The Perspective of Feminist Pastoral Theology
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The Perspective of Feminist Pastoral Theology,a Review of Indigenous and Cultural Psychology:Understanding People in ContextSimone Sunghae KimPublished online:27July 2007#Springer Science +Business Media,LLC 2007Abstract This essay review examines Indigenous and Cultural Psychology:Understanding People in Context,Edited by U.Kim,K.-S.Yang and K.-K.Hwang (New York,NY ,US:Springer,2006),from the perspective of feminist pastoral theology.In doing so,it focuses on shimjung ,a critical Korean indigenous concept by Choi and Kim (Naïve psychology of Koreans ’interpersonal mind and behavior in close relationships.In U.Kim,K.-S.Yang &K.-K.Hwang (Eds.),Indigenous and cultural Psychology:Understanding people in context (pp.357–369).New York:Springer,2006).There are three main sections in the essay review.First,shimjung of Korean women is discussed and compared with that of Korean men.Second,shimjung in mother –son relationship is analyzed and explored.Third,an invitation is given for further research in promoting shimjung exchange in the husband and wife relationship in Korean culture.Keywords Feminist pastoral theology .Korean culture .Shimjung .Patriarchy .Paternalism .Mother –son relationshipIntroductionThis expansive and wide-ranging volume displays and encompasses a variety of different shades and tones of indigenous and cultural psychology.The underlying assumption is that the existing psychological theories,which are rooted in the individualistic orientation of the Western cultures,fall short of fully explaining and accounting for indigenous psychological phenomena and ideas.Such concepts as amae (‘presumed acceptance of one ’s inappropriate behavior and request,’Yamaguchi and Ariizumi 2006;cf Yamaguchi 1999)in Japan,and jung (‘deep attachment and affection,’Choi et al.1993)and shimjung (‘personal experiences felt in mind,’Choi and Kim 2006)in Korea are treated in depth with cultural sensitivity yet not without the larger universal scope.Pastoral Psychol (2007)56:73–80DOI 10.1007/s11089-007-0095-9S.S.Kim (*)Graduate Division of Religion of Emory University,Candler School of Theology;Graduate Division of Religion,Emory University,Callaway Center S214,Atlanta,GA 30322,USAe-mail:simonekim88@While both general psychology and indigenous psychology strive toward discovering universal contours and principles of human behavior,the starting point of investigation differs tremendously.General psychology assumes that existing psychological theories and principles are universal.Indigenous psychology,on the other hand,casts doubts on the universality of current psychological phenomena and attempts to detect psychological universals in cultural,social,economical,political,historical,and religious context.Comprehending the importance of understanding people in their own unique cultural context which the indigenous psychologists set out to accomplish,I came to realize that the indigenous psychologists,like any other scholars in any given field,including general psychologists,can easily fall into the trap of sexism and patriarchy.Ignoring or overlooking the voices of women can and will ultimately defeat the very purpose and mission which indigenous psychology strives to obtain:understanding people in context.In this essay review,I would like to bring people’s attention to what appears to be one of the“missing”parts of the puzzle in this growing field of indigenous psychology:namely,a feminist perspective.This will be done by revisiting one of the Korean indigenous concepts,raising some critical questions,and extending an invitation to further research from the perspective of feminist pastoral theology.In order for me to accomplish these goals,I chose one of the most critical,indigenous psychological contours in Korea, shimjung,developed by Choi and Kim(2006,chapter16).While my review evolves around the concept of shimjung,I also bring in and draw from the strong positive correlation between academic achievement and parental support among Koreans(Park and Kim2006,chapter19),and an organizational term,the“new paternalism”(Aycan2006, chapter20).Shimjung:personal experiences felt in mind with deep emotionIn the chapter entitled“Naïve psychology of Koreans’interpersonal mind and behavior in close relationships,”Choi and Kim(2006)present a skillfully crafted anatomy of shimjung, one of the core indigenous concepts in Korea.Choi and Kim explore the different strata of shimjung within the scope of cultural,historical,psychological,sociopolitical,and interpersonal dimensions.They suggest that shimjung,denoted as personal experiences felt in the mind and charged with deep emotion,is activated and permeates in close relationships especially within the weness category which is based on jung(‘sticky’affection that develops over a long period of time).As a form of story-telling and mind exchange,shimjung is poured out in a private,exclusive,and secretive manner rather than in a public and open fashion.It is Choi and Kim’s contention that the ingredient of shimjung tends to be,but not exclusively,on the negative side.Shimjung is often hurt when one