英语文体学Chapter 4 Linguistic Description

Chapter 1 Introduction· What is the English StylisticsIt is a science that deals with the research for a wide variety of the styles of written and oral English in English language.· What are language functionsa To deliver some infor to other peopleb To communicate with each other in society·How do we express ourselves in a proper waySeveral factors do work.a)Phoneticsb)Vocabularyc)Grammard)Some knowledge concerningEnglish stylistics·The correctness in using the language can not replace the appropriateness in language communication. WhyFour examples:a “ Hello ” and “ Hi ”b “ Assist me Assist me ” and “ Aid Aid ”c “That’s all right.” “That’s to say.” “It’s ..”d See next paged “ I am terribly sorry to hear that your husband has just died, but don’t let it upset you too much. You’re an attractive, young lady. I’m pretty sure it is very easy for you to find someone else soon. ” ·The effects of language expressions are sometimes related to somenon-linguistic factors.b Age ------ “ Cheers ” and “ Bye for now. ”c Vocation ------ “ Watch the birdie. ”d Received education ------ “ goto . ”e Social station ------ “ What prompted you to apply for this job ” ·Why should we learn and study English stylisticsa It will help us to express ourselves in English properly.b It will help us to know something about language features of a variety of English written styles.c It will help us to select a proper way for getting the best language effects and attaining our communicative purposes.d It will help us to go at literary criticism.e It will help us to do the translation work well.Chapter 2 Language Description & Stylistic Analysis·There are 4 phonetic means in English:1 stress2 Intonation3 pause4 voice quality.·Stress has several apparent stylistic and grammatical functions.1 The first function is for emphasis.2 The second function is to change the meaning or the part of speech of some words, or both.3 The third function is to differ some English words4 The fourth function is to show someone’s surprise, anger, fear, doubt, pleasure, etc..·Intonation can be employed to express people’s happiness, sadness, certainty, hesitation, depression, etc. There are 5 pitches in phonetics:1 The falling pitch is used to show the meaning of definiteness, certainty and completeness.2 The rising pitch is employed to show the meaning of indefiniteness, uncertainty and incompleteness.3 The fall-rise pitch is used to give people some encouragement or give people a warning.4 The rise-fall pitch is employed to give people a sincere praise or to show the feeling of shock.5 The level pitch is used to give account on something happened in the past.·Pause can be divided into two.a voiced pauseb silent pause ·Some useful rhetorical devices1. Period and inversion2. Parallelism and antithesis3. Climax and anti-climax4. RepetitionChapter 3 Oral Style and Written Style·Several occasions for using oral style:1. In literary masterpieces2. In everyday conversation3. In informal speeches·The differences between oral communication and written communication1. Use some gestures body language in oral communication2. Use a statement as a question in oral communication3. Use some pure oral words in oral communication· The comparison of language styles in oral style and in written style ·What can be used with oral style1 slangs2 vogue words3 abbreviations4 phrasal verbs5 idioms·What can be used with written style 1 Scientific English 2 Legal English 3 Religious English 4 Formal speech 5 Official documentsChapter 4 Formal Style & Informal Style·Five styles were advanced by Martin Joos in the book “ The Five Clocks ”1 Frozen Style: legal items, historic literature, the documents for international conferences, etc.2 Formal Style: This style is usually used to deliver some infor on formal occasions.3 Consultative Style: With this style people usually offer some background information. It is usually employed in business activities.4 Casual Style: People usually use it between friends, acquaintances, or insiders. Its main feature is that people usually employ ellipsis, slangs or cants with it.5 Intimate Style: It is usually used between husband and wife. Moreover it is employed in jargons sometimes. Chapter6 Societal Deviation in English· What is societal deviation in EnglishSocietal deviation is something about societal dialects.·Black English Vernacular: 土语urban black English·What are the reasons for you to know Black English Vernacular1It will help us to know thestatus que of AE.2 It will helpto read some novels in Americanliterature.Chapter 7 Time Deviation in English· Three stages of the development of English language1 The 1st stage is from 449 to 1100The verbs in Old English can be divided into two categories ------ one is strong verbs and another is weak verbs. The past tense forms of most of weak verbs are with the ending -cec, -ode, or -de after the original weak verbs.2 The 2nd stage is from 1100 to 1500 Middle English.At that time “ hw ” in Old English became “ wh ” and “ cw ” became “ qu ”.3 The 3rd stage is from 1500 to present time Modern English.There are two remarkable features in Modern English.1There are many loans in Modern English. from Japanese/fromFrench/from Latin/ from Chinese.2 There are some neologisms新词 in Modern English.·The application of English archaic words过时的词in modern times1 In legal English2 In religious English3 In English poetry4 In newspapers·Why use archaic words in modern times formal/rhyme/show-off Chapter 8 Common Practical Styles ·Three functions of English advertisements1 to attract readers’ attention2 to arose customer interest3 to erge customer to take actions as soon as possible.·Some features of English advertisements1 More simple sentences2 Less negative sentences ------ If people really want to express the negative meaning in advertisements, they may use “ nothing ” or “ no ” instead of “ not ”.3 Frequent use of present tense4 More and more imperative sentences5 Far more elliptical sentences 7 Some special adjectives8 Some newly-created words ·Journalistic English: Newsreport/news story·two categories of newspapers1 quality paper大报2 tabloid小报·Three requirements for news reports：Swift / objective / true·Some features of journalistic English1 Some journalistic jargons2 Some acronyms3 Some apocopation4 Some aphoeresis5 Some words with front and back clipping6 Some syncopations7 Some neologisms8 Some blends9 Some nouns are used as verbs to make the headlines vivid. Scientific English·What can be written with scientific English1 Scientific works and literature2 Academic theses3 Laboratory reports4 Product instructions·Some important features of scientific English1 Passive voice is high-frequently used in sentences.2 Present tense is quite often employed in sentences because scientific concepts and principles are usually described as truths.3 Long and complete sentences are often used to express meanings, ideas and concepts.4 There are some words which are from Latin.5 There is a simplicity in meaning for some words in scientific English.6 There are some useful prefixes and suffixes in scientific English. Chapter 9 Literary Style·The language features of English poetry1. The rhythm and the meter of English poetryRhythm is a regular succession of weak and strong stresses, accents, sounds, or movements in speech, music, poems, dancing, etc. ·How is the rhythm formed in English poemsStressed syllables and unstressed syllables which alternately appear in a stanza may produce rhythm in English poems. ·What is meter Meter is the measur. The English poetic rhythm is based on meter.构成英诗节奏的基础是韵律,即“格律”; ·How many meters are there in English poetic compositionThere are seven 1 iambus 抑扬格 2 trochee 扬抑格3 dactyl 扬抑抑格 4 anapaest 抑抑扬格 5 amphibrach 双行诗 6 spondee 7 purrhic ·What is stanzaIt consists of lines or verses. Simply speaking it is a poetic paragraph.·Some common forms of stanzas: 1 couplet 双行诗2 triplet 三行诗3 quatrain 4 cinquain 5sestet 6 septet 7 octet 8 Spenserian stanza 9 abba abba cde cde2 Shakespeare sonnet abab cdcd efef gg3 Spenserian sonnet abab bcbc cdcd ee·What is verse verse is the poetic sentence,line It is made up of one foot or more than one. Briefly speaking it is called a poetic sentence.·How to keep a rhyme in a poem 1 Keep an end rhyme It can be divided into four forms.1 The first form is to keep a single rhyme Sometimes it is called a masculine rhyme or a male rhyme.2 The second form is to keep a double rhyme Sometimes it is called afeminine rhyme or a female rhyme. . 3 The third form is to keep a triple rhyme.4 The fourth form is to keep an eye rhyme.2 Keep a head rhyme3 Keep an internal rhyme·Blank verse ：Unrhymed verse ·Three features of blank verses 1 They do not keep any rhymes, but they are the poems with some meter. 2 They can be long or short.3 Their feet in each line are not uniform.·Common Figures of Speech Used in English Poetry Use of simile andrepetition/head-rhymed alliteration /metapher/ parallelism/personification / speaking silence, dumb confession / paradox 矛盾修饰法/hyperbole,overstatement exaggeration/ metonymy 借代转喻 · Stylistic Features in Fiction Two points of viewTwo perspectives 1 Use singular or plural number of the third person ------ as a narrator or a story-teller to narrate some plots in a novel.Notes: a. Most of writers or novelists like to use this perspective.b. The effect of using this perspective is “ objective ”. 2 Use singular or plural number of the first person ------ as one of the characters to narrate some plots in a novel.Note:In this way it will make readers think that it is really a true story and there is no trace of make-up.·The dialogs in novels1 Some useful informal words2 Some common slangs·Direct and indirect speeches in novels1 Sometimes some novelists like to use direct speech in order to make a psychological description in narrating plots in a novel.2 Sometimes some novelists like to use indirect speech in order to make a thought presentation in narrating plots in a novel.·How to analyze a literary masterpiece1 Use a way of rhetorical analysis.2 Use a way of syntactical analysis. Chapter 10 Common Expressing Styles in English Passages· What is the ornate styleIn the ornate style, people like to use some modifiers, such as adjectives, adverbs, etc, and use some rhetorical devices, such as simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, etc. In syntax, people like to use long sentences and some sentences with a complex structure or a parallel structure.·What is the plain styleIn the plain style, people prefer to use short sentences. People rarely use big words. People don’t like to use many modifiers. As for syntax, people prefer to use compound sentences.·Which style is better Simply speaking, it depends. It depends on different occasions.·What is the involved style In this style, people usually employ some detailed descriptive device to express something. They often use some specific words for their descriptions.·What is the terse styleIn this style, people usually use brief words and simple-structured sentences which have some profound implied meanings.·Relationship between Irony and humor:Irony is a language means while humor is an effect.。

《英语文体学》前七章总结第一章：关于文体学。

文体学是一门研究语言风格的学科，我们所讲的是现代文体学，其又分为一般文体学和文学文体学。

前者主要是各种文体的一般特征，后者是各种文学作品的特别特征，两者研究有重叠。

语言是人们进行社交的工具，包括：言语行为，言语事件和文本。

言语事件包括三要素：实体，形式和情境。

语言具有多样性，不同的场合使用不一样的语言，承担着不同的功能，如语言的指示功能，表达功能和文本功能。

风格，是个人或群体的语言使用习惯。

学习文体学使我们对不同的语言特色或风格有个系统的知识，熟悉不同文学题材的不同特点，深化我们对文学作品的理解力和欣赏力。

此外，文体学给翻译和语言教学也提供了有效地方法。

文体学作为一门学科并不是独立存在的，它与多个学科如修辞学，文学评论等有着密切的关系。

第二章：文体学学习的必要性。

文体学作为一门研究语言风格的学科，分析不同的语言特色。

系统学习文体学，有助于培养表达的准确感。

在不同的场合使用不同的语言。

这对学外语的学生尤为重要；文体学有助于提高我们对文学作品的理解力和欣赏力。

通过对文本的研究。

涉及到描写，理解文章体裁特点和艺术表现力，这一过程就是提高我们理解和欣赏的过程；文体学有助于翻译保有原作的原滋原味。

通过分析通篇的风格，包括词，句子的特征，修辞，陈述方式以及文章的主题译者可以更好的把握原文的特色，使得译文在思想上，风格上更贴近原文，有其韵味。

第三章：语言变体文体学把语言变体主要分为方言变体和语域变体。

前者是由于不同的地域风俗习惯形成的，而后者是由于场合的不同而形成的。

方言变体和语域变体是相互依存的。

方言变体又分为：个人习语，即个人用语习惯；短暂性方言，每个时代的有其特别的语言特点，语言是时代的烙印；地域方言，不同地域的不同方言，每个地方读有其不同的说话习惯；社会方言即社会不同阶层如富人和穷人，使用不同的语言；和标准方言，方言也有标准和不标准之分。

