谈，避免把断面画成剖视； （2）指出断面图的作用和优点；（3）定性地指出断面图的适用范围。 教学过程： 一、复习旧课 总结各种剖视图的画法、应用场合和标注，巩固剖视一节的内容，为学习断面图打下基础。 二、引入新课题 在上一节，我们重点学习了用剖视图来表达零件的内部结构。但对于某些零件，如种类，断面图的有关知识。 三、教学内容 国家标准GB/T17452—1998和GB/T4458.6—2002规定了断面图。 （一）断面图的基本概念 1、概念 假想用剖切平面将机件在某处切断，只画出切断面形状的投影并画上规定的剖面符号的图形，称为断面图，简称为断面。如图6—21所示。
（a）（b） （c） 图6—21 断面图的画法 2、断面图与剖视图的区别 断面图仅画出机件断面的图形，而剖视图则要画出剖切平面以后的所有部分的投影，如图6—21（c）所示。 （二）断面图的分类 断面图分为移出断面图和重合断面图两种。 1、移出断面图 （1）概念 画在视图轮廓之外的断面图称为移出断面图。 （2）举例 如图6—21（b）所示断面即为移出断面。 （3）画法要点 1）移出断面的轮廓线用粗实线画出，断面上画出剖面符号。移出断面应尽量配置在剖切平面的延长线上，必要时也可以画在图纸的适当位置。
《英语教学法》讲义 SYLLABUS CONTENTS 一、外语学习论 6课时 二、外语教学法流派介绍 6课时 三、《新课标》解读 3课时 四、任务型教学理论与实践 3课时 五、英语教师应具备的素质 2课时 Course Requirements: 1.attendance (30%) 2.class performance(10%) 3.final exam(60%) 主要参考资料： 1、张正东：《外语教育学》。科学出版社，1999年。 2、张正东、李少伶：《英语教学论》。陕西师范大学出版社，2003年。 3、张正东、杜培俸：《外语立体化教学法的原理与模式》。科学出版社，1998年。 4、胡春洞：《英语教学法》。高等教育出版社，1990年。 5、王才仁：《英语教学交际论》。广西教育出版社，1996年。 6、胡春洞、戴忠信：《英语阅读论》。广西教育出版社，1998年。 7、高兰生、陈辉岳：《英语测试论》。广西教育出版社，1996年。 8、聂希庸、曹宝健：《中学英语教学》。光明日报出版社，1998年。 9、程晓堂：《任务型语言教学》。高等教育出版社，2004年。 10、田式国：《英语教学理论与实践》。高等教育出版社，2001年。 11、宋桂月、金莺：《英语课程标准教师读本》。华中师范大学出版社，2002年。 12、鲁子问：《中小学英语真实任务教学实践论》。外语教学与研究出版社，2003年。 13、梁祝、卢福波：《小学英语新课程课堂教学案例》。广东高等教育出版社，2003年。 14、程可拉、刘津开：《中学英语任务型教学理念与教学示例》。华南理工大学出版社，2005 年。 15、张玲棣：《高中英语课堂教学设计与案例》。高等教育出版社，2004年。 16、于勇：《中小学课堂教学技能训练》。当代世界出版社，2001年 17、顾曰国：《英语教学法》（上下）。外语教学与研究出版社，1998年。 18、王蔷：《英语教学法教程》。高等教育出版社，2005年。 19、王蔷：《小学英语教学法教程》。高等教育出版社，2003年。 20、肖惜：《英语教师职业技能训练简明教程》。高等教育出版社。1999年。 21、罗少茜：《英语课堂教学形成性评价研究》。外语教学与研究出版社。2003年。
