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Chapter 3 Ecosystems Study Guide

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Chapter 3 Ecosystems continually change over time3.1 How Changes Occur Naturally in EcosystemsI. Summary of Key Points• Over time, living organisms changed as the abiotic and biotic factors in their environments have changed.• The process that makes change in living things possible is called natural selection.• In natural selection, the best-adapted members of a species will survive and reproduce.• Changes also take place in ecosystems.• Ecological succession refers to changes that take place over time in the types of organisms living an area. • There are two types of ecological succession: primary succession and secondary succession.II. Study NotesHow Organisms Adapt to Change1. Natural selection is the process, proposed by Darwin, where environmental factors favour the selectionof fit individuals.2. Sometimes, organisms are born with unique characteristics that give them an advantage within their niche.• A salmon with a slightly larger tail may be able to swim faster or farther in a river.3. Individuals with advantages are better able to reproduce and pass along their traits.4. Individuals with unfavourable characteristics have less chance to reproduce and pass along their traits.• A salmon w ith a smaller tail may never have a chance to spawn because it cannot swim to the correct location.5. An example of natural selection is the Galapagos finch.• There are thirteen species of finches on the Galapagos Islands that developed from asingle species onthe mainland.• Each species has unique characteristics, such as differently sized beaks, which allow it to thrive in itsown niche and not compete with other finches for resources.6. Adaptive radiation is the process by which members of a species adapt to a variety of habitats. How Ecosystems Change Over Time1. Ecological succession is the process of gradual change that occurs when organisms colonize a habitat, modify it, and are forced out by a new species better adapted to the now altered environment.2. There are two types of ecological succession: primary succession and secondary succession.3. Primary succession occurs in an area where no soil exists, such as on bare rock exposed after a glacier retreats or formed when lava cools.4. The first organisms to survive and reproduce are called pioneer species.5. Pioneer species alter the abiotic and biotic environment so that other organisms can survive there.• Wind carries spores of lichens and organisms that can survive and eventually, combined with the weathering of rock, they help form soil.• Lichens are examples of a mutualistic relationship between fungus and algae orcyanobacteria. The fungus provides minerals, water, and protection, and the algae orcyanobacteria provide sugars through photosynthesis.6. The soil improves, plants are able to grow, and animals begin to appear.7. Eventually, seeds of trees germinate and the first trees, such as deciduous trees, create shade, further changing the abiotic conditions.8. As more niches are created, there is greater diversity of animals and more complex food webs.9. The process of primary succession can last for hundreds of years.10. Secondarysuccession occurs after a major disturbance, such as a forest fire, in an area that already has soil and once had living organisms.• The soil contains seeds, micro-organisms, earthworms, and insects.• Secondary succession is much more rapid than primary succession.11. Eventually, coniferous forests form in northern latitudes, deciduous forests form in temperate zones, and tropical forests form in tropical zones.12. The final stage of succession is a mature community (also called climax community), where a stable group of two or more species is able to survive and reproduce indefinitely in the same habitat.• Ecological stability in a community means that populations are able to return to their previous state when disturbed.How Natural Events Affect Ecosystems1. Terrestrial climax communities continue to change with changes in climate or other factors, such asflooding, drought, and insect infestations.• Marine c limax communities can be affected by changes in ocean current patterns andextreme weather.2. Flooding occurs in locations where water levels can change rapidly.• Flooding can result in soil erosion, as well as the spread of pollutants and harmful bacter ia associatedwith wastes.• Climate change and global warming may be increasing incidents of flooding.• When a tsunami occurs, huge waves, from large earthquakes or volcanic eruptions, can flood coastal areas.3. Drought occurs when an area receives a lower than average amount of rainfall over a long period oftime.• Prolonged drought can destroy habitats and kill organisms.4. Insect infestations• Many insects play important roles in their ecosystems.• Even insects that appear destructive, such as the m ountain pine beetle, actually play arole in the renewal of the forest.– The mountain pine beetles have a symbiotic relationship with a species of fungusthat inhibits the trees’ ability to use resin for protection.– When normal conditions are changed, infestations can occur.– Older, weaker trees and trees stressed from overcrowding, drought, or animalgrazing do not produce enough resin to trap and resist the insects as effectively.– A warmer climate and lack of forest fires allow the insects to spread moreeffectively.• Not only are the trees affected, but so is the entire forest ecosystem, as well as anyhuman industries relying on the forest.3.2 How Humans Influence EcosystemsI. Summary of Key Points• A sustainable ecosystem provides economic op portunities today while maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem health for the future.• Economic sustainability is threatened by habitat loss that results from human activities, such as urban development and deforestation.• Other human activities, such as certain agricultural practices and overfishing, also change ecosystems, decrease biodiversity, and affect ecosystem health.• Better resource management practices in activities such as forestry, agriculture, and mining can help sustain ecosystems.II. Study NotesUnderstanding Sustainability1. A sustainable ecosystem provides economic opportunities today while maintaining biodiversity andecosystem health for the future.2. Human expansion into ecosystems has resulted in the destruction or fragmentation of habitats.3. Aquatic ecosystems, such as wetlands and estuaries, include unique populations of plants, animals,and micro-organisms that are threatened by human expansion and the release of toxins (poisons) farupstream.