experiences betrayal from a close friend,misunderstanding,unfair treatment,so forth.Shimjung can also be stirred when one is deeply moved by the feelings of shame,hurt,and pain.Likewise,such emotional states as“jung,han(lamentation),love,hatred,and envy”can easily turn into shimjung.Through shimjung exchange in close weness-and jung-based relationships in Korea,people grow closer to each other and thus enjoy an even better quality of relationships and interactions.It is obvious that the seriousness and depth of Choi and Kim knowledge and scholarly expertise allow such a salient psychological component in Korea as shimjung come to life in its own indigenous terrain.By the same token,this was not conducted without sensitivity to the Western world and global awareness.By introducing and tying in other Koreanpsychological contours,that is,jung,han,and weness,to shimjung,the authors clearly demonstrated the significance of comprehending and evaluating an indigenous concept in its own and original cultural context.Only when an indigenous psychological ingredient is rightly investigated and understood in its own native setting,can an outsider or non-native begin to have access to its true meaning from his or her own cultural standpoint.From the perspective of feminist pastoral theologyGiven the fact that indigenous psychology sets out to understand people in their own structure and setting,it is worth revisiting the concept of shimjung from the viewpoint of feminist pastoral theology.Both feminism and pastoral theology have been evolving and are continually reforming especially in this postmodern,global,multicultural world of the twenty-first century.However,simply put,pastoral theology is a linking of psychology and Christian theologies.Working definitions of feminism come from two different sources. According to hooks:Feminism is a struggle to end sexist oppression.Its aim is not to benefit solely any specific group of women,any particular race or class of women.It does not privilege women over men.It has the power to transform in a meaningful way all our lives”(Miller-McLemore1999,p.26;cf.hooks1984).For Miller-McLemore(1999),“Feminism strives to eradicate sexism and related exploitative classificatory systems and to allow those silenced to join in the cultural activity of defining reality”(p.79).With the above definitions of feminist pastoral theology in mind,I will delineate and give voice to three different aspects of shimjung that appear to be missing from the treatment of this unique indigenous concept in Korea as described by Choi and Kim(2006). First,shimjung of Korean women will be discussed in light of the ideological,cultural, socioeconomic,historical,and political backgrounds in Korea.Also,possible gender differences of shimjung will be pointed out.Second,shimjung exchange between the mother–son relationship will be revisited and stly,an invitation to further research in the contours of shimjung exchange between Korean married couples will be given.Shimjung of Korean womenThe life experiences of Korean women are so very different from those of Korean men that it would do a total disservice for Korean women or even for Korean men if shimjung and shimjung exchange were to be treated on an equal or same footing for the two groups.Just last year,2006,Korea elected its first woman prime minister—Han,Myong Sook. Moreover,one of the two leading Korean presidential candidates of Hannara party(the opposition party)for December2007is a woman—Park,Kun Hye.It was inconceivable to even think about the possibility of having a woman president in Korea until recently.In addition,from the year2008,a Korean child will possess the right to choose between the family name of the mother and that of the father.There is no doubt that Korea has come a long way in attempting,and succeeding in some cases,to promote equal rights for women. Much sweat and sacrifice which many Korean women had to experience and undergo to claim their rights and worth have been paid off to some degree.Nevertheless,the statistics,especially from international sources such as Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD),show that the rate of promoting women’s rights in Korea is far below in comparison to the rates of unbelievable economic and industrial growth and achievements which Korea celebrated during the last three to four decades.The huge discrepancy can be attributed,but not limited to,such factors as Confucianism,patriarchy,hierarchical social system,and collectivism in Korean culture.How does shimjung,personal experiences felt in the mind with deep emotion,work out in such a cultural milieu?To begin with,a Korean woman’s shimjung is not only made-up of different ingredients and textures than those of a Korean man,but is also processed and treated differently.Since the core component of shimjung is likely to be negative,rather than positive,the han-ridden spirit of a Korean woman can possess much richer and thicker characteristics of shimjung.Han,which takes upon itself one of the most extreme and negative emotional constellations,can be defined as“the excruciating pains,sufferings,and deep feelings of unbearable heartache which many Korean