建筑学概论 建筑学概论 【摘要】《房屋建筑学》是建筑学以及各建筑专业必修的一门专业基础课，其理论性和实践性都很强，它所阐述的建筑设计和建筑构造的基本原理和方法，是未来从事结构设计和施工管理的工程师必须掌握的。本文针对目前独立学院本门课程的教学中存在的问题，进行了深入的分析，并针对存在的问题，提出了一些合理化的建议和改进措施。 【关键词】房屋建筑学;改革探究;教学改革 《房屋建筑学》是建筑学以及各建筑专业学习建筑设计原理和建筑构造的基本课程，通过学习本课程，使学生具有从事中小型建筑方案和建筑施工图设计的初步能力，而且为后续课程(如《钢筋混凝土结构》、《地基基础》、《建筑施工》、《建筑工程概预算》等)奠定必要的专业基础知识。因此，《房屋建筑学》在建筑类各专业的课程体系中占有重要的地位。鉴于本课程的重要性，如何让学生学好这门课，提高教学效果，成为本课程老师的重点讨论对象，下面结合自己教学经验浅谈对本课程的教学改革探究。 以本校为例，我们是独立学院，它是指由普通全日制本科高等院校按照新的办学机制、新的办学模式与社会力量合作创建的本科层次的二级独立学院，即应用型为主的本科院校。应用型本科院校人才培养的目标定位于培养熟悉管理知
识、现代科学文化知识，并且具有各类应用能力的高级技术人员，而不是各种“学问家”。为达到这一人才培养的目标，我们应走出传统的以培养“学问家”为主的系统化的课程体系，建立培养应用型、实践型人才为主的课程模式。围绕“素质、知识、能力”三个基本要素，开展教学活动与教学改革。 1. 房屋建筑学在独立学院的现状及存在的问题 1.1 教学课时少，教材、教学内容陈旧 房屋建筑学主要讲述民用建筑和工业建筑的设计原理和构造原理，是一门内容广泛，实践性和综合性都很强的学科，其中主要讲述民用建筑的构造原理，但是它涉及多方面的内容，包括建筑结构、建筑力学、建筑材料、建筑经济等，如此多的内容，课时又由原来的56个课时缩减为48个课时，教师很难完成教学内容。这样教师在课堂上，对涉及到的相关概念，只能一带而过，没有充足的时间做详细解释，导致学生对一些复杂的概念理解模糊，很难掌握。而且我们所用的教材是重庆大学出版社的《房屋建筑学》，2011版，虽然经过几次修订，但教材中的许多内容还是没有及时更新，很多构造做法和技术处理应用很少，或者说已经过时了，如木窗的构造、瓦屋面的做法，在实际工程中很少采用，内容讲述还是以砖混结构为主，对已经发展成熟的钢-钢筋混凝土结构、钢结构很少提及，教材内容没能很好地紧跟建筑业发
基础美术（素描） 模块：透视原理 能力目标： 1.能掌握透视的基本术语和基本规律 2.掌握正确画透视的方法 知识点目标：1.画出各种几何形体的透视关系 2.基本掌握两种透视方法 课时安排： 1天 任务要求：画出正方体的两到三种透视 任务分析：分析透视的原理和绘画方法 难点分析：掌握各种透视的同时加入不同视角 知识点讲解： 透视原理 角度与透视实际上是一个很广泛的问题，不仅仅在画画创作时，其它各种美术形式都很讲究角度与透视。它是美学理论中一个重要的组成部分。绘画艺术一般都要求在二度空间的平面上表现三度空间的立体感，比如同样的物体近大远小等，所以，透视规律在画面构图上的运用起着决定性的作用，透视变化是绘画构图变化的现实依据。 透视的基本术语
1，视平线：就是与画者眼睛平行的水平线。 2，心点：就是画者眼睛正对着视平线上的一点。 3，视点：就是画者眼睛的位置。 4，视中线：就是视点与心点相连，与视平线成直角的线。 5，消失点（灭点）：就是与画面不平行的成角物体，在透视中伸远到视平线心点两旁的消失点。 6，天点：就是近高远低的倾斜物体（房子房盖的前面），消失在视平线以上的点。 7，地点：就是近高远低的倾斜物休（房子房盖的后面），消失在视平线以下的点。 8，平行透视：就是有一面与画面成平行的正方形或长方形物体的透视。这种透视有整齐、平展、稳定、庄严的感觉。 9，成角透视：就是任何一面都不与平行的正方形成长方形的物体透视。这种透视能使构图较有变化。