• Estuaries are coastal bodies of water where rivers or streams (freshwater) meet the ocean (salt water). • Micro-organisms affected by human expansion include phytoplankton (plant-like micro-organisms) and zooplankton (animal-like micro-organisms), which are the basis of many aquatic ecosystem food chains.The Effects of Land and Resource Use, Habitat Loss, and the Effects of Deforestation1. Deforestation is the practice in which forests are logged or cleared for human use and are not replanted.• Deforestation of tropical rainforests continues at an alarming rate.• Deforestation reduces the number of plants and animals in an ecosystem and results in soil degradation.2. Soil degradation, which means the soil becomes less healthy and less able to support life, occurs when water and wind erosion removes topsoil from bare land.• Topsoil, the upper layer of soil, is where most of the nutrients, water, and air are found for plant growth.The Effects of Agriculture1. If fields are left exposed during non-planting seasons, water and wind erosion can occur.2. Farm vehicles and grazing animals can cause soil compaction, which means that soil particles are squeezed together.• Compaction reduces the movement of air, water, and soil organisms between the particles, all of which are essential for soil health.3. When soil is compacted, water and air cannot enter, so water runs off instead of soaking in.• Run-off can add excess nitrogen and pollutants, such as pesticides, to the environment. The Effects of Resource Exploitation1. Resource exploitation, also called resource use, includes such activities as harvesting fish and timber, mining coal and minerals, and extracting oil and gas.2. Humans depend on resource exploitation for jobs, materials, food, shelter, and energy.3. Resource exploitation can lead to habitat loss, soil degradation, and contamination of water supplies.• Contamination is the introduction of harmful chemicals or micro-organisms into theenvironment.4. Many mining and resource exploitations need reclamation efforts to restore the land and must develop water treatment facilities to remove heavy metals.• Reclamation often involves use of plants to restore the land and decontaminate soil andwater.5. Overexploitation is the use or extraction of a resource until it is depleted.• Overexploitation can affect the interactions in food webs for decades to come.• Overexploitation can cause populations to become less resistant to disease and less able to adapt to changes in their environment.• Overexplo itation can result in extinction, the dying out of a species.3.3 How Introduced Species Affect EcosystemsI. Summary of Key Points• Native species are organisms that naturally inhabit an area.• Introduced species are introduced into an ecosystem and a re usually beneficial or harmless.• Some introduced species are invasive and can destroy ecosystems.• These species reproduce rapidly and are often aggressive.• Lacking natural predators, they easily outcompete native species and alter habitats.II. Study NotesNative Species and Foreign Species1. Native species are plants and animals that naturally inhabit an area.2. Foreign species are organisms that people intentionally or accidentally have introduced into regions where they did not exist previously.• Foreign species are also called introduced species.• Many foreign species are harmless or even may be beneficial.3. Invasive species are organisms that can take over the habitat of native species or invade their bodies, weakening their immune systems.Example: Purple loosestrife was brought to North America several hundred years ago and has destroyed wetlands because it quickly reproduces and chokes out other plants.• Introduced invasive species in British Columbia include Eurasian milfoil, Norway rat,American bullfrog, and European starling.The Impact of Introduced Invasive Species1. The rapid spread of introduced invasive species is a major cause of global biodiversity loss.2. Invasive species often have high reproduction rates, are aggressive competitors, and lack natural predators in new habitats.3. Invasive species often take advantage of their new habitat, resulting in their proliferation.• Proliferation means to grow or multiply by rapidly producing new tissues, cells, oroffspring.4. Foreign species can affect native species through:• Competition: Native species have an established balance in the competition for food and habitat, and the invasive species disturbs this balance. The European starling outcompetes British Columbi a’s western bluebird for nesting habitat.• Predation: If the invasive species is a predator, it may have a huge advantage since the native species may have no methods to survive against it. The Norway rat preys on British Columbia’s groundnesting birds, and the American bullfrog preys on British Columbia’snative frogs.• Disease and Parasitism: By weakening certain species, a micro-organism invading an ecosystem can drastically alter the entire ecosystem and the niches within it.• Habitat Alteration: Some invasive species can change the physical structure of theecosystem by digging, burrowing, blocking sunlight, or changing the ecosystem’s chemistry.Eurasian milfoil forms wide, dense mats at lake surfaces, cutting off sunlight to organisms below. It grows from plant fragments, which are often spread by boats.Saving an Ecosystem Under Siege1. The Garry Oak Ecosystem Recovery Team (GOERT) is working to save one of the most biologically rich ecosystems in the province, which is also one of the most threatened.• The team is a partnership of governments, First Nations, conservationists, scientists, and businesses.2. Ninety-five percent of the original ecosystem has been lost to urban development, and the remaining5 percent is threatened by foreign species, including Scotch broom, English ivy, invasive grasses, grey squirrels, and gypsy moths.• Scotch broom is a bushy shrub that replaces native shrubs, ruins the habitat for nativebirds and butterflies, and fixes nitrogen in the soil, creating an overload of nitrogen.• The grey squirrels outcompete the native red squirrel for acorns and are larger andstronger.• The gypsy moth larvae strip oak trees of their leaves, making the trees vulnerable toinfections and unable to perform photosynthesis.3. Garry oak ecosystems may be the forests of the future because they are better able to withstand drought than Douglas fir forests.。