women experience especially in the patriarchal and Confucian Korean context”(Kim2006,p.43).Knowing that Shimjung is‘emotionally charged’and takes place on the platform of ‘relationality,’it makes sense to construe that shimjung exchange can be more akin to and familiar with Korean women than Korean men who are both‘Korean’and‘women’at the same time.Although both emotionality and relationality are considered as two of the key characteristics of Koreans,they,in general,are more closely related to women than men.I wonder how shimjung exchange is prevalent or manifests itself between Korean men and Korean women.As a mind exchange rather than a behavioral exchange,it is more conceivable for shimjung exchange to take place between two persons who have similar backgrounds in terms of gender,socioeconomic status,family,religion,so forth.Likewise, it seems more probable for Koreans to engage in shimjung exchange with the person of the same gender.If Korean culture is still to some degree male centered,hierarchical,and Confucian,one wonders how acceptable or ideal shimjung exchange between two Korean persons of different sexes would be.I must add that in some cases opening up yourself and sharing your deep feelings with a person who comes from a totally different or even opposite background can be seen as ideal or attractive.Perhaps it is because the partner could be regarded as less competitive,less threatening,and thus safer.Another side of Korean woman’s shimjung is derived from the assertion that women are considered less seriously than men in Korean society where men are in control and still occupy the majority of the important decision-making positions.When a Korean woman does share her shimjung with someone,either a man or a woman,it is more likely that the pouring out of her deep emotions could easily evoke a sympathetic and compassionate response from the person at the receiving end.It would not be surprising for the Korean woman to experience a pat on the shoulder or a sort of patronizing verbal or non-verbal gesture or cue from the other person.As a second class citizen,a Korean woman’s shimjung can be categorized as more hasoyeon, expressing of one’s shimjung to a third party for more cathartic and psychoanalytic effects and with a less serious and lighter tone,than a heart-to-heart shimjung exchange between two equals or two men.Shimjung-based interactions can help clear up misunderstandings or uneasy feelings between two parties from the group of the weness category which is rooted in jung. This exchanging of deep emotions and feelings usually take place,as Choi and Kim(2006) alluded,at a bar over an alcoholic drink.Despite the fact that both women and men do and can drink in Korea,exposing and pouring out one’s deepest feelings over an alcoholic beverage at a bar seems more conducive for men than women.I suspect a shimjung exchange between two Korean women may occur in a different setting and in a different fashion.As we have seen,shimjung of a Korean woman may have a different character and way of expressing itself than that of a Korean man in the patriarchal,hierarchical,and Confucian soil of Korea.In addition,shimjung of a Korean woman is likely to be understood and dealt with more lightly and with less vigor by others than shimjung of a Korean man.A han-ridden Korean woman’s shimjung may contain more in-depth and bottled-up pain, resentment,and lamentation stemming from injustices,ill treatments,and victimization. Therefore,the unique ways in which Korean women’s shimjung can be grasped,expressed, and dealt with must be further investigated.Shimjung exchange in the mother–son relationshipShimjung exchange can take place in a variety of human relationships in Korea.However,it is usually carried out in the close knit and jung-based relationships.One of the most dynamic and intricate shimjung exchanges takes place in parent–child relationships, especially the mother–son relationship.Choi and Kim(2006)strategically and artfully unfold the ever impelling saga of the mother–son connection through shimjung exchange that is unique to the Korean mother–son relationship.Choi and Kim(2006)contend that the real strength and potency of shimjung lies in what is behind a spoken or manifested form of shimjung.This is particularly true of the shimjung exchange between a mother and a son.The short yet powerful vignette between a mother and son at a bus stop which is presented by Choi and Kim(2006)in their essay is a brilliant example.The son gets angry at his mother who brought an umbrella to the bus stop.The mother promptly apologizes to the son for her considerate and loving behavior.What may appear to be a nonsensical discourse is in fact the most effective and powerful vehicle through which shimjung exchange in close relationships is exhibited.It is this expressing of emotions that are the opposite of the real and deep emotions between mother and son that makes shimjung exchange potently indigenous and Korean.Deeply appreciating such profound and indigenous treatment of shimjung in the mother–son relationship by Choi and Kim(2006),I would be interested in going one step further by zooming in on the psychology of the