一点透视（平行透视） 一点透视在漫画中是常用的，也是最简单的透视规律。一个物体上垂直于视平线的纵向延伸线都汇集于一个灭点，而物体最靠近观察点的面平行于视平面，这种透视关系叫一点透视，也叫平行透视。 一点透视的表现方法： 首先在画面上画一条水平线（视平线），然后再画一条垂直线，相交点作为灭点，从灭点随便延伸出一条线，这条线就是将要画的物体的透视关系，然后在透视关系线和视平线之间画出所要绘制的物体。物体高度的变化是根据透视线和视平线所成的角度的变化而变化的。当物体所处的位置不同时，画面中将表现出物体不同的面。在画物品的一点透视图时，首先找出灭点，通过灭点
英语语音教学的这些基本概念，你都了解吗？ 字母的名称音（name）就是字母作为字母的读音，比如A就是/ei/，B就是/bi:/，C就是/si:/。 字母的发音（pronunciation）是字母作为单词的一部分，在不同单词中的不同读音，比如A 在table中读/ei/，在after中读/a:/，在any、many中读/e/，在bat中读/Q/，再比如C在cat 中读/k/，在face中读/s/。我们在音标教学和整个英语读音教学中，主要是学习英语字母的发音。 借助于音标进行的英语语音教学，是传统教学法；不借助音标进行英语语音教学，是为Phonics，也就是所谓的“自然”拼读法。 字母组合（letter team）是两个或多个字母写在一起、只发一个音的情况，如meet这个单词中两个字母e只发一个音/i:/，就是一个字母组合；再比如graph中的ph共同发音/f/，也是一个字母组合。 一般来说，两个元音字母构成字母组合的情况较多，除了ae、eo、ia、io、oe、ua、ui、uo 等少数以外，其他两个元音字母写在一起都是字母组合，比如ai、ay、au、ee、ea、eu、ei、oi、ou、oa、oy等。当然，例外肯定也是有的，比如create，这里的ea就各自发音，不是一个字母组合。 音素（phoneme）是语音的最小单位，不能再进一步拆分。比如/b/，/a:/，都是如此。这样的音就称为音素。人类的发音器官能够发出来的音有成千上万种，也就有数以千计、乃至数以万计的音素。 音标（Phonetic Symbols）是用来标记音素的书写符号。有多少种音素，就有多少种音标。各种语言有不同的音标系统，比如汉语，现在通行的是汉语拼音，但也曾有注音符号，现在仍然在台湾等地区通行： 再比如，同是英语，英国英语的常用音标体系是DJ音标，而美国英语则使用KK音标。朋友们在英美等国原版的词典里看到的不同音标符号，一般就是因为两国采用的是不同的音标体系。 本文作者因为接受的是DJ音标的启蒙教育，所以本文的音标教学主要是教DJ音标。好在KK音标和DJ音标差别不大，所以朋友们也不必担心。 国际音标（International Phonetic Alphabet，简称IPA）是为了简化各种语言纷繁复杂的音标符号而创设的，目前通行的是2005年的最新版本，共有107个单独字母，以及56个变音符号和超音段成分。现在各种语言的音标体系一般都基于国际音标的系统，最多加以增删，以适应本族语言的需要罢了。前述DJ、KK两种音标体系，就是这么来的。 元音（vowel）是在发音过程中由气流通过口腔而不受阻碍发出的音。按发音形成的部位，可分为前元音、中元音和后元音；又可分为单元音和双元音。
透视法课程教案
一点透视 一、透视的概念4 1、透视的起源4 2、透视的定义4 3、透视图4 二、透视的分类5 1、一点透视（平行透视）5 2、两点透视（成角透视）5 3、三点透视（斜角透视）6 三、一点透视的作图方法6 1、视线法6 2、量点法7 四、一点透视在室内设计效果图中的运用9