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ecosystems

ecosystems


Cycles in nature
• The atoms of carbon, nitrogen, and other
elements that make up the bodies of organisms alive today are the same atoms that have been
• Eating meat is a relatively inefficient way of tapping photosynthetic production. • Worldwide agriculture could feed many more people if humans ate only plant material.
Female mosquitoes obtain protein for egg development from blood.
• An important characteristic of a species’ niche is how it obtains energy.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Will an ecosystem change? • Plants and animals in an area can change, and because abiotic factors can change,
环境科学复习要点-师兄版

环境科学复习要点-师兄版

CHAPTER ONE：Environmental InterrelationshipsEnvironment: the surrounding conditions that affect people and other organism. In a broader definition, environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime.环境：与某一中心事物有关的周围事物，就是这个中心事物的环境。

Environmental Science: is an interdisciplinary area of study that includes both applied and theoretical aspects of human impact on the world.The field of environmental science involves an understanding of scientific principles, economic influences, and political action. Environment decisions ofent involve compromise.(fig. 1.1) International OrganizationIn order to solve the common environmental issues, several international organizations were founded, and several international conventions were established.The international joint commission (1909)boundary waters treatyThe united nations conference on environment and development (1992, UNCED)sustainable development and biodiversity Agenda 21The Kyoto conference on climate change (1997)the Kyoto protocolThe United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)supported many environmental programs.An ecosystem：is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form interacting unit.For solving regional environmental issues, it’s very useful to adopt ecosystem approach.No region is free of environmental concerns.Regional vignettes in AmericaThe Wideness Northcharacteristic: wilderness--areas with minimal human influence.Much of this land is owned by governments, not by individuals, so government policies have a large effect on what happens in these regions.The Agricultural Middlecharacteristic: intensive agriculture.Original, natural ecosystems have been replaced by managed agricultural enterprise.nonpoint pollution sources (pollution that does not have an easily identified point of origin).The Dry W estcharacteristic: inadequate rainfall, land is of low economic value, most of it is still the property of government.Population density is low, much of the land has a wilderness character.The Forested W estcharacteristic: sufficient rainfall, coniferous forests are the dominant vegetation.Since most of these areas are not suitable for farmland, they have been maintained as forests with some grazing activity in the more open forests. timber cutting .Environmental interests are concerned about the consequences logging would have on organisms that require mature, old-growth forests for their survival.The Great Lakes and Industrial Northeastcharacteristic: dominated by large metropolitan complexes that generate social and resource needs that are difficult to satisfy.A major concern about these pollutants is that they bioaccumulate in the food chain.Their major environmental priorities are cleaning up contaminated sites, providing more parks and recreation facilities, reducing air and water pollution, and improving transportation.The Diverse Southcharacteristic: diverse.The South is a microcosm of all the regions previously discussed. The petrochemical industry dominates the economies of Texas and Louisiana, and forestry and agriculture are significant elements of the economy in other parts of the region. Major metropolitan areas thrive, and much of the area is linked to the coast either directly or by the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The environmental issues faced in the South are as diverse as those in all the other regions.Poverty has been a problem in many areas of the South. This creates a climate that encourages state and local governments to accept industrial development at the expense of other values. Often, jobs are more important than the environmental consequences of the jobs; low-paying jobs are better than no jobs.Environmental problems are people problems.SummaryArtificial political boundaries create difficulties in managing environmental problems because most environmental units, ecosystems, do not coincide with political boundaries. Therefore, a regional approach to solving environmental problems, one that incorporates natural geographic units, is ideal. Each region of the world has certain environmental issues that are of primary concern because of the mix of population, resource use patterns, and culture.Environmental problems become issues when someone finds a situation offensive. This inevitably leads to a confrontation between groups that have different views on what constitutes an environmental problem. Many social, economic, ethical, and scientific inputs shape a person's opinions. The process of environmental decision making must take all of these inputs into account and arrive at an acceptable compromise.Environmental problems are people problems.They occur because the uses of natural resources, which some people feel are justified, result in a diminished environment for others in the region. Environmental problems are defined by the person who perceives the problem. When perceptions differ, conflict occurs. Environmental decisions inevitably involve economic considerations because someone is receiving value from the resources being used or someone perceives an economic loss because a use has been withdrawn.Compromise is the only way to resolve the Environmental conflictsCHAPTER THREE: Kinds of Ecosystems and CommunitiesSuccessionThe communities proceed through a series of recognizable, predictable changes in structure over time is called succession.Primary succession is a successional progression that begins with a total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or water. Terrestrial Primary Succession Aquatic Primary Succession Secondary SuccessionAn original community is destroyed and replaced by an new community, this progress is called secondary succession.Community: is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area.Climax community: The relatively stable, long-lasting community is called climax community Lichen A pioneer organismBiomes: Major Types of T errestrial Climax CommunitiesThe effect of elevation on climate and vegetationDeserts: A lack of water is the primary factor that determines that an area will be desert. Deserts are areas that generally receive fewer than 25 centimeters of precipitation per year.Grassland: Grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes, are widely distributed over temperate parts of the world. As with deserts, the major factor that contributes to the establishment of a grassland is the amount of available moisture. Grasslands generally receive between 25 and 75 centimeters of precipitation per year. These areas are windy with hot summers and cold to mild winters.Savanna: Tropical parts of Africa, South America, and Australia have extensive grasslands spotted with occasional trees or patches of trees. This kind of a biome is often called