语域变体在文体学中，又包括语场，语式（说和写）和语旨。

[0099]《英语文体学引论》第一次[单选题]The smallest unit in a language that carries meaning is _____ .A：phemeB：morphemeC：phone参考答案：B[判断题]Ephemism is a kind of mild expression for an offensive or hush one参考答案：正确[单选题]What figure of speech has een used in "the young hunter was as strong as a lion"?A：metaphorB：metonymyC：synecdocheD：simile参考答案：D[多选题]Which of the following are the types of change of meaning of English words?A：extensionB：specializationC：elevationD：degradation参考答案：ABCD[判断题]Content is the style which may be different from case to case although the meaning may remain the same.参考答案：错误[判断题]Exophora is an item which refers to something in another text.参考答案：错误[多选题]What are the basic components of the English vocabulary?A：Anglo-SaxonB：GreekC：LatinD：French[单选题]stylistics is the study or the investigation of style.A：yesB：no参考答案：A[单选题]What figure of speech has een used in "Many hands make light work"? A：ironyB：overstatementC：synecdocheD：oxymoron参考答案：C[多选题]Which of the followings originate from Anglo-Saxon?A：Members of the familyB：TimeC：LawD：Science参考答案：AB第二批[多选题]What are the functions of inverted sentence ?A：For effectB：For emphasisC：For balanceD：For cohesion and conjunction参考答案：BCD[多选题]What are the levels of stylistic analysis?A：Phonological levelB：Lexical levelC：Syntactical levelD：Discoursal level[判断题]Simpley speaking, registers refer to languages which are determined by situation.参考答案：正确[多选题]What are the grammatical functions of stress?A：Emphasize a certain word or meaning.B：Distinguish words, phrases, same spelling, different meaning.C：Change of stress in words causes change of phonemes.D：Means of expressing strong emotions.参考答案：ABCD[单选题]What is the methodology of stylistic analysis?A：linguistic analysisB：discourse analysie参考答案：A[判断题]In this example: "Is this a non-smoker? I don't know", there is a Verbal ellipsis.参考答案：错误[判断题]Rhetorical question is a question which does not demand an answer or the answer is obvious.参考答案：正确[多选题]What are the stylistic functions of syntactic deviations in literature?A：As a marker of one’s social backgroundB：As a means of characterizationC：Social positionD：irony, satire, emphasis, comical effects参考答案：ABCD[判断题]A not-text is a group of sentences that are typically or logically linked together. This kind of linkage is called cohesion. So cohesion is the quality that makes a text a text.参考答案：错误[多选题]Structurally speaking, sentences may be classified into：A：Simple sentenceB：Exclamatory sentenceC：Compound sentenceD：Complex sentence参考答案：ACD第三批[判断题]Contrastive conjunction is achieved by the use of conjunctive words of addition or progression, such as and, furthermore, moreover, etc.参考答案：错误[判断题]Contrastive conjunction is achieved by the use of conjunctive words of addition or progression, such as and, furthermore, moreover, etc.参考答案：错误[判断题]In this example: "Is this a non-smoker? I don't know", there is a Verbal ellipsis.参考答案：错误[判断题]Simpley speaking, registers refer to languages which are determined by situation.参考答案：正确[判断题]Tenor of discourse is the social relationships between participants in communication.参考答案：正确[多选题]What are the stylistic functions of syntactic deviations in literature?A：As a marker of one’s social backgroundB：As a mean of characterizationC：Social positionD：Iron, satire, emphasis, comical, effect参考答案：ABCD[多选题]What are the functions of inverted sentence ?A：For effectB：For emphasisC：For balanceD：For cohesion and conjunction参考答案：BCD[多选题]Structurally speaking, sentences may be classified into：A：Simple sentenceB：ExclamatoryC：Compound sentenceD：Complex sentence参考答案：ACD[多选题]What are the grammatical functions of stress?A：Emphasize a certain word or meaningB：Distinguish words, phrases, samespllingC：Change of stress in words causes changeD：Means of expressing strong emotions .参考答案：ABCD[多选题]What are the levels of stylistic analysis?A：Phonological levelB：Lexical levelC：Syntactical levelD：Discoursal level参考答案：ABCD第四批[多选题]What are the differences between language and speech?A：Language is abstract whereas speech is concrete.B：Language is potential whereas speech is actual.C：Language is code whereas speech is message.D：Language is stable and systematic whereas speech is subject to personal and situational constraint.参考答案：ABCD[填空题]Loose sentence is the one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached or one in which the major information is presented _____ and the details of information are presented _____.参考答案：first; later[填空题]Style can be defined as the ___ habit of different people or characteristic of typical social situations.参考答案：linguistic[填空题]Stylistics may be defined as the study of or investigation of __.参考答案：style[论述题]Explain the connotative meaning of the underlined words in the sentence:She knows nothing about the cruelty of the world. She is a lilyLily is a flower and by cultural conventions a symbol of purity and innocence in the west.[论述题]Explain the connotative meaning of the italicized words or expressions in the following sentence：He is a wolf in sheep's clothing. Don't Believe what he says.参考答案：A wolf is a wild animal that looks like a large dog and that kills and eats other animals. Here wolf is used to refer to persons who are cruel and untrustworthy.[单选题]What figures of speech have been used in the following sentence?Life is but a brief candle.A：simileB：metaphorC：metonymyD：synecdoche参考答案：B[单选题]What figures of speech have been used in the following sentence?The young hunter was as strong as a lion.A：simileB：metaphorC：metonymyD：synecdoche参考答案：A[填空题]The four major types of semantic change are______,______,_______ and_____.参考答案：extension; specialization;elevation;degration.[填空题]_____ phonetics is a branch of phonetics dealing with the physical properties of the speech sounds of a language.参考答案：AcousticIndicate what figures of speech have been used in the following sentence.from the cradle to the grave.参考答案：metonymy[填空题]Hyperbole can also be called______.参考答案：overstatement[论述题]Explain the term simile.参考答案：A simile is a comparison between two things with emphasis on the similarity or likeliness between them.[论述题] What is the formula of a simile?参考答案：It often takes the formula of X is like Y in the aspect of Z.[单选题]____ is the figure of speech which makes covert comparison.A：metaphorB：metonymyC：hyperboleD：oxymoron参考答案：A[论述题]What is register?参考答案：Register is language determined by situation.[论述题]Analyze the following case of simile in terms of tenor, vehicle and ground.He is as brave as a tiger.参考答案："He” is the tenor, "tiger” is the vehicle, and "brave” is the ground.[填空题]The three situational factors that are most relevant to the deciding of a register are ___, ___ and ___.参考答案：field of discourse;tenor of discourse;mode of discourse[多选题]What are the stylistic functions of syntactic deviations in literature?A：As a marker of one’s social backgroundB：As a means of characterizationC：Social positionD：Other functions: irony, satire, emphasis, comical effects[单选题]_____ refers to the putting together of two contradictory words in one phrase.A：euphemismB：oxymoronC：synecdocheD：simile参考答案：B第六批[填空题]Oxymoron is the putting together of two ____ words in one phrase.参考答案：contradictory[填空题]Register refers to language determined by ____.参考答案：situation[填空题]periodic sentence is one that is not grammatically complete until the ___ is reached or one in which the ___ information is delayed until towards the end of the sentence参考答案：end;major[填空题]Indicate what figures of speech have been used in the following sentence________.The young hunter was as strong as a lion.参考答案：simile[单选题]The word" villain" shows the change of word meaning. Which type of semantic change is it?A：extentionB：specializationC：degration[论述题]Indicate what figures of speech have been used in the following sentence.The young hunter was as strong as a lion.参考答案：simile[单选题]The word"craftsman" shows the change of word meaning. Which type of semantic change is it? A：extentionB：elevationC：specialization参考答案：B[单选题]The word"hospital" shows the change of word meaning. Which type of semantic change is it? A：extentionB：elevationC：specialization参考答案：C[单选题]The word"economy" shows the change of word meaning. Which type of semantic change is it? A：extentionB：specializationC：elevation参考答案：A[论述题]Indicate what figures of speech have been used in the following sentenc e.Many hands make light work.参考答案：synecdoche。