一、透视的概念 1、透视的起源：最早起源于文艺复兴时期，由达芬奇发现并对其研究，运用在绘画上，至今已经有600多年的历史。 2、透视的定义：“透视”一词起源于拉丁文“perspclre”（看透）。是绘画和设计中的一个术语，指的是在二维平面上再现三度物象的基本方法（如图1）。透视现象的最基本特征是“近大远小”，故也有称为“远近法”。 3、透视图：是基于透视的原理，在二维平面上再现人眼里的三维形象的图画。 图1 透视原理的分析 教学要求：简明扼要的介绍透视的概念，要求学生了解透视的定义及特征。 二、透视的种类 透视可分为焦点透视和三点透视，其中效果图常用的焦点透视又分为：一点透视（平行）、两点（成角）透视和三点（斜角）透视。（如图2）
1.一点透视（平行透视） 物体的两组线，一组平行于画面，另一组水平线垂直于画面，聚集于一个消失点，叫做一点透视，也称平行透视。 一点透视的特点：是表现范围广，纵深感强，适合表现庄重，严肃的室内空间.缺点是比较呆板，与真实效果有一定距离。（如图3） 2.两点透视（成角透视）： 物体有一组垂直线与画面平行,其他两组线均与画面成一角度,而每组有一个消失点，共有两个消失点，也称成角透视。 二点透视的特点：是图面效果比较自由，活泼，能比较真实地反映空间。室内外效果图都经常使用。缺点是角度选择不好易产生变形。（如图4） 图 2焦点透视的分类 图3 不同角度的一点透视
计算机网络基本概念教学设计 一、教学目的与要求： 1、了解计算机网络的定义。 2、了解并掌握计算机网络的基本功能与计算机网络的分类方法。 3、理解并能画出不同网络拓扑结构图。 4、了解常用的网络硬件与软件。 二、教学重点、难点： 了解并掌握计算机网络的基本功能，画出不同网络拓扑结构图。 三、教学方法：演示法、讲授法、练习法。 四、课堂练习、作业： 1、什么是计算机网络？ 2、计算机网络根据网络覆盖的地理范围和规模分类，可分为哪几种？ 3、画出几种网络拓扑结构图。 五、课后小结： 了解网络的基本概念对以后掌握网络的相关应用有很大的帮助，因此它是非常重要的教学内容。但是由于概念性的内容比较枯燥乏味，教学上很难激起学生的学习兴趣。 六、教学过程： （一）导入：因特网是20世纪最伟大的发明之一，因特网已经深深地影响和改变了人们的工作、生活方式,并正以极快的速度在不
断发展和更新，掌握因特网的应用是时代和工作的需要，本节我们先来学习因特网的基础知识----计算机网络基本概念。 （二）授课内容 1、计算机网络 以能够相互共享资源的方式互连起来的自治计算机系统的集合。 二、数据通信 数据通信是指在两个计算机或终端之间以二进制的形式进行信息交换和传输数据。 3、计算机网络的分类 计算机网络分类标准有很多种，根据网络覆盖的地理范围和规模分类是最普遍采用的分类方法。依据这种分类标准，可以将计算机网络分为如下三种。 （1）局域网（LAN） 局域网是一种在有限区域内使用的网络，在这个区域内的各种计算机、终端与外部设备互连成网，其传送距离一般在几公里之内，最大距离不超过10公里，因此适用于一个部门或一个单位组建的网络。 （2）城域网（MAN） 城域网是介于广域网与局域网之间的一种高速网络，它的设计目标是满足几十公里范围内的大量企业、学校、公司的多个局域网的互连需求，以实现大量用户之间的信息传输。 （3）广域网（WAN） 广域网又称远程网，所覆盖的地理范围要比局域网大得多，从
西北师范大学 硕士研究生入学统一考试 《英语教学论》科目大纲 （科目代码：922） 学院名称（盖章）：外国语学院 学院负责人(签字)：___________________ 编制时间：2013年7月12日