a savanna. These areas of the world are typically tropical, with 50 to 150 centimeters of rain per yea r. The rain i s not distributed evenly through-out the year.T ropical Dry Rainforest: Many of the tropical dry forests have a monsoon climate in which several months of heavy rainfall are followed by extensive dry periods ranging from a few to as many as eight months. (See figure 6.14) the rainfall may b e as low as 50 centimeters or as high as 200centimeters,but since the rainfall is highly seasonal, many of the plants have special adaptations for enduring drought.T ropical Rainforest: Tropical rainforests are located near the equator in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. (See figure 6.15.) The temperature is normally warm and relatively constant. There is no frost, and it rains nearly every day. Most areas receive in excess of 200 centimeters of rain per year. Some receive 500 centimeters or more. Because of the warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, most plants grow very rapidly; however, soils are often poor in nutrients because water tends to carry away any nutrients not immediately taken up by plants.Marine EcosystemsThose Aquatic Ecosystems that have a high salt content are called marine ecosystems.Pelagic Marine Ecosystems: In the open ocean, many kinds of organisms floats or swim actively. Crustaceans, fish, and whales swim actively as they pursue food. Organisms that are notattached to the bottom are called pelagic organisms, and the ecosystem they are a part of is called a pelagic ecosystem.Benthic Marine Ecosystems: Organisms that live on the ocean bottom, whether attached or not, are known as benthic organisms, and the kind of ecosystem of which they are a part is called a benthic ecosystem.Estuaries: An estuaries is a special category of marine ecosystem, that consist of shallow, partially enclosed areas where freshwater enters the ocean. The saltiness of the water in the estuary changes with tides and the flow of water from rivers. The organisms that live here are specially adapted to this set of physical conditions, and the number of species is less than in the ocean or in freshwater.Freshwater EcosystemsThose that have little dissolved salt are called fresh water ecosystemsFreshwater ecosystems differ from marine ecosystems in several ways. The amount of salt present is much less, the temperature of the water can change greatly, the water is in the process of moving downhill, oxygen can often be in short supply, and the organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.Lakes and Ponds: Large lakes have many of the same characteristics as the ocean. If the lake is deep, there is a euphotic zone at the top.Streams and Rivers: the water is shallow, light can penetrate easily to the bottom (except for large or extremely muddy rivers). Even so, it is difficult for photosynthetic organisms to accumulate the nutrients necessary for growth, and most streams are not very productive. SummaryEcosystems change as one kind of organism replaces another in a process called succession. Ultimately, a relatively stable stage is reached, called the climax community. Succession may begin with bare rock or water, in which case it is called primary succession, or may occur when the original ecosystem is destroyed, in which case it is called secondary succession. The stages that lead to the climax are called successional stages.Major regional terrestrial climax communities are called biomes. The primary determiners of the kinds of biomes that develop are the amount and yearly distribution of rainfall and the yearly temperature cycle. Major biomes are desert, grassland, savanna, tropical rainforest, temperate deciduous forest, taiga, and tundra. Each has a particular set of organisms that is adapted to the climatic conditions typical for the area. As one proceeds up a mountainside, it is possible to witness the same kind of change in biomes that occurs if one were to travel from the equator to the North Pole.Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into marine (saltwater) and freshwater ecosystems. In the ocean, some organisms live in open water and are called pelagic organisms. Light penetrates only the upper few meters of water; therefore, this region is called the euphotic zone. Tiny photosynthetic organisms that float near the surface are called phytoplankton. They are eaten by small animals known as zooplankton, which in turn are eaten by fish and other larger organisms.CHAPTER FOUR: Population PrinciplesAn Essay on the Principle of Population---Thomas Malthus(1798)Population: a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a particular area at a specific time.Population CharacteristicsNatality（出生率）: refers to the number of individuals added to the population through reproduction.Mortality（死亡率）: refers to the number of deaths in a population over a particular time period. Age distribution（年龄分布）: the number of individuals in each age class as a ratio of one class to another.Sex ratio（性别比例）: refers to the relative numbers of males and females.Population Growth Curve 人口增长曲线Typical population growth tends to follow a particular pattern, consisting of a lag phase, an exponential growth phase, and a stable equilibrium phase.Four periods:a lag phase（滞后阶段）an exponential growth phase（增长阶段）a stable equilibrium phase（稳定平衡阶段）a death phase（死亡阶段）Growth as normally seen under artificial conditions, e.g: lab populationsLimits to population size are:1.Food2.Waste product elimination3. Disease control4.SpaceLogistic growthMost populations are limited in growth at some carrying capacity (K) (the maximum population size a habitat can accommodate)Environmental resistance to growth may be because of: Food and shelter llimitations ；Competition and predation by other organisms ；Unfavorable physical conditionsCarrying Capacity （承载力）The carrying capacity of an area is the number of individuals of a species that can survive in that area over time.Limiting Factor: a particular condition or factor that limits the size of a population. eg: Oxygen supply, Food supply, Disease, Predators, Limited space.Reproductive StrategiesSpecies can be divided into two broad categories based on their reproductive strategies:K-strategists are usually large organisms that have relatively long lives, produce few offspring, and provide care for their offspring.R-strategist is typically a small organism that has a short life, produces many offspring, and does not reach a carrying capacity.Human Population Growth：The human population growth curve has a long lag phase followed by a sharply rising exponential growth phase that is still rapidly increasing.Growth will slow down either due to decreased births or increased deaths.SummaryPopulation birthrate (natality) death rate (mortality)Population growth is determined by the combined effects of the birthrate and death rate.sex ratio Age distribution typical population growth curvecarrying capacity four major categories K-strategistsr-strategists are generally small, short-living organisms that reproduce very quicklyThe human population is increasing at a rapid rate. The earth's ultimate carrying capacity for humans is not known. The causes for human population growth are not just biological but also social, political, philosophical, and theological.