语言学术语（英-汉对照）表applied linguistics 应用语言学blending混成法A applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语borrowing 借用借词abbreviation 缩写词，略语言学bound morpheme 粘着语素ablative夺格，离格appropriacy 话宜性bounding theory 管辖论accent 重音（符）appropriateness话宜性得体性bracketing 括号法accusative 宾格approximant 无摩擦延续音brevity maxim 简洁准则achievement test 成绩测试aptitude test素质测试bridging 架接acoustic phonetics 声学语音学Arabic阿拉伯语broad tran scripti on 宽式音标acquisition 习得arbitrari ness 任意性broadening 词义扩大acronym缩略语argument 中项中词主目Brown corpus布朗语料库action process 动作过程article 冠词 Cactor动作者articulation 发音calculability 可计算性address form 称呼形式articulator 发音器官calque仿造仿造词语addressee受话人articulatory phon etics 发音语音学can cellability 可删除addresser发话人artificial speech 人工言语cardinal numeral 基数adjective形容词aspect 体cardinal vowel 基本兀音adjunct修饰成分附加语aspirated 吐气送气case 格adverb畐恫assimilation 同化case grammar 格语法affix词缀associative 联想case theory 格理论affixation词缀附加法associative meaning 联想意义category 范畴affricate塞擦音assonance准压韵半谐音categorical component 范畴成分agreeme nt —致关系attributive 属性修饰语定语causative使役的使投动词airstream 气流auditory phon etics 听觉语音学center 中心词alliteration 头韵authe ntic in put 真实投入central determ iner 中心限定词allomorph词/语素变体authorial style 权威风格chain relation 链状关系allophone音位变体authori ng program 编程chain system 链状系统allophonic variation 音位变体aut onomy 自主性choice选择allophony音位变体现象auxiliary 助词choice system选择系统alveolar ridge 齿龈auxiliary verb 助动词circumstanee 环境因子alveolar齿龈音 B class词类ambiguity 歧义babbl ing stage婴儿语阶段class shift词性变换analogical creation 类推造子back-formation 逆构词法clause小句从句anapest抑抑扬格base component 基础部分click吸气音咂音anaphor前指替代behavioural process 行为过程clipping截断法anaphoric reference 前指照应behaviourism 行为主义closed class圭寸闭类animate有生命的bilabial双唇音closed syllable 闭音节annotation 注解bilabial nasal 双唇鼻音cluster 音丛antecedent先行词前在词bilateral oppositi on 双边对立coarticulation 协冋发音anthropological linguistics 人类语言bilingualism双语现象coda结尾音节符尾学bi nary divisio n 二分法code语码信码anticipatory coarticulation 逆化协同bi nary feature 二分特征cognitive psychology 认知心理学发曰binary taxonomy 二分分类学cognitive system 认知系统antonomasia换称代类名binding 制约cohere nee相关关联antonym 反义词binding theory 制约论cohension 衔接antonymy 反义（关系）blade舌叶舌面前部co-hyponym 同下义词appellative 称谓性blank verse 无韵诗colligation 类连结collocative meaning 搭配意义color word 色彩词color word system 色彩词系统comma nd 指令com mon core 共核com mon noun 普通名词com muni cati on 交际com muni cative compete nee 交际能力com muni cative dyn amism, CD 交际性动力com muni cative Ian guage teach ing, CLT 交际语言教学法com muni cative Sentence Patter n, CSP 交际性句子模式com muni cative syllabus 交际教学大纲com muni cative test 交际性测试com muni cative-grammatical approach 交际-语法教学法compact disk 激光盘comparative degree 比较级compete nee 能力complement 补语compleme ntary antonym 互补反义词complementary antonymy 互补反义关系compleme ntary distributi on 互补分布complex predicate 复合谓语component 成分componential analysis 成分分析composite propositi on 复合命题compositionality 复合性compound 复合词复合句comprehension 理解computation 计算computati on al li nguistics 计算语言学computational system 计算系统computer-assisted learning, CAL 计算机辅助学习computer corpus 计算机语料库computer hardware 计算机硬件computer literacy 计算机操作能力computer n etworks 计算机网络computer system 计算机系统computer-assisted instruction, CAI 计算机辅助教学computer-assisted learning,CALL 计算机辅助语言学习conative意动的concept 概念conceptual meaning 概念意义concord —致(关系) concordanee共现关系concrete noun 具体名词concurrent同时发生的conjugation 词形变化conjunct连接副词conjunction 连接词conjunction buttress ing 连接词支撑conno tati on 内涵consequent 跟随成分consonance 辅音韵consonant 辅音con sta nt oppositi on 不变对立constative 表述的con stitue nt comma nd 成分指令con stituent propositi on 成分命题constituentstructure analysis 成分结构分析constituent 成分con struct 编制con structvalidity 编制效度construction 构建constructivism 构建主义content analysis 内容分析conten t validity 内容效度contentword 实义词con text depe ndent 语境依赖的con text of situati on 情景语境con text语境con textual an alyses 语境分析con textualmeaning 语境意义contrastive analysis 对比分析control theory 控制理论con trolled Ianguage 有控制的语言convention 常规规约conventional meaning 常规意义规约意义conventionality常规性规约性conversati onal implicature 会话含义conversational maxim 会话准贝V con verseantonymy 相反反义现象conversion 变换cooperative principle, CP 合作原贝U coordin ate con struct ion 并列结构coord ination并歹U coreferential 互参的coronal舌面前音corpus data语料库语料corpus (plcorpora)语料素材corpus linguistics语料库语言学con text上下文countable可数(名词)coun terfactual propositi on 反事实命题couplet对句对联creativity创造性原创性Creole克里澳尔语混和语cross-cultural communi cati on 跨文化交际cross-linguistic 跨语言的culturally-specific文化特异的curriculum教学大纲customizing 定制的D dactyl扬抑抑格Dani Ian guage 达尼语data retrieval, DR 资料检索database数据库dative (case)与格dative moveme nt 与格移动declarative 陈述句decoding 解码deductive演绎的deepstructure 深层结构defeasibility消除可行性definite 有定的degenerate data 无用的语料deixis指称delicacy精密阶denotation 夕卜延指称dental齿音dentalization 齿音化derivation 彳衍生derivati onal affix 彳衍生词汇derivati onal morphology 派生形态学descriptive adequacy 描写充分性descriptive linguistics 描写语言学designfeature 结构特征determiner 限定词developing grammar 发展语法devia nt 变体deviation偏离变异devoicing清音化diachronic linguistics 历时语言学diachronic历时的diacritic附加符号变音符diagnostictest诊断性测试dialect 方言dialectology 方言学digitized sound数字化语音dimetre 二音步诗行diphthong 二合元音双元音directobject直接宾语direct speech, DS 直接言语direct thought, DT 直接思想direct ion ality方向性discourse语篇话语discourseanalysis语篇分析话语分析discourse interpretatio n 语篇理解discrete分离的离散的discrete-point grammar 离散语法discrete point test 分立性测试disjunction分离关系displacement 移位dissimilatio n 异化（作用）dist in ctive feature 区别性特征distinguisher 辩义成分do-insertion rule do添加规贝U domain 范围领域dorsal舌背音舌中音dorsum舌背（音）doublecomparative 双重比较drill-a nd-practicesoftware 操练软件D-structure D 结构dual双数dualistic view 二分观点duality 二重性E early Modern English 早期现代英语economy经济性简洁性ejective爆发音electronic mail 电子邮件Elizabethan English伊利莎白时期英语ellipsis 省略（法）elliptical sentence structure省略句子结构embedded element 嵌入成分emic位学的emotive感情的empirical经验主义的empirical data经验主义的语料empiricalvalidity 经验效度empiricism 经验主义empty category, EC 空范畴enabling skills使成技能化encoding 编码end rhyme 末端韵en doce ntric con struct ion 内向结构entailment 蕴涵entry con diti on 入列条件epenthesis 插音增音equipolle nt opposition 均等对立equivale nee 相等equivale neereliability 相等信度error analysis 错误分析EST科技英语eth ni city ide ntity 民族认同eth no graphy of com muni cati on 交际民族学etic非位的素的event process事件过程example-based mach ine tran slati on 基于例句的机器翻译exchange error 交换错误exchange sequenee 交际序歹U exchange structure 交际结构exhaustive 穷尽的彻底的existent存在物existential 存在句existential process 存在过程existential quantifier 存在数量词exocentric夕卜向的exoce ntric con struct ion 夕卜向结构experiential 经验的experiential function 经验功能experimental psycholinguistics 实验心理语言学explanatory adequacy 解释充分性explicit grammar instruction, EGI 明显的语法教学法expression minimization 表达最底程度expressive 表达的extended standard theory, EST 扩展标准理论extensive引申的扩展的extent-condition format 程度条件格式exter nal evaluatio n 夕卜部评估external qualifier 外部修饰语extri nsic sources of error 夕卜在的错误来源eye movement 眼部移动Fface validity卷面效度facilitation 便利促进Fasoldfeasibility 可行性feature 特征feedback 反馈felicity con diti on 适宜性条件恰当条件feminine 阴性fiction 小说figurative Ianguage 比喻性语言象征性语言figures of speech修辞手段修辞格finite element 有定成分finite有定的有限的finite state grammar 有限状态语法first-person narrator 第一人称叙述者Firthia n pho no logy 弗斯音系学flap闪音flexibility灵活性变通性floppy disk 软盘focus焦点中心folk etymology 俗词源学民间词源foregrounded features 突出特征foregrounding 突出前景话foreignIanguage teaching 夕卜语教学form形式formal differenee 形式差异formalization 形式化formation 形成formative构形成分构词成分free form 自由形式free in direct speech, FIS 自由间接言语free in direct thought, FIT 自由间接思想free morpheme 自由语素free root morpheme 自由词根语素free variant 自由变体free verse 自由韵文French法语frequency effect 频率效应fricative (摩)擦音frictio n 摩擦front舌面前舌前的fully automatic high quality tran slatio n,FAHQT全自动高质量翻译fun cti on word 功能词function 功能functional grammar 功能语法fun cti on al li nguistics 功能语言学functional sentence perspective, FSP 功能句子观functions of Ianguage 语言功能fusion溶合fuzzy模糊的Ggender differenee 性别差异general linguistics 普通语言学generalisation 概括generative grammar 生成语法generative semantics 生成语言学genitive属格所有格genre体裁语类German德语give n (in formatio n)已给信息global task整体任务glottal 喉音glottal stop 喉塞音goal目标gover nment theory 支配理论government支配己grammatical analysis 语法分析grammatical function ;; grammaticalstructure 语法结构gradable antonymy 分等级的反义关系gradual opposition 渐次对立grammaticalcategory 语法范畴grammatical concept 语法概念grammatical descripti on 语法描写grammatical form 语法形式grammaticalmarker 语法标记grammatical meaning 语法意义grammatical orga ni zati on 语法组成grammatical patter n 语法类型grammaticalprocess 语法过程grammatical rule 语法规贝U grammatical sentence pattern, GSP 语法句形grammatical structure 语法结构grammatical subject 语法主语grammaticalsystem 