two most significant women figures in the son’s life: the mother and the son’s(future)wife.The special treatment of the mother–son relationship from birth is not surprising at all.Freud’s Oedipus complex has well educated and trained us all of the complexities and intricacies that accompany the mother–son relationship across cultures.However,the mother–son relationship in Korean culture has much more profound and fascinating psychological and social ramifications.As a highly homogeneous,family and in-group oriented,and Confucian culture,Korea is still,at its core,infested with patriarchy, hierarchy,and sexism.What does all this mean for a Korean woman,especially as a mother and a wife?In bridging between parent–child relationship and academic achievement,Park and Kim (2006)offer unique and helpful insights about the utmost importance of Korean parents’, especially mothers’,unselfish devotion and sacrifice in the children’s academic success. Motherhood is the single most important role for many Korean women.The“Korean mother’s self is not abandoned,but extended to that of her children...not a case of self-denial,but of self-transformation,becoming one with their children...Korean mothers see their children as extensions of themselves”(Park and Kim2006,p.425).They go on to say that in the traditional Korean society,the umbilical cord symbolizes the beginning of socialization that ignites the very first interpersonal relationship that is between the motherand the child.This unwaveringly strong bond between the mother and the child persists throughout their lives.This uniquely rich and thick connection between the mother and the son in Korean culture cannot help but bring about some crucial psychological and social consequences, especially for the mother and the son’s(future)wife.While such robust union between the mother and the son endures throughout the son’s adulthood,one wonders how the bond is played out in the lives of the two most significant women in the son’s life.From the standpoint of the mother,her selfhood and identity are immersed in those of her son’s.Although it is highly praised and has much virtue in her voluntary abandoning of self and merging into the life of her son,the identity of the mother is forever changed and altered from the birth of her son.Some side affects of this seemingly unselfish and sacrificial devotion often turns into less than healthy attachment to or demands from the son.The mother,consciously or unconsciously,feels that she has the right to be compensated for her denial and losing of her self.The son,on the other hand,feels guilty and obligated to return the sacrificial love and devotion which he has received from his mother.The shimjung exchange between the mother and the son,when it is conducted excessively and to the extreme degree,can cause some stress,jealousy,and even toxic effects to the triangular relationship between the mother,the son,and the son’s wife.It is not surprising that in-law problems between the mother-in-law and the daughter-in-law are considered to be most prevalent in Korean culture.In fact,one of the top reasons for divorce in Korea is related to the conflicts arising with the in-laws.As a beautiful and unique Korean custom,shimjung exchange in the mother–son relationship must not be suppressed or ignored.However,the ways in which it is practiced can be done in a more wise,considerate,inclusive,and healthy fashion being mindful of those who are around them,including the wife of the son.This leads me to bring the topic of shimjung exchange into one of the most basic and important social unit of all,namely, marriage.Shimjung exchange in married couplesI now wish to extend an invitation for further research in ways through which shimjung exchange can be promoted and thus enrich the quality of relationships between married couples.The divorce rate among Korean couples is quickly growing and catching up with that of the Western world.As the foundational unit and anchor for Korean culture,or any other culture for that matter,marriages and families must be protected and cared for.Considering how Korean culture is geared toward relationality,collectivism,and weness, pastoral care and counseling practices in Korea cannot be done without taking into consideration family systems and family dynamics.Choi and Kim(2006)assert that relationships are strengthened and become better through shimjung based interactions.If indeed this is the case,no relationship can benefit more than the relationship between husband and wife.I believe that paternalism and patriarchy are some of the stumbling blocks that need to be dealt with in promoting shimjung exchange in Korean married couples.Korean society is not only relationally charged but also male dominant and paternally oriented.Aycan (2006),claims that paternalism is prevalent in Pacific Asian,Middle-Eastern,and Latin American cultures that tend to lean toward familisim,patriarchy,hierarchical social order, and power inequality.Paternalism,in its simplest term,denotes the way a father behaves toward his children.