第五单元Interactions: Environment and Organisms环境和生物间的相互作用Every form of life and all societies require a constant input of energyIf the flow of energy through organisms or societies ceases, they stop functioning and begin to disintegrate1 Ecological ConceptsEcology:is the study of the ways organisms interact with each other and with their nonliving surroundings.Environment:Everything that affects an organism during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.it is useful to subdivide the concept of environment into abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) factors.Abiotic factors can be organized into several broad categories: energy, nonliving matter, and processes that involve the interaction of nonliving matter and energy.Biotic factors include all forms of life with which it interacts.Limiting Factors: a shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species; thus the factor is known as a limiting factor.Habitat: The habitat of an organism is the space that the organism inhabits, the place where it lives (its address)Niche: is the functional role it has in its surroundings (its profession).Limiting factor: A shortage or absence of a key factor restricts the success of the species; thus the factor is known as a limiting factor.2 The Role of Natural Selection and EvolutionPopulation: a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting a particular area at a specific time.Species :is a population of organisms in which the individuals are potentially able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.Natural selection: is the process that determines which individuals within a species will reproduce and pass their genes to the next generation.Evolution:the changes that can be seen in the genes and the characteristic displayed bysuccessive generations of population of organisms over time.Extinction:is the loss of an entire species.The Mechanism of Natural Selection1.Individuals within a species showed variation; some of the variations were very useful and others were not.2. Organisms within a species typically produce many more offspring than can survive. This means that there is not enough suitable habitat for all of the offspring to grow to maturity.3. The excess number of individuals results in a struggle for survival. Individuals within the population must compete with each other for food, space, mates, or other requirements that are in limited supply.4. Because of variation among individuals, some have a greater chance of surviving and reproducing than others.5. As time passes and each generation is subjected to the same process, the percentage of individuals showing favorable variations will increase and those having unfavorable variations will decrease. Thus, the species will become better and better adapted to its environment.4 community and ecosystem interactionsCommunity: is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species of organisms in an area.Major Roles of Organisms:Producers: are able to make new, complex, organic material from the atoms in their environment. Consumer s: all other organisms rely on producers as a source of food, either directly or indirectly. These other organisms are called consumers.Decomposer: use nonliving organic matter as a source of food.Energy Flow Through Ecosystems:An ecosystem is a stable, self-regulating unit. To maintain itself, it must have a continuous input of energy. The only significant source of energy for most ecosystems is sunlight energy.Food Chains and Food Webs:The passage of energy from one trophic level to the next as a result of one organism consuming another is known as a food chain.When several food chains overlap and intersect, they make up a food web.Every form of life and all societies require a constant input of energyIf the flow of energy through organisms or societies ceases, they stop functioning and begin to disintegrateOrigin of energy source: sunlight photosynthesis producer: Plant AlgaKind of biological energy sources：wood natural gas oil coalFossil fuels: remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago. (stored sunlight), including coal, oil, natural gas.Industrial RevolutionHistorically, the first fossil fuel to be used extensively was coal. In the early eighteenth century, regions of the world that had readily available coal deposits were able to switch to this new fuel and participate in a major cultural change known as the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began in England and spread to much of Europe and North America. It involved theinvention of machines that replaced human and animal labor in manufacturing and transporting goods. Central to this change was the invention of the steam engine, which could convert heat energy into the energy of motion. The source of energy for steam engines was either wood or coal; wood was quickly replaced by coal in most cases. Nations without a source of coal, or those possessing coal reserves that were not easily exploited, did not participate in the Industrial Revolution.A direct link exists between economic growth and the availability of inexpensive energy. The replacement of human and animal energy with fossil fuels began with the Industrial Revolution and was greatly accelerated by the supply of cheap, easy-to-handle, and highly efficient fuels.Because of link between energy and productivity, most industrial societies want to ensure a continuous supply of affordable energy.The emphasis on low-priced fuels has encouraged high rates of consumption.A(6).Describe the carbon cycle in detail.(12points)答：Carbon atoms are cycle through ecosystems. Plants can incorporate carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into organic molecules when they carry on photosynthesis. The carbon-containing molecules are passed to animals when they eat plants or other animals. Organic wastes or dead organisms are consumed by decay organisms. All organisms, plants, animals, and decomposers return carbon atoms to the atmosphere when they carry on respiration. Oxygen atoms are being cycled at the same time that carbon atoms are being cycled.A(7).Describe the process of primary succession.(10points)答：Is a successional progression that begins with a total lack of organisms and bare mineral surfaces or water. Such conditions can occur when volcanic aactivity causes lava flows or glaciers scrape away the organisms and soil. Similarly, a lowering of sea level exposes new surfaces for colonization by terrestrial organisms. Primary succession often takes an extremely long time, since there is no soil and few readily available nutrients for plants to use for growth.A(8).List the difference between freshwater and marine ecosystems.(8points)答：The amount of salt present is much less, the temperature of the water can change greatly, the water is in the process of moving downhill, oxygen can often be in short supply, and the organisms that inhabit freshwater systems are different.B(1).Give example of organisms that are herbivores, carnivores and omnivores答：Cattle, sheep, rabbits, tigers and lions, wild boars, rats, bearsB(2).List two different aquatic ecosystem答：lakes, ponds and reservoirs rivers, streams, ditchesB(3).List three different symbiotic relationships答：The ants and the tree Leguminous plants and Rhizobium Human and intestinal floraB(4).List the factors that determined the growth of population答：Natality mortality sex ratio and distributionB(5).List the ways of energy consumption in the early human history答：Wood or other plant material provided a source of fuel for heating and cooking shaping tools and extracting metals。