语法系统grammatical word 语法词graphitic form 文字形式Gricean maximGrice 准贝H group词组guttural 腭音Hhalf-rhyme 半韵hard palate 硬腭head中心词中心成分headed con structi on 中心结构heptameter七音步诗行hierarchical structure 等级结构hierarchical system 等级系统hierarchy等级体系high高(元音)historical linguistics 历史语言学holophrastic stage 单词句阶段homonym 同音/形异议词Hopi Hopi 语horiz on tal relati on 链状关系Horn scale霍恩阶human cognitive system 人类认知系统human Ianguage 人类语言human speech人类言语huma n tran slati on 人译hypercorrect ion 矫枉过正hyponym下义词hyponymy下义关系hypothesis 假设hypothesis-deduction 假设-演绎Iiamb抑扬格iambic pentameter 抑扬格五音步诗行IC an alysis直接成分分析法ICALL (intelligent CALL)智能计算机辅助语言学习ideatio nal (fun ctio n) 概念功台匕冃匕identifying 认同的idiom 成语习语idiomatically-governed 习语支配己的ill-formed sentences 不合适的句子illocutionary act话中行为施为性行为illocutionary force言外作用施为作用imagi native (function)想象功能immediacy assumptio n 即时假定immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法imperative rule 祈使规贝U imperative 祈使语气命令的implicate 意含implication 蕴涵含义implicati on conn ective 蕴涵连接implicature 含义言外之意implied meaning 蕴涵意义implosive内破裂音内爆音inanimate 无生命的inclusiveness relation 内包意义indefinite 不定的，无定的indicative陈述式陈述语气in direct object 间接宾语indirct speech, IS 间接言语in direct thought, IT 间接思想Indo-European Ianguages 印欧语言_:言inference 推论推理inference drawing 推论inferen tial com muni cati on 推论交际infinitive 不定式infix中缀in flection屈折(变化)inflectional affix 屈折词缀inflectional morphology 屈折形态学inflective endings 屈折结尾in formati on retrieval 信息检索in formati on structure 信息结构in formative (fun ctio n) 信息功台匕冃匕inn ate ness 先天性inn ate ness hypothesis (语法)天赋假设in put输入in put hypothesis 语言输入说in strume ntal (function) 工具功台匕冃匕integrative test综合性测试intensifier强调成分intensive强调的增强的in teract ional (fun ctio n) 交互功台匕冃匕in terde ntal 齿间音in terface 界面interferenee 干扰in terject ion 感叹词interlanguage 中介语interlingua 国际语interlingual approach 语际法interlocutor 会话者internal evaluati on 内部评估in ternal structure 内部结构international phonetic alphabet, IPA 国际音标in ternet互联网interpersonal 人际的in terpers onal function 人际功台匕冃匕in terpretatio n 解军释interrogative sentence 疑问句intonation 语调in tra-l in guistic relati on 语言内关系intransitive不及物的intrinsic sources of error 错误的内源in variable word 不变词invention 新创词语inversion倒置，倒装IPA chart国际音标图IPS symbol国际音标符号irony讽刺反话isolated opposition 孤立对立Italian意大利语JJapanese 日语jargon黑话行语Jespers on,Otto Johnson & Johnson Johnson Jon es,Daniel K kernel sentence 核心句keyword关键词knowledge 知识known in formatio n已知信息KrashenKruszewski, MikolajKuno, SusumoLlabel标示标记labial唇音labiodental 唇齿音Ianguage 语言Ianguage acquisition device, LAD 语言习得机制Ianguage attitude 语言态度Ianguagechoice 语言选择Ian guage comprehe nsion语言理解Ianguage data语言素材Ianguage learning 语言学习Ianguagemaintenance 语言维护Ian guage processing 语言处理Ianguage structure 语言结构Ianguage system 语言系统Ian guage teaching 语言教学Ianguage universal 语言普遍性Ianguage use语言使用Iangue语言(系统)larynx喉头lateral边音旁流音Latin拉丁语Lati n grammar 拉丁语法lax vowel松元音length长度音长letter字母level层，级，平面Levi nson, Stephe n lexeme词位词素lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义lexical change 词汇变化lexical level 词汇层lexical meaning词汇意义lexical morphology 词汇形态学lexical studies 词汇研究lexical word 词汇词lexicogrammar 词汇语法lexicon词汇词典lexis 词liaison连音连续limerick打油诗line诗行lin ear phono logy 线性音系学linearstructure 线形结构linguistic university 语言普遍性linguistic behaviour 语言行为linguistic behaviour potential 语言行为潜势lin guistic compete nee 语言能力lin guistic con text 语言语境上下文linguistic data 语言素材linguisticdescription 语言描写linguistic determinism语言决定component 形态形态音位学形态音系学change 形态句法论linguistic facts 语言事实lin guistic relativity 语言相对性 linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视 linguistic structure 语言结构 linguistic theory 语言理论 linguisticunit 语言单位 linguistic universal 语言普遍性linguistic variation 语言变异 linguistics 语言学 lip rounding 圆唇化literal language 本义语言 literary stylistics文学文体学 loan translation 翻译借词loanblend 混合借词 loan shift 转移借词 loan word 借词 local area networks, LAN 局域网 locuti on ary act 发话行为，表述性言 语行为 logical component 逻辑成分 logical connective 逻辑连词 logical form component 逻辑式成 分logical form representation 逻辑式表 达 logical formula 逻辑公式 logical function 逻辑功能 logical semantics 逻辑语义学 logicalstructure 逻辑结构 logical subject 逻辑主语 logophoricity 词照应 Lon don School 伦敦学派 long vowed 长元音 loss of sound 语音脱落 loudness 响度M mach inetran slati on机 器 翻译macrolinguistics 宏观语言学 macropropositi on 宏观命题 macrostructure 宏观结构 main clause 主句Mali no wski, Bron islaw man-machine symbiosis 人机共生 manner maxim 方式准贝V manner of articulati on 发音方式marked 标记的 masculine 阳性matalinguistic 元语言学的 material （process ）物质过程 mathematical prin ciples 数学原 理maxim 准则maximal on set prin ciple 最大节首辅 音原则 meaningpote ntial意 义 潜势meaning shift 转移 meaning意义mental （processs ）思维过程心理过 程 mentalism 心灵主义 message 信息 metafuncti on 元功能 metalinguistic 元语言的 metaphor 隐喻 metathesis 换位（作用） met on ymy 换喻转喻 metre 韵律 metrical patter ning 韵律格式 microcomputer 微机 microprocessor 微处理器 mid 中（元音） mind 思维 mini mal attachme nt theory 最少接触 理论minimal pair 最小对立体 mi ni malist programminimum free form 最小自由形 式 mirror maxim 镜像准贝U mistake 错误 modal subject 语气主语 modal verb 情态动词 modality 情态 modern French 现代法语modification 修饰 modifier 修饰语 monom orphemic 单语素的 monophonemic 单音位的mon ophth ong 单元音 mono syllabic 单音节的Motague grammar 蒙太古语法 mood 语气 morph 形素词素形式 morpheme 语素 词素 形 素morpheme-exchange error 词素交错 误 morphemic shape 词素形状 morphemic structure 词素结构 morphemic tran scripti on词素标morphological change 形态变化morphological rule 形态规贝 U morphology形态学morpho-pho nemic 音位成分morphoph on emics morphoph ono logy morpho-s yn tactical 变化 mother ton gue 母语 本族 语 motivation 动因动机 move （移动） MT 机器翻译 MT quality 机译质量multilateral oppositi on 多边对立 multi-level phono logy 多层 次音系 学 multilingualism 多语制多语现象 Nnarratee 被叙述者narrator 叙述者narrator 'representation of speech acts, NRSA 言语行为的叙述者表 达 narrator'representation of speech,NRS 言语的叙述者表达 narrator'representation of thoughtacts, NRTA 思维行为的叙述者表 达 narrator'representation of thought,NRT 思维的叙述者表达 narrow tran scripti on 窄式音标 narrowing 狭窄化 n asal 鼻音 nasal cavity 鼻腔 n asal sound 鼻音 n asal stop 鼻塞音 nasal tract 鼻道 nasality 鼻音性 nasalization 鼻音化 Nash, Walternative speaker 操本族语者 natural language 自然语言 n aturalistic data 自然语料near-adult grammar 近成人语法 negation 否定否定结构negative 否定的negative interferenee 负面干扰 negative marker 否定标记 negative transfer 负转移 neogrammarian 新语法学家 network 网络n etwork computer 网络计算机 neutralizable opposition 可中立对\立new in formati on 新信息 new stylistics 新文体学 node 节nominal group 名词词组 nominalization 名词化 nominative 主格non-authe ntic in put 非真实语料的输 入 non-contrastive analysis 非对比性分 析 non-conven ti on ality 非规约性non-detachability 非可分离性 non-I in ear pho no logy 非线 性音系 学 non-l in guistic en tity 非语言实体 non-pul monic sound 非肺闭塞音 non-reciprocal discourse 非交替性语 篇 non-reflexive pronoun 非反身代词nonsense word stage 无意义词语阶段non verbal cues非言语提示norm 规范notation system 标写系统notion 意念no ti on al-fu nctional syllabus 意念功能教学大纲noun phrase名词短语noun名词number system 数字系统number数字O object宾语object-deleti on 宾语省略objective case 宾格objectivity 客观性obligatory 强制性observational adequacy 观察充分性abstruction 阻塞OCR scanner光学字符阅读器扫描仪octametre 八音步诗行Old En glish 古英语on e-place predicate 一位谓语on-I ine tran slati on 在线翻译onomatopoeia 拟声词on set节首辅音ope n class开放类open syllable 开音节operational system 操作系统operative可操作性operator 操作词oppositeness relation 对立关系opposition 对立optimal releva nee 最适宜关联option 选择optional可选择的oral cavity 口腔oral stop 口阻塞音ordinal numeral 序数词origin of Ianguage 语言起源orthography 正字法oste nsive com mun icati on 直示交际output 产出overgeneralization 过分法则化Ppalatal腭音舌面中音palatal-alveolar 腭齿龈音palatalizati on (硬)腭化paradigm聚合体paradigmatic relatio n 聚合关系paraphrase 释义意译parole言语part of speech 词类participant 参与者particle小品词语助词particular grammar 特定语的语法partitive 部分的部分格passive tran sformati on 被动转换passive (voice)被动语态pattern drill technique 句型操练法pattern 模式patterning 制定模式pause停顿peak (节)峰perceptual span 感知时距perfectionism 完善主义perfective 完成体performanee test 语言运用测试performanee 语言运用performative (verb) 行事性动词perlocutionary act 话后行为perseverativecoarticulation 重复性协同发音person人称perso nal (fu nctio n)自指性功能pharyngeal卩因头音喉音pharynx 喉头phatic (communion)寒暄交谈交感性谈话phone 音素音子phon ematic unit 音声单位phoneme 音位phonetic alphabet 音标phonetic form component 语音形式部分phon etic similarity 语音相似性phonetic symbol 语音符号phon etictran scriptio n（法）phonetics语音学phono logical an alysis 音位分析phono logical comp onent音位咅B分phono logical level 音系层phono logicalprocess 音位过程phono logical representati on 音位表达phono logical rule 音位规贝U phono logicalstructure 音位结构phono logical system 音位系统phono logical varia nt 音位变体phono logy音系学phrasal verb短语动词phrase短语phrase structure 短语结构phrase structure grammar 短语结构语法phrase structure rule, PS