“New paternalism,”in the organizational context,tries to humanize and remoralize the workplace(Aycan2006).However,the dangers of paternalism,like those of patriarchy,lie in the fact that the subordinates often are unaware that they are being manipulated.Under the slogan of“one big family,”the loss of autonomy,high dependency,and loss of power are often the true colors of paternalism.When a relationship,such as a husband and wife relationship,is hierarchical,power unbalanced,and vertical,a true shimjung exchange of sharing one’s inner heart with the spouse may not be possible.In fact,Aycan(2006)ends her article by saying that“the dynamics of paternalism should be investigated in other dyadic relationships,including teacher–student,doctor–patient,and husband–wife”(p.463).In order for a meaningful shimjung exchange,and thus for a better marital relationship,to take place between Korean husband and wife,pastoral counselors and care givers for Korean married couples must devise the ways through which paternalism and patriarchy in marriages can be replaced with a more egalitarian and partnership oriented mentality.I also believe that shimjung exchange between married couples will be enhanced if and when they can spend more quality time with each other.Korean society is such that people’s lives,especially men’s lives,revolve around work and career.They go to work early in the morning and come home late at night.A common Korean custom is for men to go out for dinner and have alcoholic drinks with co-workers and superiors after work. Those social gatherings after work hours and even weekends are considered to be an extension or a part of work where they share,exchange information,and strengthen their team spirit and relationships.Shimjung exchange,as mentioned earlier,often takes place with a close friend or a co-worker over an alcoholic beverage at a bar after work.It may seem ironic that Korean culture is known for its family-orientedness while the husbands spend hardly any time with their wives or family members at home.Could it be possible that in the minds of Korean people,including the minds of the Korean husbands, family is the number one priority in terms of their core belief system and values,though they may not be able to practice it in real life?The reality is such that the Korean nation is still in the process of intense industrial and economic development demanding much of the working husbands’time and energy.In fact,most husbands will say that the reasons they are devoted to work are to insure a better future and to improve the overall well being of their family,especially their children.If shimjung exchange contributes to the betterment of relationships,it must be promoted especially in that of husband and wife.In order for this to happen,such concepts as paternalism and patriarchy in Korean marriages must be dealt with.Also,the Korean government and society as a whole should foster an environment where husbands can spend more time with their wives and families,and thus be able to engage in a quality shimjung exchange with their wives.After all,what can be more crucial than strengthening the relationships of married couples for healthy and thriving families,societies,nations,and the world?ConclusionThis solidly structured and highly informative volume does take the readers into the highly complex and multi-layered world of indigenous psychology and challenge them to engage in many of the psychological contours,which we often take for granted,from a fresh and new perspective.The book is written in a very timely manner where the world is becomingever more eclectic,heterogeneous,and multicultural.It cleverly urges people not to process and treat any psychological concept without taking into consideration the surrounding milieu and context.However,one frustration which I encountered comes from the fact that many of the authors suppress or ignore the voices of women in their dealings with or analyzing of an indigenous concept or an aspect of indigenous psychology.This frustration is even more augmented when one considers how indigenous psychology is determined to understand and grasp indigenous psychological contours and people in context by“extend[ing]the boundary and substance of general psychology”(Kim et al.2006,p.3).By discussing and delving into shimjung,one of the most critical Korean indigenous concepts,Choi and Kim(2006)have done a profound and creative work.By bridging other key Korean indigenous concepts such as weness and jung to shimjung,they wonderfully demonstrated the rich and thick texture and levels of shimjung in the psyche and social milieu of Korean people.As a feminist pastoral theologian,I have tried to revisit the concept of shimjung from my own paradigm and world view.In doing so,I examined the shimjung of Korean women which I believe to be distinct and different from that of Korean men in the context of Confucian society.Shimjung in mother–son relationships was also explored in light of the unique cultural,social,and familial setting of stly,an invitation was given to further explore the ways in which shimjung can be utilized to enrich and strengthen the relationship between husband and wife in the paternalistic and patriarchal society of Korea. 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