正确的学习方法将事半功倍英语作文

正确的学习方法将事半功倍英语作文

正确的学习方法将事半功倍英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Right Way to Study Will Double Your ProgressHi there! My name is Timmy and I'm a 5th grader. Today I want to share with you some tips on how to study the right way. Believe me, I used to struggle a lot with studying until I figured out some awesome strategies. Once I started using the right techniques, my grades shot up and studying became so much easier!The first big mistake I was making is that I would just read through my notes or textbooks over and over again. I thought that by re-reading everything, the information would somehow sink into my brain. Boy, was I wrong about that! Just reading passively is one of the worst ways to study. Your mind starts to wander after a few minutes and you basically zone out even though your eyes are still moving across the pages.The magic happens when you get active while studying instead of just reading. You want to write things out, draw diagrams, discuss topics out loud, and quiz yourself constantly.Writing is an incredibly powerful way to learn because it forces you to put concepts into your own words rather than just trying to memorize the textbook's words. I keep a special notebook where I re-write all my notes, add drawings and doodles to illustrate key ideas, and jot down any questions I have. Then I make sure to follow up and get those questions answered.Speaking out loud is also amazingly helpful for learning. I simply read my notes and key concept out loud to myself and it feels like the information sticks in my brain way better than just reading silently. Even better is if I can explain the concepts to my parents, teacher, or a friend. When I have to put things into my own spoken words, it forces me to really understand the material instead of just recognizing words on a page.One of my favorite ways to study is to quiz myself constantly using flashcards, practice tests, and online quizzes. I scribble down questions on index cards, have my parents ask me those questions, and keep cycling through the cards until I have everything down cold. Taking practice tests is also super useful because it simulates the real exam experience. If I can successfully answer those practice questions, I know I'm prepared.Another pitfall I used to fall into was waiting until the last minute to study for tests. I'd leave everything for the night before and then have to desperately try to cram a ton of information into my brain in one late-night session. Unsurprisingly, I always felt unprepared and scatter-brained when I took those tests.These days, I start studying at least a week or two before any major test or exam. I spread out my studying over time so I'm not overwhelming my brain with too much new information at once.I work on re-writing and reviewing a little bit each day so everything can properly sink in. That way, by the time the test rolls around, the material feels super familiar rather than being brand-new.Finding the right environment is also hugely important for effective studying. I used to lie on my bed to study, but I'd always end up getting sleepy and distracted. Sometimes I'd have the TV or music playing in the background too, which was a terrible idea. These days, I do my studying at a desk or table in a quiet room away from screens, gadgets, or other potential distractions. Having a dedicated study space helps put my brain in academic mode.Taking breaks is just as crucial as the actual studying itself. Our brains can only focus intensely for so long before they get fatigued. That's why I build in short breaks every 30-45 minutes where I can stretch, snack, play for a few minutes, and recharge. After my break, I can dive back into studying feeling refreshed rather than getting burnt out.I also make sure to get plenty of sleep while I'm studying for tests. Staying up late cramming is one of the worst strategies. When I'm overly tired, my brain gets fuzzy and I can't think clearly or retain information properly. These days, I wrap up my nightly studying by 9pm so I can be well-rested when I wake up for school.Using these simple strategies has been a totalgame-changer for me! Getting active with writing, speaking, and quizzing makes the material really stick. Spreading out studying over time is way better than last-minute cram sessions. Having a good study space and taking breaks helps my brain operate at peak performance. And getting enough sleep is crucial for feeling sharp and focused.I hope these tips help you as much as they've helped me! Don't be afraid to experiment with different study strategies untilyou find the right formula that clicks for your own personal learning style. The effort is篇2The Right Way to Study Will Double Your ProgressHi there! I'm Jin, a 5th grader who loves learning new things. Like many of you, I used to find studying kind of boring and tiring. But then I discovered some awesome tricks that have totally changed how I approach my schoolwork. Now studying is actually fun and I'm understanding things way better than before! Let me share my favorite study tips with you.First up, finding the right environment is super important. You want a quiet space with few distractions where you can really focus. Maybe it's a cozy corner of your bedroom or a spot at the kitchen table. Wherever you choose, make sure it's neat and has all the supplies you need close by. Having to stop and look for pencils or papers every five minutes is just going to break your concentration.Speaking of concentration, you'll want to take regular breaks when studying for a long stretch. Our brains can only lock in for so long before they get fatigued and start drifting off. The Pomodoro technique is perfect for this. You study hard for 25minutes, then take a 5 minute break to recharge. After 4 of those cycles, you get a longer 15-30 minute break. Giving your brain those little rests makes your study time way more productive.Okay, now for some specific strategies by subject. Let's start with math since that's a big one for lots of students. Repetition and practice are key here. It helps to have a set of math fact flashcards that you can drill yourself with regularly. As you go through homework or review sheets, circle any problems you got stuck on and make sure to add those specific examples to your flashcard rotation.Another great trick is to find creative ways to apply math concepts to real life. Like if you're working on fractions, you could divide up food portions from dinner to get a better visual. Or calculate what percentage of your weekly allowance you're spending onice cream. Making those connections makes abstract ideas click much better.Reading and writing are a little different since they rely more on understanding context, themes and techniques used by authors. One thing that helps a ton is keeping a reading log or