rule 短语结构规则pidgin皮软语洋泾滨语不纯正外语Pitch音咼声调咼低place of articulation 发音部位play剧本plosion 爆破plosive爆破音爆发音plural复数pluralism多元主义plurality复数形式poetic （function）诗学功能poetry诗歌polymorphemic （word）多语词polysyllabic 多音节（词）polysystemicanalysis 多系统分析Portugese葡萄牙语positive transfer 正移转possessive所有的属有的possible grammar 可能语言的语法postalveolar 后齿龈音post-Bloomfieldian linguistics 后布龙菲尔德语言学postdeterminer 后限定词post-structuralistview 后结构主义观占八、、pragmatic inference 语用推论pragmaticroles 语用角色pragmatics 语用学PragueSchool 布拉格派predeterminer 前限定词predicate calculus谓语演算predicate logic 谓语逻辑predicate谓语predicator 谓语（动）词predictivevalidity 预测效度pre-editing预先编辑译前加工prefix前缀pre-modified in put 预修正的入premodifier 前修饰语preposition 介词prepositional calculus 介词演算prepositi onal logic 介词逻辑prepositionalopposition 介词\立prepositi onal phrase 介词语prescriptive 规定式presupposition 前提预设primary cardinal vowel 主要基本元音primary stress主重音第一重音prin ciple ofin formative ness 信息性原则principle of least effort 最省力原则prin ciple of qua ntity 数量原贝U privativeopposition 表非对立表缺对立process 过程producti on error 产生性错误productivity多产性proficiency test 水平测试pro-form代词形式替代形式programming Ianguage 编程语言progressive 进行体progressive assimilation丿顺同化projection rule 投射规则pronominal 代词pronoun 代词pronun ciation 发音pronun ciati on dictionary 发音词典pronun ciati on 发音proportionalopposition 部分对\立propositi on 命题prose style散文风格prosodic analysis节律分析超音质分析psycholinguistics 心理语言学psycholinguistic-socioli nguistic approach心理-社会语言学方法psychological reality 心理现实psychological subject 心理主语psychology of Ianguage 语言心理学psychometric-structuralist approach 心理测定-结构主义法pulmonic sound 肺闭塞音Put on ghua普通话QQ-based implicature基于质量的含义Q-principle质量原则quality 量quality maxim 质量准贝Uquantifier 数量词quantitative analysis 定量分析qua ntitative paradigm 数量变化表qua ntity maxim 数量准贝U quatrain 四行诗Rrange范围rank 级rati on alism 理性主义raw data原始素材R-based implicature 基于关联的涵义reader读者readi ng comprehe nsion 阅读理解realisation 体现recall回忆received pronunciation, R P 标准发音receiver受话者信息接受者recency effect 近期效应recognition 识别recursion 可溯recursive可溯的还原的recursiven ess 递归性reference所指参照referential meaning 所指意义refere ntial theory 所指理论referential 所指的reflected meaning 反映意义reflexive (form)反身形式regional dialect 地域方言register 语域regressive assimilation 逆同化regulatory (function)控制性语言功台匕冃匕relation maxim 关系准则relational opposite 关系对立relational process 关系过程relative clause 关系分句关系从句relative pronoun 关系代词relative unin terruptibility 相对的非间断性releva nee theory 关联理论reliability 信度repetition 重复representational system 表达系统representational 表达实体residue剩余成分restricted Ianguage 限制性语言retrieval process 检索过程retrieval system 检索系统retroflex sound 卷舌音reverserhyme 反陨revised exte nded sta ndardtheory, REST修正扩展标准理论rewritingrules 重写规贝U rheme述位rhetorical skill修辞技能rhyme韵韵角压韵rhythm韵律节奏Roman alphabet letter 罗马字母root词根root morpheme 词根语素round vowel 圆元音R-principle关联原则rule system规则系统rule-based approaches 基于规则的方法rules of Ianguage 语言规贝USsameness relation 相同关系Sanskrit 梵文Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假设Saussure索绪尔scale of delicacy 精密阶schema图式scheme-oriented Ianguage 面向图式的语言second Ianguage acquisition 第二语言习得secondary cardinal vowel 次要基本元音sec on dary stress 次重音segment 音段selection restriction 选择限制selectionalrules 选择规贝U self-reflexive 自反身sema ntic associati on n etwork 语义关联网络semantic change 语义变化sema ntic comp onent 语义咅B分semantic feature 特征sema ntic in terpretati on 语义解释semanticinterpretative rules 语义解释规则semantic process 语义过程sema ntic represe ntati on 语义表达semantic sentence pattern, SSP 语义句型semantic triangle 语义三角semantics语义学semi-consonant 半辅音semiotic system 符号系统semiotics符号学semi-vowel 半元音sense relation 意义关系sense意义sentence 句子sentencefragments 句子成分sentence meaning 句义sentence memory 句子记忆sentence stress句重音sentence structure 句子结构sentential calculus 句子演算setting 场景sibilant咝擦音sig n符号signified所指受指signifier能指施指simile明喻simulta neity同时性singular 单数situatio nal con text 情景语境situational level 情景层situationalsyllabus 情景教学大纲situational variation情景变异slot空缺social role社会角色socialsemiotic社会符号学socio-cultural role 社会文化角色socioli nguistic study of Ian guage语言的社会语言学研究sociolinguistic studyof society 社会的社会语言学研究sociolinguistics 社会语言学sociologicalapproach 社会学方法soft palate 软腭solidarity 团结sonnet十四行诗sonorant 响音sonority scale 响音阶sound语音soundimage语音图像sound pattern 语音模式sound segment 音段sound system语音系统sound wave 音波speaker ' s meani说话者意义speech言语speech act theory 言语行为理论speechcommunity 言语社团speechcomprehension 言语理解speech event 言语事件speech function 言语功能speechmode言语方式speech organ言语器官speech perception 言语感知speechpresentation 言语表达speech product ion ;言语产生speech research 言语研究speechrole 言语角色speech sound 语音speechsyn thesis 言语合成spelling拼写，拼法splitinfinitives分裂的不定式spoken corpus 口语语料库spoken Ianguage translation 口语翻译spondee扬扬格spoonerism 首音互换斯本内现象spread展元音S-structure表层结构stability稳定性stability reliability 稳定性效度Sta ndard English 标准英语standard theory 标准理论standardization 标准化statistical analysis 统计分析status地位stem词干stimulus 刺激stimulus-response 刺激反应stop闭塞音stored knowledge 储存知识strategicknowledge学习策略知识stratification 层stream of consciousness 意识流stresspattern 重音模式stress重音structuralanalysis 结构分析structural (structuralist) grammar 结构语法structural syllabus结构教学大纲structural test 结构测试structuralism 结构主义structuralist linguistics 结构主义语言学structuralist view 结构主义观点style文体风格stylistic analysis 文体分析stylistics 文体学subcategorize 次范畴subject 主语subject-deletion 主语省略subjective test主观性测试subjectivity 主观性subjunctive mood 虚拟语气subord in ate con structi on 从属结构subord ination 从属substitutability 替代性substitution 替换suffix后缀superlative degree 最高级superord in ate 上坐标词suprasegmental feature 超语段特征surface form 表层形式surface representation 表层表达surface structure 表层结构syllabic structure 音节结构syllabification 音节划节syllable 音节syllabus design教学大纲设计syllabus教学大纲syllogism三段论法symbol符号synchronic (linguistics)共时(语言学) synonym 同义词synonymous 同义的synonymy同义现象syntactic component 句法部分syntactic features 句法特征syn tactic function 句法功能syntactic marker 句法标记syntactic process 句法过程syntactic restriction 句法限制syntactic structure 句法结构syntactical change 变化syntagmatic relation 组合关系syn tax句法system network 系统网络system of sig ns 符号系统system of systems系统的系统systemic(grammar)系统语法systemic-functional Grammar, SFG 系统功能语法Ttacit knowledge默契的知识tagmeme 法位tagmemics法位学tap 一次接触音target Ianguage 目标语言tautology同义反复冗辞template 模块tense vowel 紧元音tense时态test content测试内容test form测试形式testee受试者testing 测试test-retest reliability 一测再测信度tetrameter 四音步诗行text语篇text comprehe nsion 语篇理解text encoding 语篇编码text in terpretati on 语篇解释text style语篇风格textual organization 语篇组织textual语篇功能theme 主位theoretical li nguistics 理论语言学third-person narrator 第三人称叙述者thought prese ntati on 思想表达three-place predicate 三位谓语tone声调音调tongue height 舌高tongue position 舌位tongue tip 舌尖topic主题trace theory 轨迹论traditi onal grammar 传统语法transcribed 标音transcription 音标标音transfer 移转transfer approach 移转法utteranee 语句 uvular 小舌音uvula 小舌 tran sformati on 转换transformation of interrogation 疑问 转换 transformational component 转换咅B 分、transformational grammar 转换 语法 transformational process 转换过程 tran sformati onal rule 转换规贝 U tran sformati on al-ge nerative grammar, TG grammar 转换生成语法 transitivity 及物性 translation 翻译 tree diagram 树形图 trill 颤音 trochee 抑扬格长短格 trope 转喻隐喻 truth con diti on 真值条件 truth value 真值 tu/vous disti nction 你 / 您区别 turn length 话语轮次长度 turn quantity 话语轮次数量 turn-taking 依次发言 two-place predicate 二位谓语 two-word uttera nee 二词话语 typology 类型学 UUn aspirated 不松气的 un derly ing form 底层形式 un derly ing represe ntati on 底层表达 unin terruptibility 非中断性universal grammar, UG 普遍语法 universal quantifier 普遍限量词 universal 普遍现象 universality 普遍性 universals of Ianguage语言的普遍现 象unmarked 未标记的 unrounded vowel 非圆元音 urban dialectology 者E 市方言学 user 用户 user-friendly 方便用户的 utteraneemeaning 语句意义V validity 效度 variable 可变化的 variable word 可变化词 variation 变异 variety 变体语体 velar 软腭音 velarization 腭音化 velum 软口盖 verb 动词 verb phrase 动词短语 verbalcom muni cati on 言语交际 verbal process言语过程 verbiage 言辞 vernacularIanguage education 本地 化教育 vertical relation 选择关系 vocabulary 词汇 vocal cord 声带 vocal organ 发音器官 vocal tract声道 vocative 呼格 voice 语态 voicedconsonant 浊辅音 voiced obstruent 浊塞音 voiced (sound)浊音 voiceless consonant 清辅音 voiceless obstruent 清塞音 voiceless(so und)清音 voicing 浊音化，有声化 vowel glide 元音音渡 vowel 兀音 W web page 网页 Wh-interrogative 特殊疑问句 women register 女性语域 word 词 word class 词类 word formatio n 词语形成 word group 词组 word meaning 词义 word order 词序 working memory system 工作记忆系 统 writi ng 文字writing system 文字系统writte n Ian guage 书面语 writte n text 篇章 XX-bar Theory X-bar 理论 Yyes/no in terrogative 是非问句 yes/no question 是非问句 Zzero form 零形式word recog niti on 词语识另 U word formatio n 词语形成 word-for-word 逐词翻译 wording措辞。