《英语教学论》科目大纲 （科目代码：922） 一、考核要求 《英语教学论》主要考核学生对英语教学的基本概念和知识、英语教学方法与流派的历史发展与演变、语言习得理论的了解和掌握。要求考生在本科阶段学习和已有教学实践经验总结的基础上，对第一语言习得与第二语言习得机制的相关理论有初步了解，对英语教学中的核心概念有基本认识，对第二语言教学的发展演变和主要流派有所了解，并初步掌握语言教学技能和方法，具有一定的分析问题和解决问题的能力。 二、考核评价目标 《英语教学论》的评价目标是：1）检测学生对语言本质以及语言教学基本概念的认识是否清晰；2）检测学生对第一语言、第二语言习得理论以及外语教学理论是否了解；3)检测学生是否对影响第二语言/外语学习成败的认知、情感以及社会文化方面的因素有初步认识；4）检测学生是初步掌握了主要的语言教学方法与流派；5）检测学生能否初步具有运用理论分析、解决问题的能力。 三、考核内容 考核内容主要是外语教学流派、第二语言（外语）教学基本知识、基本概念和基本理论。以下是具体考试范围。 Chapter 1 Language, learning, and teaching The concept of language, the differences between L1 and L2, L2 and FL, the distinction between learning and acquisition. Chapter 2 First language acquisition theories Behavioristic approaches, the nativist approach, functional approaches, the distinction between competence and performance. Chapter 3 Comparing and contrasting first and second language acquisition. The parameters for comparing and contrasting the first language acquisition and second language acquisition，Critical period hypothesis. Chapter 4 Human learning theories Operant conditioning, meaningful learning, Roger’s Humanistic psychology, transfer, interference, overgeneralization
课题江苏省常州市西夏墅中学高 中美术《绘画中的透视》教 案 科目美术 教学目标掌握透视的基本概念，根据透视规律， 正确画出透视图，加强对空间的立体 认识，培养学生表现物象的能力。 课前准备教学具准备 > 重点难点掌握透视的基本知识和作图规律 用立体的观察法表现空间 教学简案 展开教学活动的任务性问题串设计 学生活动 串设计 ? 目标达成反馈 串设计 1游戏导入请同学们一起观察教室里走廊的宽度，为什么近宽远窄 ——这就是透视现象 同学们在生活中，校园中透视现象无处不在，（欣赏校园风景图 片）这些现象都是我们身边的，我们现在来讨论一下路两旁的树木 是不是近处的高，远处的低呢 学生产生 好奇心， 激发学习 兴趣。 、 学生思考，老 师引入课题 2新课…同样的物体处在不同位置时，在观者眼里会出现近大远小，而且越 远越小的变化，这种变化用绘画上的法则来解释就叫透视现象。 再次出示生活中的照片，让学生认识到透视现象在生活中是不是无 处不在呢还能举出哪些例子 通过图 片，观察 透视现 象。 教师归纳 3新授知识点^ 一，透视的基本术语：（图示讲解） 1，视平线：就是与画者眼睛平行的 与人眼等高的一条水平线 2，视点：就是画者眼睛的位置。 3，灭点（消失的）：透视现象中的消失点 学生听并 看图理 解，观察 并思考 看图讲解