journal. After finishing a chapter or story, take a few minutes to jot down a quick summary, your overall impressions, or anyquestions you have. This simple habit reinforces comprehension way more than just reading passively.It also helps to read out loud sometimes, either to yourself or a parent/friend. Hearing the words and feeling them come out of your mouth makes you slow down and really think about what you're reading in a different way. For writing essays and stories, always start with an outline before drafting. This organizes your thoughts and prevents getting stuck or going off on tangents.Science is all about experimentation and hands-on learning. Whenever possible, set up simple experiments at home that let you test out concepts from class. There are tons of easy ones online using basic household items. You'll be amazed how much better things stick when you can experience them directly. Plus it's just plain fun mixing up concoctions or built contraptions.History is another subject where visuals and mnemonic devices can be game changers. For example, make flashcards with important dates on one side and a silly rhyme, joke or image on the other connecting it to the related event. That funny association hard-wires it into your memory way better than rote memorization.No matter what you're studying though, the most important things are:Staying organized with your materialsAvoiding distractions that break your focusAlternating short periods of intense work with rest breaksFinding ways to apply what you're learning to real lifeMixing up your study routine with different techniquesIf you put in the focused effort using methods like these, I'm telling you, your understanding and performance will go through the roof! There's no shortcut to skip the hard work, but making your studies more engaging and efficient will absolutely allow you to double your progress.So don't be intimidated by tests, essays or tricky concepts, my friends. You've got an arsenal of awesome strategies to make conquering any academic challenge a total breeze. Just remember to make a plan, take it step-by-step, and have fun along the way. Happy studying!篇3The Right Way to Study Will Make the Task Twice as EasyLearning new things can be really tough sometimes. Like when we have to memorize multiplication tables or read long books for book reports. It can feel like a huge mountain to climb!But I've discovered some awesome study tips that have made my learning way easier. If you use the right strategies, studying doesn't have to be such a drag.The first biggie is to actually pay attention in class. I know, I know, it's tempting to goof off and pass notes to your friends. But really listening to the teacher explain things is like getting a head start on your studying. When you go home to review the material later, it will make way more sense because you've already heard it once. Believe me, I learned this the hard way when I zoned out during our science unit on ecosystems. Then I had no clue what was going on when I tried to study my notes at home!Speaking of notes, taking good ones is also really important. Don't just mindlessly copy down everything the teacher writes on the board. Actually think about what the main points are and write those in your own words. Adding little doodles or diagrams can help cement the ideas in your brain too. Color coding your notes for different topics is another smart trick – that helps your eyes quickly find the specific concept you need to review.When you get home from school, set aside time every day to go over your notes and read the textbook chapters from class. Don't leave it until the last minute before a test! Spreading outyour studying in smaller chunks makes it so much easier to concentrate and understand everything. Trying to cram the night before is a recipe for feeling frazzled and forgetting things.As you're reviewing the material, keep a running list of anything you're struggling with or don't quite get yet. That way you can make sure to get clarification from your teacher on those tricky parts. There's no such thing as a stupid question –the only stupid thing is not asking when you're confused!It also really helps to actively practice recalling the information in different ways. Just re-reading your notes over and over puts your brain on snooze mode. Instead, try covering up part of your notes and seeing if you can fill in the missing info from memory. Or grab a friend and quiz each other on the concepts you're learning. You could even make up a funny song or rhyme to help remember facts and vocab words.For bigger projects like book reports or science fair presentations, it's best to break it down into smaller steps. Trying to do the whole thing at once is going to stress you out and make you miserable. Make a schedule with manageable goals to hit each day or week leading up to the due date. This prevents you from scrambling at the last minute (and turning in sloppy work).Your parents and teachers will also appreciate you being more organized. Get yourself a calendar or agenda book to write down all your assignments, test dates, project deadlines, and activities. That way you can easily see what's coming up and plan out your time accordingly. Believe me, you don't want to be caught off-guard by suddenly remembering you have a huge research paper due tomorrow!Studying for any big tests is always going to require some extra hard work. But there are lots of cool strategies to prepare without wanting to bang your head on the desk. Make flashcards to quiz yourself on key terminology and facts. Study a little bit each day instead of an all-nighter cram session. Teach the concepts to a parent or friend, which will solidify your understanding. And don't forget to get a good night's sleep before test day!Honestly, studying doesn't have to be pure drudgery. Once you find methods that work for your personal learning style, it becomes way more manageable and effective. Using tools like flashcards, charts, videos, and apps can liven things up. And don't be afraid to get creative by making study games, drawing pictures, or turning concepts into songs. The more actively engaged your brain is, the more it will retain.Another huge key is staying motivated by focusing on your long-term goals. Sure, geometry proofs or world history dates might seem pointless right now. But all this hard work is going to pay off huge time in the future. Good study habits will help you get into an awesome college or land your dream job one day. Just keep your eye on the prize!At the end of the day, the right attitude goes a long way too. If you go into studying feeling discouraged and like it's just torture, then no surprise – it will totally feel that way. But if you psych yourself up with a positive mindset, you're already ten steps ahead. Remember all the times you mastered something。