Table of Contents1 The Concern of Stylistics1.1. Stylistics1.2. Language1.3. Aspects of the Speech Event1.4. Language Varieties and Function1.5. Style1.6. The Study of Style1.7. The Concern of Stylistic Study1.8. Stylistics and Other Spheres of Study2 The Need for Stylistic Study2.1. Stylistic Study Helps Cultivate a Sense of Appropriateness2.2. Stylistic Study Sharpens the Understanding and Appreciation of Literary Works2.3. Stylistic Study Helps Achieve Adaptation in Translation3 Varieties of Language3.1. Two Kinds of Varieties3.2. Dialects3.3. Registers3.4. The Mutual Dependence Between Register and Dialect3.5. The Social Meaning of Language Varieties4 Linguistic Description4.1. The Aims of Stylistics in Linguistic Description4.2. Levels of Language4.3. Stylistic Features4.4. Procedure of Linguistic Description4.5. The Practical Description and Analysis in This Book5 Formal vs Informal Language5.1.The Interpersonal Function of Language5.2. Degrees of Formality5.3. Functional Tenor and Degrees of Formality5.4. Martin Joos' Classification5.5. Speech Situation and Formality5.6. Formality and Linguistic Features5.7. Sets of Co-occurring Features5.8. Involved vs Informational Texts5.9. Tenors, Field, and Mode6 Spoken vs Written Language6.1. Striking Differences6.2. Stylistic Differences6.3. Examples of Contrast6.4. More Delicate Distinctions Amongst Modes of Discourse6.5. Mode, Field, and Tenors7 The English of Conversation7.1. Necessity of Studying Speech7.2. Necessity of Studying Conversation7.3. Object of Study7.4. An Adapted Way of Transcription7.5. A Sample Text of Casual Conversation7.6. General Features7.7. Stylist Features in Terms of Levels of Language7.8. Summary7.9. Other Kinds of Conversation8 The English of Pubic Speech8.1. Scope of Public Speech8.2. A Sample of Text for Analysis8.3. General Features of Public Speech8.4. Stylistic Features of Public Speech9 The English of Advertising9.1. Advertising English as a Variety9.2. Newspaper Advertising9.3. Radio Advertising9.4. Television Advertising10 The English of News Reporting10.1. The English of New Reporting as a Variety10.2. Two Samples Texts for Analysis10.3. General Features of Newspaper Reporting10.4. Stylistic Features of Newpaper Reporting10.5. Stylistic Features of Radio and Television News11 The English of Science and Techology11.1. The Scope of the English of Science and Technology 11.2. Sample Texts for Analysis11.3. General Features of EST11.4. Stylistic Features of EST11.5. Features of Spoken EST12 The English of Legal Documents12.1. The English of Legal Documents as a Variety12.2. Sample Texts for Analysis12.3. Stylistic Features of Legal English13 The English of Literature (1) --General Remarks13.1. Literature as Language Art13.2. Literary Language and Ordinary Language13.3. Literary Language as a Variety14 The English of Literature (2) --The Language of Fiction 14.1. Manipulation of Semantic Roles14.2. Creation of Images and Symbols14.3. Preference in Diction14.4. Artistic Manipulation of Sentence Variety and Rhythm14.5. Employment of Various Points of View14.6. The Subtle Workings of Authorial Tones14.7. Various Ways of Presenting Speech and Thought15 The English of Literature (3) --The Language of Drama15.1. Manipulation of the Naturalness of Characters' Speech15.2. Exploitation of Different Speech Act, Turn-taking and Politeness Patterns15.3. Use of Assumptions, Presuppositions and Conversational Implicature16 The English of Literature (4) --The Language of Poetry16.1. Various Devices for Compression16.2. Extreme Care in Word Choice16.3. Free Arrangement of Word Order16.4. Lexical and Syntactical Repetition16.5. Full Manipulation of Sound Effects16.6. The Manipulation of Sight16.7. Analysis of Poems at All LevelsGlossary1. The Concern of Stylistics1.1 StylisticsWhat is stylistics?Simply defined, STYLISTICS is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used; it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.This definition, however, needs elucidation.The stylistics we are discussing here is MODERN STYLISTICS, a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use. It has two subdivisions: GENERAL STYLISTICS and LITERARY STYLISTICS, with the latter concentrating solely on unique features of various literary works, and the former on the general features of various types of language use. 'Stylistics', in this book, is general stylistics: one that studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering the functional varieties from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors of discourse (different addresser-addressee relationships), and the spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). Meanwhile, general stylistics covers the various genres of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study. But it focuses on the interpretation of the overall characteristics of respective genres, with selected extracts of literary texts as samples.If we say that literary stylistics also discusses the overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature, then the scope of general stylistics and the scope of literary stylistics are only partly overlapping, as is shown in the following figure:ModernStylisticsGe neral StylisticsLite rary StylisticsVar iety FeaturesGenreFeaturesLiterary TextStyleGeneral stylistics, as a discipline, needs to make clear a whole set of related terms and terminology and answer questions like: What is language? What is language variety? What is style? What are stylistic features? etc.1.2 LanguageFirst, we need to clarify our views on language. We must be clear about what language is, or how we should look at language.There are many definitions of language, or many ways of looking at it. Modern linguistics which began with Saussure's lectures on general linguistics in 1906-11 regards language as a system of signs. Meanwhile, American structuralism represented by Bloomfield regards language as a unified structure, a collection of habits. From the late 1950s on, the fact that 'man talks' and the implications of this human capacity have been at the centre of investigation in the linguistic sciences. The transformational-generative (TG) linguists headed by Noam Chomsky have beenconcerned with the innate and infinite capacity of the human mind. This approach sees language as a system of innate rules (Chomsky, 1957). The approach advocated by the systemic-functional linguists headed by M. A. K. Halliday sees language as a 'social semiotic', as an instrument used to perform various functions in social interaction. This approach holds that in many crucial respects, what is more important is not so much that 'man talks' as that 'men talk'; that is, that language is essentially a social activity (Halliday, 1978).The philosophical view of LANGUAGE or A LANGUAGE is related of the actual occurrence of language in society--what are called language activities. People accomplish a great deal not only through physical acts such as cooking, eating, bicycling, running a machine, cleaning, but also by verbal acts of all types: conversation, telephone calls, job application letters, notes scribbled to a roommate, etc. All utterances (whether a word, a sentence, or several sentences) can be thought of as goal-directed actions. (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) Such actions as carried out through language are SPEECH ACTs. Social activities in which language (either spoken or written) plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc are SPEECH EVENTs.Most of these events are sequential and transitory (that is, they occur in sequence and can not last for a long time). It is difficult to examine them at the time of their occurrence. So we have to record the events. Any such record, whether recalled through memory, or committed to a tape, or written down on paper, or printed in a book, of a speech event, is known as a TEXT.Language is often compared to a CODE, a system of signals or symbols used for sending a MESSAGE, a piece of information. In any act of verbal communication (both spoken and written, primarily spoken), language has been regarded as a system for translating meanings in the ADDRESSER's (the speaker's/writer's) mind into sounds/letters, ie ENCODING (meaning-to-sound/letter), or conversely, for translating sounds/letters into meanings in the ADDRESSEE's (the hearer's/ reader's) mind, ie DECODING (sound/letter-to-meaning), with lexis and grammar as the formal code mediating between meaning and sound/letter.But we must keep in mind that, unlike other signalling codes, language code does not operate in a fixed way- it is open-ended in that it permits generation of new meanings and new forms (such as metaphorical meanings, and neologisms); ie it is in a way creatively extendible.Text, then, is verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.1.3 Aspects of the Speech EventLanguage is transmitted, patterned, and embedded in the human social experience. So it is both possible and useful to discern three crucial aspects of a speech event--the substantial, the formal, and the situational. (see Gregory and Carroll, 1978) Language is transmitted by means of audible sound waves in the air or visible marks on a surface. These sounds or marks are the SUBSTANCE of the speech events. The audible sounds or visible marks are not jumbled together--rather, they are arranged in a conventionally orderly way, displaying meaningful patterns in their internal relations. These meaningful internal patterns are the FORM of the speech event. Language activities do not occur in isolation from other human activities. They take place in relevant extratextual circumstances, linguistic and non-linguistic. These relevant extratextual circumstances are the SITUATION * of the speech event. Any speech event is part of a situation, and so has a relationship with that situation. Indeed, it is this contextual relationship between thesubstance and form of a speech event on the one hand and the situation in which it occurs on the other, which gives what is normally called 'meaning' to utterances. In other words, context determines meaning of features in situations.*Situation, as the non-linguistic setting or environment surrounding language use, can clearly influence linguistic behaviour. It is frequently synonymous with context, a conceptual abstraction from all possible situations, and its collocates -- context of situation, especially, context of utterance. The abstracted context, composed partly of the probable co-text, partly of the probable situation of each item, establishes the meaningfulness of the formal items in the language.1.4 Language Varieties and FunctionAs mentioned just now, when language is used, it is always used in a context. What is said and how it is said is often subject to a variety of circumstances. In other words, speech events differ in different situations, ie between different persons, at different times, in different places, for different purposes, through different media, and amidst different social environments. We often adjust our language according to the nature of the context of situation. Some situations seem to depend generally and fairly consistently on a regular set of linguistic features; as a result, there have appeared different types of a language which are called V ARIETIES OF LANGUAGE. So far as the English language is concerned, there are different 'Englishes' to fit different situations: for instance, Old/Modern English, British/American English, Black English, legal English, scientific English, liturgical English, advertising English, formal/ informal English, spoken/written English, etc. There is actually no such thing as a homogeneous English language.In all these varieties, language performs various communicative roles, ie FUNCTIONs. For example, language is used (functions) to communicate ideas, to express attitudes, and so on. The roles that language plays are ever changing and the number of the roles can be numerous. There have been many attempts to categorize these roles into a few major functions. The IDEATIONAL or REFERENTIAL function serves for expressing the speaker's/writer's experience of the real world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness. The INTERPERSONAL or EXPRESSIVE/SOCIAL function serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another. The TEXTUAL function provides means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation. (For detailed discussion see Buhler, 1934; Halliday, 1971.)The three functions represent three coexisting ways in which language has to be adapted to its users' communicative needs. First, it has to convey a message about' reality', about the world of experience, from speaker/writer to hearer/reader. Secondly, it must fit appropriately into a speech situation, fulfilling the particular social designs that speaker/writer has upon hearer/reader. Thirdly, it must be well constructed as an utterance or text, so as to serve the decoding needs of hearer/reader.These functions and the needs they serve are interrelated: success in interpersonal or expressive/social communication depends in part on success in transmitting a message, which in turn depends in part on success in terms of text production.Different types of language have relations with predominant functions, eg advertising with persuasion, TV commentary with information, address terms with social roles. Literary texts can be regarded as a type of language which performs a distinct social function -- an aesthetic orpoetic function.The functions are not mutually exclusive: an utterance may well have more than one function.1.5 StyleNow we come to the question of style.The word STYLE has been used in many ways:Style may refer to a person's distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use, as 'Shakespeare's style', 'Miltonic style', 'Johnsonese', or 'the style of James Joyce'. Buffon's ' Le style, c'est l'homme même', has contributed to the vogue of this definition. Often, it concentrates on a person's particularly singular or original features of speaking or writing. Hence at the extreme end style may refer to a writer's deviations from a relatively normal use of language.Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use, ie language habits shared by a group of people at a given time, as 'Elizabethan style', in a given place, as 'Yankee humour', amidst a given occasion, as 'the style of public speaking', for a literary genre, as ‘ballad style', etc. Here the concentration is not on the individuality of the speaker or writer, but on their similarities in a given situation.Style may refer to the effectiveness of a mode of expression, which is implied in the definition of style as 'saying the right thing in the most effective way' or 'good manners', as a 'clear' or 'refined' style advocated in most books of composition.Style may refer solely to a characteristic of 'good' or 'beautiful' literary writings. This is the wide-spread use of style among literary critics, as 'grand style', 'ornate style', 'lucid style', 'plain style', etc, given to literary works.Of the above four senses of style, the first two (especially the second) come nearest to our definition of style. To be exact, we shall regard STYLE as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation. As different situations tend to yield different varieties of a language which, in turn, display different linguistic features, so STYLE may be seen as the various characteristic uses of language that a person or group of persons make in various social contexts.Here we can use Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between langue and parole. Langue is the system of rules common to speakers of a particular language (such as English), ie the general mass of linguistic features common to a language as used on every conceivable occasion. Parole is the particular uses of this system, or selections from this system, that a person or group of persons will make on this or that occasion. Style, then, belongs to parole. It consists in choices from the total linguistic repertoire of a particular language.All linguistic choices are meaningful, and all linguistic choices are stylistic. Even choices which are dearly dictated by subject matter are part of style. In our discussion, however, stylistic choice is limited to those aspects of linguistic choice which concern alternative ways of rendering the same subject matter, or those forms of language which can be seen as equivalent in terms of 'referential reality' they describe, or, in other words, the 'synonymous expressions' in transmitting the same 'message'.We are interested in the way in which choices of codes are adapted to communicative functions for advertising, news reporting, science thesis, ere including the aesthetic function forliterature. Hence the occurrence of different functional styles and of the various styles of literature.When we look at style in a text, we are not likely to be struck by local or individual choices in isolation, but rather at a pattern of choices. If, for instance, a text shows a repeated preference for passive structures over active structures, we are likely to consider this preference a feature of style. But local or specific features may also be noteworthy features of style if they form a significant relationship with other features in a coherent (consistent) pattern of choice. Consistency in preference is naturally reduced to 'frequency': To find out what is distinctive about the style of a text, we just measure the frequency of the features it contains. The more we wish to substantiate what we say about style, the more we will need to point to the linguistic evidence of texts; and linguistic evidence has to be couched in terms of numerical frequency.Yet it is worth our note that a feature which occurs more rarely than usual is just as much a part of the statistical pattern as one which occurs more often than usual; and it is also a significant aspect of our sense of style. (see 4.4)1.6 The Study of StyleSome scholars call the object of stylistics simply style, without further qualifications. Indeed, the study of style in western countries has been undertaken for more than two thousand years. The doctrine of 'decorum' or fittingness of style has passed down from the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece and Rome , who applied it first to oratory and then to written language. Up till the late 19th century, style studies had always been closely integrated with the art of writing and the evaluation of literary works. In fact, traditional approaches to language laid such heavy store by the quality of written language that 'good style' or sometimes simply 'style' was used as a description of writing that was praiseworthy, skilful or elegant.At the turn of the century, Ferdinand de Saussure, in his Geneva lectures of 1906-11, Cours de linguistique generale (1916), attacked the 19th century philologists for their 'diachronic' or historical study of language (ie looking at language as it changes through time), and for their interest in prescribing normal or 'correct' usage modelled on 'classic' literary writings. His influence was so strong that, after him, the professional study of language soon veered away from the historical concern of philology towards linguistics, which claimed to be heavily descriptive and to describe a given language 'synchronically' (ie synchronic study: looking at language as it exists at a given time). Saussure, with his insistence on the primacy of everyday speech, was little interested in the written language and even less in the literary. He viewed literary language as special uses of language which were comparatively unimportant in the study of language as a whole. His pupil, Charles Bally, who began the systematic study of what we now call 'stylistics', again gave scant attention to literature. American linguist Leonard Bloomfield held much the similar view. This is only too natural, for, at the turn of the century, new linguistics was yet fighting for its autonomy and needed to emphasize its difference from traditional language studies. It was not until the fifties that there appeared a sway from this position.Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures (1957) revived interest in what had once looked a discredited concern with 'correctness' in speech and with an inherited system of rules. Chomsky believes that the human mind must be constituted at birth to receive certain patterns of language; otherwise it would be very hard to explain how infants learn their mother tongue so quickly and with little effort. So it may not have been absurd of the European Renaissance to have interested itself in the prospect of a universal grammar underlying all human languages. Chomsky destroyedthe dominance of structuralism and encouraged a new tolerance of historical grammar. And in doing this he initiated a new interest in literature among professional linguists and the prospect of co-operation between criticism and the professional study of language.By the 1950s most of the early anxieties on the part of linguists had become unnecessary. The tools of linguistics could be used in related disciplines without the danger of reducing linguistics itself to a mere technology or a service station. On the contrary, by the time they came back to literary language, linguists had been armed to the teeth – with fresh insights and new theories as well as a formidable technical vocabulary. This time they would study style in a much more detailed and systematic way. They would not study literature to the exclusion of other varieties of language. Rather they would approach literature as a complex of varieties of language in use and point to the aesthetic function of literary language.The 1960s saw the flourishing of modern stylistics: Two landmark volumes of papers presented respectively to the Indiana Style Conference in 1958 ( Style in language , MIT Press) and to the Bellagio Style Conference in 1969 ( Literary Style: a Symposium , OUP) came into being. Monographs such as Linguistics and Style (Enkvist et al, 1964) and Investigating English Style (Crystal and Davy, 1969), A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (Leech, 1969) appeared. New courses on style were offered in colleges and universities. Textbooks concerning spoken varieties of English (some with accompanying records or tapes) such as Varieties of Spoken Englis h (Dickinson and Mackin, 1969), Scientifically Speaking (Brookes, 1971) were published. Grammars, as A Grammar of Contemporary English (Quirk et al, 1972) widened their scope to include in their study 'sentence connection', 'focus', 'theme', 'emphasis', and 'varieties of English and classes of English'. Dictionaries began to give labels (eg. fml, colloquial, slang, etc) to words and phrases of stylistic colouring.From the 1960s onward, application of various linguistic models such as transformational-generative linguistics, systemic-functional linguistics, speech-act theory, discourse analysis etc in stylistic analysis has been gaining momentum in the past decades of years.1.7 The Concern of Stylistic StudyHaving discussed what language is and the sense of style, we are now in a position to come to a more refined definition of stylistics: It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language.Stylistic study concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties (both literary and non-literary) of a language-- in this book, of the Modern English language.As an independent discipline, stylistics offers a comparatively more complete theoretical framework and a more rigorous procedure of linguistic description, so that learners will have a systematic knowledge of the features of different varieties of language, make appropriate use of language in their communication, familiarize themselves with the stylistic features of the different genres of literature, and deepen their understanding and appreciation of literary works. Besides, stylistics offers useful ideas on translation and language teaching.1.8 Stylistics and Other Spheres of StudyA formerly very much borderline discipline, stylistics takes roots in the soil of modern linguistics, using models and methods of linguistic description in the stylistic analysis of texts. Stylistics also absorbs nourishment from literary theories, and so is closely related to them.Similar to modern linguistics, stylistics lays stress on the study of language functions and the different structures dictated by these functions. But linguistics stresses the description of linguistic structures while stylistics on the stylistic effects of different language structures.Stylistics is the continuation and development of rhetoric. However, discarding the traditional practices of rhetoric to establish norms for people to model on, stylistics turns to the presentation of the functional features of language, --- it is descriptive, not prescriptive. It does not aim at a so-called 'refined' style of writing, but at a manner 'appropriate' to the situation.Stylistics supplies literary criticism with a brand-new approach. Since the beginning of the 20th century the linguistic turn in literary criticism has enabled the scientific school of literary theorists such as Russian formalism, New Criticism, Structuralism, etc to place language in the central position of their theories. With a whole set of meta-language renewed by modern linguistics and modern literary theory-- deviation, prominence, function, situational factors, narrative points of view, modes of presenting speech, etc, and with the multi-level structural approach, stylistics has pushed the linguistic turn to its extreme. Making literary research still more scientific and more accurate, it broadens the vision of literary criticism.Study Questions1) Consult at least five books on stylistics, note down the definitions of stylistics that they give, and discuss the similarities and differences among the definitions.2) Compare the definitions of language put forward by different schools of linguistics. Tell what view or views of language is or are suited to stylistics, and why.3) What aspects are there in a speech event?4) Different scholars classify the function of language into different major types. Compare them, and comment on the saying: The functions of language are mutually exclusive.5) Comment on the different senses of style.6) The goal of most stylistic study is simply to describe the formal features of texts for their own sake. What do you think of this statement?7) Discuss the relationship between stylistics and rhetoric, and tell how stylistics broadens the vision of literary criticism.。