% 二，平行透视（一点透视） 1，你觉得（超市图片）中有几个消失点 2，把日常生活中接触的物体抽象为一个立方体，当立方体前后 二个面平行于画面时，我们就称这种现象叫——平行透视。它就会 消失于一个点，所以也称一点透视。 3，平行透视的基本画法：（教师作画示范） （1）在画面上绘制一条水平直线作为视平线 （2）在视平线上目测选择一个点作为消失点 （3）在画面两侧画出与画面平行的的面(长方形)从消失点向长 方形的四个顶点连线，被遮挡的忽略 （4）( （5）再画出与视平线垂直的线 （6）删除多余的线条 3，欣赏名画中的现象 三，成角透视（二点透视） 1，在景物的侧面观察（图示）时，你又能找到几个消失点 2，把日常生活中接触的物体抽象为一个立方体，当立方体任何 一个面都不平行于画面时，我们就称这种现象叫——成角透视。它 就会消失于二个点，所以也称二点透视。 3，成角透视的基本画法：(师生合画) (1)在画面上绘制一条水平直线作为视平线, 在视平线上目测选 择二个点作为消失点的位置。 (2)@ (3)在消失的之间绘制与视平线垂直的线。 (4)在离画面最近的垂直线上选择上下二点（也就是目测高度）与 消失点进行连线完成轮廓。 (5)继续完成细节部分，删除多余的线条 学生观察 讨论，思 考后回答 ? 】 学生理解 后和老师 共同完成 绘画图稿 （请个别 学生上黑 板完成 老师未完 成的绘 画） 教师作画示 范，帮助学生 理解一点透视 作画原理 $ 反馈与总结今天我们主要学习了平行透视和成角透视，相信同学们已经可以掌 握六面体的基本透视方法，为了巩固我们学习的知识，请运用透视 知识选择一张进行速写。（老师出示透视场景图，供同学们选择） 学生作画 作业展示 学生互评 教师点评
《建筑概论》期末复习指导 1、构成建筑的基本要素，建筑物与构筑物的概念。 2、建筑的分级，耐火极限，耐火等级。 3、建筑模数，基本模数，扩大模数，分模数。 4、房间的面积组成，确定房间面积的因素。 5、门的宽度、数量如何确定。 6、走道、楼梯的宽度的确定。 7、建筑平面组合形式有哪些及各自的特点。 8、房间的净高、层高。 9、窗台高度、门的高度、室内外高差常用数值。 10、建筑物主要的构成部分及其各自的作用。 11、基础和地基的概念。 12、基础的埋置深度及其影响因素。 13、基础的类型及特点，刚性基础和柔性基础的特点，刚性角的概念。 14、地下室的防潮防水的类型及构造。 15、墙体的结构布置方案及各自的优缺点和适用范围。 16、标准粘土砖的规格。 17、图示墙身防潮层的位置。 18、散水和明沟各自的构造要点。 19、过梁的概念及其形式。 20、墙身加固措施，圈梁的概念及作用，附加圈梁，构造柱的作用及构造要点。 21、隔墙与隔断的分类。 22、钢筋混凝土楼板的类型按施工方式的分类，现浇钢筋混凝土楼板的类型、预制钢筋混凝土楼板的类型、及各自的特点。 23、常见的墙面装修的类型 24、水磨石地面做法。 25、吊顶的主要组成。 26、楼梯的各部分组成及作用。
27、楼梯平台下做通道而平台净高不满足要求时，常采取的解决方法。 28、预制装配式钢筋混凝土楼梯预制踏步的支撑方式。 29、栏杆扶手的类型，栏杆适宜高度。 30、平屋面排水坡度形成的两种方法及各自的特点。 31、无组织排水、有组织排水的概念。有组织排水檐口构造做法。 32、上人与不上人卷材防水屋面的构造层次做法，泛水的构造要点。 33、刚性防水屋面的构造层次、分格缝的定义及设置方式。 34、平屋顶保温、隔热构造做法。 35、门窗的安装方法（塞口、立口法） 36、伸缩缝、沉降缝、防震缝的概念，在何种情况下伸缩缝、沉降缝、防震缝？ 37、外墙防震缝、屋顶伸缩缝、基础沉降缝的构造做法。 38、高层建筑结构体系。 39、工业化建筑体系。 40、被动式太阳能采暖的形式。 名词解释 1、建筑模数---- 2、圈梁---- 3、过梁---- 4、绝对标高与相对标高---- 5、分格缝---- 6、基础与地基---- 7、有组织排水---- 8、房间的净高与层高---- 9、刚性角---- 10、耐火极限---- 11、耐火等级---- 12、泛水--- 13、开间与进深---- 14、无组织排水----