环境保护与可持续发展-教学大纲

环境保护与可持续发展-教学大纲

环境保护与可持续发展-教学⼤纲《环境保护与可持续发展》教学⼤纲课程编号：081672B课程类型：□通识教育必修课□通识教育选修课□专业必修课√专业选修课□学科基础课总学时：32 讲课学时：32实验（上机）学时：0学分：2适⽤对象：环境⼯程先修课程：⽆⼀、教学⽬标《环境保护与可持续发展》是环境⼯程专业本科⽣的⼀门专业选修课，课程旨在培养学⽣⽤可持续发展的基本理论审视当代环境问题，并为环境问题的解决提供切实可⾏的途径。

课程具体⽬标如下：⽬标1：为学⽣树⽴可持续发展观念，寻求当下环境问题的最佳解决途径。

⽬标2：了解⼈类社会当前⾯临的主要环境问题，掌握可持续发展的基本理论和⽅法，应⽤可持续发展理念指导环境保护和⼈类社会进步。

⽬标3：培养学⽣环境⼤局观念、可持续发展观念、环境法治观念及环境伦理观念。

⼆、教学内容及其与毕业要求的对应关系《环境保护与可持续发展》课程重点讲授的内容包括：可持续发展理论及进展，环境保护和可持续发展的实施途径，及环境伦理观。

选讲的内容包括⼈类社会当代资源、⽣态与环境问题，环境法治和环境管理等。

为实现该课程的教学⽬标，教学过程主要采⽤多媒体教学⽅法，结合案例教学法进⾏讲授。

对实践教学环节的要求：⽆。

对课后作业以及学⽣⾃学的要求：⽆。

该课程在提升学⽣环境治理的相关理论⽔平⽅⾯促进了毕业要求的实现。

三、各教学环节学时分配以表格⽅式表现各章节的学时分配，表格如下：教学课时分配四、教学内容（⿊体，⼩四号字）Chapter 1 Contemporary environmental problemsUnit 1 Resource shortage1.Water resources/doc/151d5814996648d7c1c708a1284ac850ac02046c.html nd resources3.Energy4.Mineral resourcesUnit 2 Ecosystem degradation1.Basic concepts of ecosystem2.Natural ecosystem degradation3.Urban ecosystem degradation4.Impact of ecosystem degradation on sustainable development Unit 3 Environmental pollution1.Water pollution2.Air pollution3.Soil pollution4.Solid waste and hazardous chemical pollution5.Environmental physical pollutionUnit 4 Global environmental problems1.Climate change2.Ozone depletion3.Reduction of biodiversity4.Ocean pollution5.Persistent organic pollutants教学重点、难点：1.Ecosystem degradation2.Environmental pollution3.Population issues4.Global environmental problems课程的考核要求了解：the transformation of earth ecological environment理解：human influence on ecosystems, resource shortage, enlightenment of NO.2 biosphere掌握：major environmental problems, reasons of contemporary environmental problems应⽤：consideration on environmental protection, energy conservation, environmental pollution control 复习思考题：1.What is the nature of environmental problems?2.Describe the classification of energy, and how to realize thesustainable development of energy.3.Describe the major issues in natural ecosystem degradation inChina.4.What is the influence of ecosystem degradation on sustainabledevelopment?5.Describe current vehicular pollution status, and what is therelationship between mobile industry and environmentalprotection?6.What are the major global environmental problems China facing?Chapter 2 Sustainable development and its current progressUnit 1 Evolution of sustainable development1.Silent spring2.Limits to Growth3.Our Common FutureUnit 2 Basic theories of sustainable development1.Connotation and basic principles of sustainable development2.Sustainable development paradigm- competition between thestrong and the weak3.Major factors influencing sustainable developmentUnit 3 Evaluating indicators of sustainable development1.Basic principles for the evaluating indicators of sustainabledevelopment2.Single-indicator evaluating method of sustainable development3.Multi-indicator evaluating method of sustainable development Unit 4 Circular economics and recycling society1.Concepts of circular economics2.International case studies of circular economics3.Circular economics in China教学重点、难点：1.Basic principles for the evaluating indicators of sustainabledevelopment2.concepts of circular economics3.Single-indicator evaluating method of sustainable development4.Multi-indicator evaluating method of sustainable development 课程的考核要求了解：Evolution of sustainable development理解：Connotation and basic principles, sustainable developmentparadigm掌握：Basic principles for the evaluating indicators of sustainable development, concepts of circular economics应⽤：Single-indicator & multi-indicator evaluating method of sustainable development复习思考题：1.What is recycling economy?2.Analyze an example of sustainable development.3.How to keep the balance among environment, economics andsociety?4.Inter Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) pointout that unsustainable development is the major reason forclimate change. Please list the major factors influencingclimate change, and evaluate their sustainability./doc/151d5814996648d7c1c708a1284ac850ac02046c.html pare the advantages and disadvantages among varioussustainability evaluating systems, including Green GDP,National Wealth, Genuine Saving, Ecological Footprint, HDI andordinary multi-indicator weighting.6.What is the difference of waste management in recyclingeconomics from clean production?Chapter 3 Ways to environmental protection and sustainable developmentUnit 1 Environmental Law1.Function and position of environmental law2.Environmental law relationship3.Systems and enforcement of environmental law4.Environmental legal liability5.Introduction to Chinese environmental lawUnit 2 Environmental management1.Importance of environmental management2.Public belonging property of natural resources and externalityof environmental problems/doc/151d5814996648d7c1c708a1284ac850ac02046c.html ernment-dominant methods of environmental management4.Economical methods of environmental management5.Environmental resource utilizer-dominant methods ofenvironmental management6.Technical support of environmental managementUnit 3 Ecological environmental protection1.Reservation of primary ecosystem2.Protection of secondary ecosystem3.Restoration of degraded ecosystem4.Management of adaptive ecosystemUnit 4 Clean production1.Concepts and evolution of clean production2.Clean production of whole producing process3.Life cycle assessment and ecological design4.Sustainable producing systemsUnit 5 Control of environmental pollution1.Water pollution control2.Air pollution control3.Pollution control and integrated utilization of solid wasteUnit 6 International environmental convention and its performance1.Convention of climate change2.Ozone layer protection3.Biodiversity protection4.Control of hazardous waste5.Marine environment protection6.Control of persistent organic pollutants教学重点、难点：/doc/151d5814996648d7c1c708a1284ac850ac02046c.html ernment-dominant methods ofenvironmental management2.Economical methods of environmental management3.Environmental resource utilizer-dominant methods ofenvironmental management4.Life cycle assessment and ecological design课程的考核要求了解：function and position of environmental law, environmental law relationship理解：international environmental convention and its performance, environmental pollution control methods 掌握：different methods of environmental management应⽤：clean production, life cycle assessment复习思考题：1.Talk about your understanding towards environmental lawrelationship.2.Technology systems for restoration and reconstruction ofecosystems.3.Choose from computer, refrigerator, furniture and food, andpoint out its environmental impact in the whole life cycle assessment？4.Describe the integrated measures for air pollution control, andwhat is the relationship between energy utilization and air pollution control?5.When will the ozone hole in the South Pole disappear and why?6.What are the major obstacles in the international negotiationsof global climate change?Chapter 4 Environmental EthicsUnit 1 Evolution of environmental ethics and its content1.Evolution and development of environmental ethics2.Major content of environmental ethicsUnit 2 Environmental ethics and human behavior1.Effect of environmental ethics on decision maker2.Effect of environmental ethics on entrepreneur3.Effect of environmental ethics on the public behavior教学重点、难点：1.Effect of environmental ethics on decision maker2.Effect of environmental ethics on entrepreneur课程的考核要求了解：evolution and development of environmental ethics理解：major content of environmental ethics掌握：effect of environmental ethics on the public behavior应⽤：effect of environmental ethics on decision maker, effect of environmental ethics on entrepreneur复习思考题：1.What is the formation background of environmental ethics?2.What are the major points of environmental ethics?3.Make some suggests to green campus creation.五、考核⽅式、成绩评定本课程采⽤开卷考试⽅式进⾏。