Chapter 3 Varieties of Language语言变体(varieties of language)可分为两类：一类是方言变体(dialectal varieties), 俗称方言；另一类是话语类变体(diatypic varieties), 亦称语域（register）。

方言是以语言的使用者（users）为基准而区分的语言变体；语域则是按照语言使用者对语言的使用（uses）而区分的语言变体。

因此，方言多与交际者的社会阶层、社会地位、地域、年龄、性别及所处的时代等因素有关，比较稳定；语域则多与交际者所从事的社会活动密切相关。

方言(Dialect):1) 语言使用者的个人特征（individuality）--Idiolect(语言的流利度、清晰度、表达能力大小等。

例：Mr X’s English, Mr Y’s English。

)2) 时代特征（temporal features）--Temporal Dialect3) 地域特征（geographical feature）--Regional Dialect4) 社会特征（social features）--Social DialectSocioeconomic status varieties 社会经济变体Ethnic varieties 种族变体Gender varieties 性别变体Age varieties 年龄变体5) 可理解的程度和范围—Standard Dialect方言(Dialects)具有社会指示功能，方言不仅能体现人物的地域特征，而且能反映出人物的社会地位、文化程度乃至个人性格，这一点在文学作品中最为明显语域(Register)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)Non-technical fields of discourseTechnical fields of discourse2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)Speech: conversing, monologuingWriting: texts written to be spoken as if not written/ written to be read3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)Personal Tenor(个人基调)Functional Tenor(功能基调)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)话语范围指的是言语交际过程中发生的事情，进行的活动，论及的事情或表达的经验等，它能体现语言使用者在特定情境语境中所要实现的交际目的和作用。

英语文体学3,4Chapter 3 Varieties of Language语言变体(varieties of language)可分为两类：一类是方言变体(dialectal varieties), 俗称方言；另一类是话语类变体(diatypic varieties), 亦称语域（register）。

方言是以语言的使用者（users）为基准而区分的语言变体；语域则是按照语言使用者对语言的使用（uses）而区分的语言变体。

因此，方言多与交际者的社会阶层、社会地位、地域、年龄、性别及所处的时代等因素有关，比较稳定；语域则多与交际者所从事的社会活动密切相关。

方言(Dialect):1) 语言使用者的个人特征（individuality）--Idiolect(语言的流利度、清晰度、表达能力大小等。

例：Mr X’s English, Mr Y’s English。

)2) 时代特征（temporal features）--Temporal Dialect3) 地域特征（geographical feature）--Regional Dialect4) 社会特征（social features）--Social DialectSocioeconomic status varieties 社会经济变体Ethnic varieties 种族变体Gender varieties 性别变体Age varieties 年龄变体5) 可理解的程度和范围—Standard Dialect方言(Dialects)具有社会指示功能，方言不仅能体现人物的地域特征，而且能反映出人物的社会地位、文化程度乃至个人性格，这一点在文学作品中最为明显语域(Register)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)Non-technical fields of discourseTechnical fields of discourse2) Mode of Discourse(话语方式/语式)Speech: conversing, monologuingWriting: texts written to be spoken as if not written/ written to be read3) Tenor of Discourse(话语基调/语基)Personal Tenor(个人基调)Functional Tenor(功能基调)1) Field of Discourse(话语范围/语场)话语范围指的是言语交际过程中发生的事情，进行的活动，论及的事情或表达的经验等，它能体现语言使用者在特定情境语境中所要实现的交际目的和作用。

填空1. Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of style.2. Language is viewed as a system of different types of linguistic organization such as phonology, syntax and lexicon. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution.3. A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole.4. A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.5. Context may be linguistic or extra-linguistic. Linguistic context is alternatively termed as co-text, which refers to the linguistic unit in a text. Extra-linguistic context (interchangeable with context of situation) refers to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning.6. Levels of linguistic description: the phonological/graphological levels; the lexicogrammatical level. Phonology is defined as the system of speech sounds in a language (phonemes, stress, rhythm, intonation). Graphology refers to the writing system of a language (spelling, punctuation marks, capitalization, type style, etc.) The lexicogrammatical system consists of vocabulary and syntactic structures.7. In the first place, linguistic features of a given text should be compared with a set of relative norms of language in use.8. The study of style is the study of distinctions: looking at what was said against what might have been said.9. The distinction of a style cannot be perceived without comparison.10. Elision refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech. When rendered in written form, elided forms often become markers of a very informal or very casual style, with a hint of sloppiness and laziness in speech.11. Sound patterning refers to the matching of identical or similar sound(s) between two or more words.12. Various aspects of design in graphology (e.g. punctuation, capitalization, spelling, paragraphing) are resources which can be utilized for communicative purposes.13. The use of exclamation marks: ①A vocative used with an exclamation mark represents urgent warning or command. ②An exclamation mark ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory or urgent force of a command. ③The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies the writer’s doubt or surprise about certain language items. ④Excessive use of exclamation marks is often considered as a sign of frivolous or immature writing; the use of more than one exclamation mark is a feature of very informal writing.14. Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs.15. Distinguish clause types in terms of the structure of the verb phrase (if any) in a clause: finite clauses, non-finite clauses, and verbless clauses.16. Subordinate clauses can be further divided into nominal clauses, relative clauses, comparative clauses and adverbial clauses.17. Sentences types (in terms of the number of constituent clauses): simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and mixed sentence.18. On the syntactic level, sentences (simple of multiple) which conform to the regular patterns ofclause structures may be defined as major sentences; Minor sentences do not conform to the regular clause patterns.19. Texts may be infinitely various in terms of length, medium, purpose, topic, genre, period, but they all share the same property, namely, linearity.20. Sequence, segmentation and salience are considered the three basic factors in the formation of spoken/ written texts.21. Subordinate clauses may be positioned initially, medially, and at the end of their superordinate clause. Initial clauses are said to be left-branching; medial clauses nesting; and final clauses right-branching.22. A sentence with right branch clauses is traditionally called a loose sentence, whereas a sentence with left branch clauses a periodic sentence.23. In neutral circumstances, the new or most important information is placed towards the end of a clause (end-focus principle).24. In conjunction with the end-focus principle, there is the end-weight principle: the more weighty part of a clause is usually placed towards the end.25. The explicit connection between language units in a text is cohesion. Cohesion may be lexical and grammatical.26. The relationship between a general (superordinate) term and its specific term (hyponym) is called (hyponymy).27. Varieties according to the characteristics of language user are commonly termed dialects. A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect).28. All dialect can be classified as standard or non-standard.29. Standard English refers to the particular socially-favored variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language.30. Non-standard language features are found in dialogues and first-person narrations.31. Functions of non-standard portrayals: to portray characters; to provide local color; to create humorous effects.32. How dialect forms are used for characterization: dialect forms as markers of social status; dialect forms as clues to characters' relationship; dialect forms as an aid to individualize characters.33. Comparing spoken language and written language, linguists notice that the following aspects condition the variations in speech and writing: channel limitation; spontaneity of the message; audience interaction; publicity of the situation.34. "Channel limitation" means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only-visual or auditory. Spoken language has no channel limitation. Thus, it has multiple-channel effect.35. Written language is limited to the visual channel only.36. Normal non-fluency: filled/unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts.37. "+" long pause, "++" extended pause.38. To engage in a monologue is to speak in such a way as to exclude the possibility of interruption by the audience. To engage in a dialogue is to speak in such a way as to invite the participation of the audience.39. Suffice it here to say that the larger the size of the audience and the more public the setting themore formal the language.40. Features of spoken style can be found in the first person narration, interior monologue and dialogue in a novel.41. The language we use varies according to our attitudes towards the addressee. Such attitudes are related to the role relationships in various situations. By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation.42. Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility.43. Politeness tends to increase to the extent that the addressee is more senior in status and less intimate.44. Members of the same social or regional group may resort to the use of dialectal forms to reinforce group identification, to show the intimacy among themselves. The same is true of the use of in-group slang.45. Accessibility means whether a piece of language is easy to understand for the addressee. As the language becomes more formal, more impersonal, more specialized in certain subject matter, it tends to becomes less accessible to the ordinary reader or listener.46. An easily accessible text will have a fog index of about 10.47. “Hard”words are those which have at least three syllables, not counting inflections or compounding.48. Field of discourse refers to the type of social activity in which language plays a part. One aspect of the field is the subject matter. Another important aspect of the field is the purpose (or function).49. Language functions: referential function, expressive function, conative function, phatic function, metalinguistic function, poetic function.50. A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, sharp and guide public opinion.51. The journalist should design his headlines for dramatic eye-catching effect so as to intrigue the potential reader. He should compress his article into a limited space. He should present his material in the most readable and attractive way.52. In headlines, monosyllabic Anglo-Saxon words are preferred to polysyllabic Latinate words, because they are space–saving and often can function both as nouns and as verbs.53. Advertisements can be classified into commercial consumer advertisements and non-profit-making charity advertisements.54. Style of advertisements may vary according to the differences in methods of selling, types of products or target audience; but the primary function of the advertising language remains the same –conative.55. A press advertisements may consist of the following components: headline, illustration(s), body copy, signature line, standing details.56. Colloquial style: simple in structure, with a preference for coordination and minor sentences.57. Rhetorical devices: pun; repetition (sound patterning, verbal repetition, syntactic parallelism); parallelism; emphasis; contrast; antithesis; alliteration; assonance腹韵or元音韵; consonance辅韵; pararhyme头尾韵; rhyme; reverse rhyme问答1. The procedure of stylistic analysis:1) Analysis of the language features of a text into two levels: a. the phonological/graphological levels; b. the lexicogrammatical level.2) Computation of relevant frequencies of language features according to needs. (In order to verify the observation that the style of a certain text is written/spoken and formal/informal, we need to know the percentage of content words, the percentage of Latinate/Anglo-Saxon words, the ratio of dependent to independent clauses, and other linguistic data.)3) Contextualization in terms of the social factors influencing a language event. Contextual factors fall into the two following categories: ①Characteristics of the user of language: a. Age; b. Sex; c. Socio-regional or ethnic background; d. Education ②Characteristics of the user of language in situation: a. Medium of communication: speech or writing; b. Setting: private or public; c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee: the degree of intimacy, the degree of social distance; d. Purpose for which language is used: e.g. to inform, to command, to express feelings, to establish social relations, etc; e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance)2. The use of exclamation marks:1) A vocative used with an exclamation mark represents urgent warning or command.2) An exclamation mark ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory of urgent force of a command.3) The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies the writer's doubt or surprise about certain language items.4) Excessive use of exclamation marks is often considered as a sign of frivolous or immature writing; the use of more than one exclamation mark is a feature of very informal writing.3. Types of minor sentences:1) A unit consisting of a dependent clause structure 2) A non-finite construction 3) A phrase 4) An elliptical sentence 5) An abbreviated sentence 6) Block language4. Compare an elliptical sentence with an abbreviated sentence:1) An elliptical sentence is contextually conditioned. The ellipsis is recoverable from the proceeding linguistic context. In conversation it is common to find ellipsis in sentences that respond to, comment to, or question previous sentences spoken by another speaker. The ellipsis avoids repetition so as to focus on the new information.2) An abbreviated sentence is a sentence where the initial word(s) is (are) omitted. It is not contextually conditioned, and does not in any way depend on what has gone before. The omitted part is recoverable from the linguistic form of the sentence. This type is common in informal conversation, personal letters an diaries.5. Distinguish minor sentences from incompleted sentences:1) Minor sentences are those which don't conform to the regular clause patterns.(2) Incompleted sentences refers to the sentences in which for some reason (e.g. change of mind on the part of the speaker, an interruption by the hearer or some others) the speaker never reachesthe end of what he intends to communicate. Conversation and running commentary are characterized by a fairly high proportion of incomplete sentences.6. Left-branching and Right-branching1) ①Initial subordinate clauses are said to be Left-branching. ②Final subordinate clauses are said to be Right-branching.2) ①Left-branching postpones the presentment of the main clause and make the reader wait for completed information. Initial subordinate clauses are often referred to as anticipatory structures, because the reader has to bear in mind points of contributory information until he gets to the essential matter. ②Right-branching reduces the burden on reader’s immediate syntactic memory and makes it easy for his processing of information. Right branch subordinate clauses usually commend on the main clauses or supplement it with more details and add more and more information to the initial clause.3) ①Left-branching is better adapted to writing, because a printed page enables the reader to retrace the course of a sentence at need. ②Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation of ideas. A writer may favor Right-branching and the use of short, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity.7. Anglo-Saxon and Latinate words1) Words of Latin, French origin (Latinate) are words of science, religion and official communication; they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.2) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people's basic vocabulary; such words are close to their heart and emotionally-charged.3) A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in formal style and they are often replaced by Latinate words in formal styles.8. General and specific words1) The relationship between a general term and its specific term is called hyponymy.2) General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader's/hearer's mind.3) General term are preferred, when there is no need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vague for some (tactical) reason (e.g. formal, official documents).9. Conceptual and associative meaning1) Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word or phrase. The conceptual meaning of the word “mother” may consist of such components as [HUMAN], [FEMALE] and [PARENT].2) Associative meaning refer to the meanings that a word has beyond or in addition to its conceptual meaning. These meaning may: a. show people's emotions, attitudes towards what the word refers to; compare “mother--mummy/mommy (affectionate)” b. reflect the social circumstance of its use; compare “mom (AmE, informal)--mum (BrE, informal--mama (old use, esp. upper class)--ma (informal, esp. working class)” c. evoke in the reader/hearer certain association of what the word refers to. Association attached to “mother”may be “maternal love”, “the b earing and rearing of children”, “warm home” and many others, hence such expressions as“mother-land, mother earth”.3) Associative meanings may be private, varying from person to person as the result of individual experience. However, associative meanings are often shared by a group of people of the same culture or social background, sex or age.10. Verbal repetition and reiteration1) ①V erbal repetition refers to the repetition of a linguistic unit which has already occurred in the preceding context. ②In non-literary texts this kind of repetition is often considered normal, or unmarked. ③Repetition is sometimes deliberate: it is used for emotive intensification. ④In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical.2) ①Reiteration refers to the use of a alternative expression as a replacement for an expression in the preceding context. ②Reiteration is used to avoid the monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression.11. Some typical features of formal written language:1) Syntactic completeness and complexity 2) Heavily premodified noun phrases 3) Cleft sentences 4) The use of personal pronouns in a subordinate clause, preceding the main clause 5) Use of various logical indicators12. The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. The headline should be so designed as to capture a prospective buyer’s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertised brand name.分析1. Policeman & Black psychiatrist “Boy”1) The needs for stylistics: ①Style is an integral part of meaning. ②Stylistics may help us to acquire a “sense of style”. ③Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature. In the study of literature there are two complementary approaches: extrinsic and intrinsic.2) The word “boy” may be used to address a male inferior. In the example the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as “Dr So-and-so” (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form “boy”, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.2. “I’m in pyjamas”1) In this example the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “I’m in pyjamas” implies an excuse for not complying with A’s command (=“No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.”) A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do. (=“OK. I’ll go myself and see.”)2) Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.3. Students are asked to remind themselves of the rules of the library.1) According to the convention, the more indirect the wording, the more polite.2) The language form is very formal and polite.3) This example is impersonal, because the addresser has been effaced and the addressee is referred to indirectly. Impersonal style has a distancing effect and is typical of scientific, legal and official writing.4) In this example, linguistic markers indicating the degrees of impersonality include: the passive voice and third person nouns such as the students.4. The understanding of this spoken communication between A & B depends greatly on the shared knowledge between A & B, the shared situation and their body languages. It would not make much sense to us (outsiders) unless we are informed about its context of situation. There are many exophoric words in the dialogue. Linguistic inexplicitness (caused by the use of exophoric words) is one of the characteristics of spoken language, when both speaker and hearer understand tacitly the references within the shared situation.5. I only met him once + at your place ++ (=“I only met him once--and that was at your place.”) This example is very informal, and it is a spoken language. In this example, there is a “+” which means a long pause, and “++” which means an extended pause. “A t your place” is an appended clause; it can be regarded as an elliptical clause for which the whole or part of the proceeding or the interrupted clause constitutes the antecedent. So “I only met him once + at your place ++”=“I only met him once--and that was at your place”.。

《英语文体学》课程教学大纲课程编号：ENGL3002课程类别：专业选修课授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：秋（第7学期）学分：2主讲教师：王军指定教材：《新编英语文体学教程》，董启明主编，外语教学与研究出版社，2008年。

教学目的：英语文体学是一门实用性非常强的学科,对阅读、翻译、文章分析、文章欣赏以及得体地使用英语都有很大的帮助，此外，英语文体学也是英语语言学研究重要的基础性学科之一。

作为一门课程，英语文体学主要由两部分构成：其一为文体学研究主要内容介绍，包括文体类型、文体特征、文体价值等方面，其次为具体文体分析方法介绍。

第一课Introduction to Stylistics课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容：What is stylistics and how is it associated with other linguistic studies?第一节：The position of stylistics in general linguistics.The importance of studying stylistics.第二节：What is stylistics?The major contents of this study.Issues that need to be born in mind.思考题：1.How to do stylistics in the framework of literature or translation?2.What do you expect to learn from this course?第二课Style and Stylistics课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容：The development and scope of stylistics第一节：The definition of style and stylistics.The relationship between appreciation and research.第二节：The development of stylistics.The scope of stylistics.思考题：1.What are the major differences between style and stylistics?2.What areas in society can the knowledge of stylistics be applied to?第三课Procedure of stylistic analysis （1）课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容：Linguistic description第一节：Linguistic description: methods and procedures.第一节：A checklist of linguistic description.The functions of each one.思考题：1.Why do we need linguistic description?2.Think about the significance of conducting linguistic description.第四课Procedure of stylistic analysis （2）课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容：Textual analysis and contextual factors analysis第一节：What is textual analysis?How to conduct textual analysis?第二节：A classification of contextual factors.How to analyze contextual factors？思考题：1.How do you understand the relationship between understanding and textual analysis?2.Are there other ways to classify contextual factors?第五课Stylistic functions of linguistic items课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容：Stylistic functions as defined at different levels第一节：Stylistic functions of speech sounds.Stylistic functions of graphological items.第二节：Stylistic functions of lexical items.Stylistic functions of syntactic/grammatical items.思考题：1.How do you evaluate the different kinds of stylistic functions?2.What is the significance of studying stylistic function?第六课Varieties in relation to regions课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容：Regional English第一节：A brief introduction to British English.The appearance of American English.第二节：Differences between British English and American English.British and American regional dialects.思考题：1.What are the major causes for the differences between British English and American English?2.How to deal with the use of the two regional English in actual learning or dailycommunication?第七课Varieties in relation to media课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容：Spoken English and written English第一节：Major features of spoken English and written English.What are the standards of using spoken English or written English?第二节：Electronic English.思考题：1.What is the situation like if one is only skilled in using spoken English or written English?2.What is the role of electronic English in the course of learning English?第八课Varieties in relation to attitude课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容：Attitude-related styles第一节：Degree of formality.Politeness.第二节：Impersonality.Accessibility.思考题：1.Think about the relationship between meaning and emotion expressions.2.What do you think of the relationship between formality and politeness?第九课Varieties in relation to social factors课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容：Social factors and their constraints on language第一节：Women’s English.Black English.第二节：Taboo and euphemism.Cultural factors involved in social factors.思考题：1.What are the reasons that maintain the existence of women’s English?2.How do you understand the status of black’s English and the black’s social status?第十课Review of the past lessons课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容：A summary and comment of the past lessons第一节：The watershed of the whole course.Recall what have been learned.第二节：What are the sections that interest you the most?Is there possibility for you to conduct further research?第十一课The English of conversation课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容：Conversational English第一节：A general introduction to what to learn in the latter half of the term.About conversation.Phonological features.第二节：Lexical features.Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.How do you understand conversation in terms of direct speech and indirect speech?2.Is conversational English always informal?第十二课The English of public speaking课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容：Public speech and its features第一节：What is public speech?Public speeches’ phonological features.Lexical features.第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the major differences between public speaking and conversation?2.What are the major differences between public speech and written English?第十三课The English of news reporting （1）课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容：General knowledge about news reporting第一节：What are news reports?Different kinds of newspapers and magazines.第二节：The make-up of news reports.A sample analysis of a piece of newspaper (New York Times/China Daily)思考题：1.Is there any difference between formal news report and informal news release?2.Specify the make-up of some pages of newspaper, both English and Chinese.第十四课The English of news reporting （2）课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容：Stylistic features of news reporting第一节：Graphological features.Lexical features.第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the functions of each group of stylistic features in news reporting?2.What are the stylistic features that distinguish news reporting from other textual styles?第十五课The English of Advertising课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容：The language styles in advertising English第一节：Something about advertisements.Graphological features.第二节：Lexical features.Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.Sample analysis of a student.思考题：1.What are the major purposes of advertisements?2.Give some advertising examples that show the violation of some basic language rules inadvertising.第十六课Literary English课时：第十六周，共2课时教学内容：Literary English: novel and poetry第一节：Some basic facts about the novel.Aspects for the analysis of the novel.General stylistic features of the novel.第二节：Some basic facts about the poetry.Prosody.General stylistic features of poetry.思考题：1.Between fiction and reality, what kinds of stylistic features are most suitable for the novel?2.What effects does it have on appreciation to analyze the novel’s stylistic features?3.How to balance meaning expression and poetic features in poetry?4.What are the common stylistic features between poetry and novel?第十七课：The English of science and technology课时：第十七周，共2课时教学内容：Technical English第一节：Graphological features.Lexical features第二节：Syntactic/grammatical features.Semantic features.思考题：1.How to handle formality and politeness issues in technical English?2.How is objectivity achieved in technical English?第十八课：Review and answer questions课时：第十八周，共2课时教学内容：Review and answer questions第一节：Review.第二节：Answer questions.参考书目：1.王守元.《英语文体学要略》.济南：山东大学出版社，2000.2.徐有志.《英语文体学教程》.北京：高等教育出版社，2005.3.Thornborrow,J. Patterns in Language: Stylistics for Students of Language and Literature.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.4.Wright, L. Stylistics: A Practical Coursebook. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching andResearch Press, 2000.。