第三单元Definitions of Culture☐Culture is the holistic interrelationship of a group’s identity, beliefs, values, activities, rules, customs, communication patterns, and institutions.—Carley H. Dodd 《跨文化交际动力》2006:36☐文化是“一个复杂的整体，包括知识、信仰、艺术、法律、道德、风俗以及任何人作为一名社会成员而获得的任何能力和习惯”。
—泰勒（Edward Tyler）《原始文化》1871☐文化是一个群体共享的思想、信仰、行为和情感方式，它既是该群体认识世界的依据，也是该群体的行为模式和生活方式，还是该群体的意义系统。
—张红玲《跨文化外语教学》2005：157☐A negotiated set of shared symbolic systems that guide individuals behaviors and incline them to function as a group. 一个经过协商的、用于指导个人行为并使他们成为一个整体的共有符号系统。
—陈国明William J.Starosta 《跨文化交际学基础》☐文化是人类在社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。
一般分为物态、制度、行为、心态四个层次。
第四单元Stress in Cultural Encounters☐Why is interacting with foreigners sometimes stressful?☐What is “culture shock”?☐What do you need to learn to become a more effective communicator?Stress in Cultural Encounters☐Foreign language as a source of stress☐Uncertainty, stress, and intercultural encounters☐On risk, stress, and intercultural encounters☐Unpredictability as a source of stress☐Expectations and intercultural communication☐Expectations and adapting to a new culture☐Unfamiliarity as a source of stressCulture Shock☐It is a feeling of being confused and overwhelmed by life in another culture.☐It is caused by the anxiety that results from losing all our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse.☐These signs or cues include the thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves to the situation of daily life: how to give orders, how to make purchases, when and where not to respond.☐Now these cues which may be words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, or norms are acquired by all of us in the course of growing up and are as much a part of our culture as the language we speak or the beliefs we accept. All of us depend for our peace of mind and efficiency on hundreds of these cues, most of which we are not consciously aware.Causes of cultural shock☐Loss of control☐Being deprived of familiar and loved things and people☐Physical, mental, and emotional fatigue (culture fatigue)☐Discrepant expectations, lack of social support and in sufficient social skillsSymptoms of culture shock☐Homesickness☐Boredom☐Withdrawal☐Need for excessive amount of sleep☐Compulsive eating and/ or drinking☐Irritability☐Exaggerated cleaniness☐Marital stress, family tension and conflict☐Chauvinistic excesses第五六单元Projected Cultural Similarity☐The tendency to assume that people from other cultures basically think and feel more or less the same way we do.☐There are sufficient similarities among peoples of the world to make communication easy.☐Once you get used to their different (dress, manners, style) they are just like us. ☐Denial, defense, minimization, acceptance, adaptation, and integration. (Ethnocentrism)Projected Cultural Similarity☐The Golden Rule: Do unto others what you would have them do unto you./ Do as you would be done by.☐Do not unto others what you would not be done by. 己所不欲勿施于人☐Expecting others to be the same as we are/do the same as we do☐Culture shock☐Frustration☐Wince☐Other Obstacles: Stereotype, ethnocentrismEthnocentrism☐Assuming that the world-view of one’s own culture is central to all reality, the idea that your own race, nation, group etc is better than any other☐Obstacle that leads to distrust, conflict, even hostilityEthnorelativism☐Maintaining that cultures can only be understood relative to one another; there is no absolute standard of rightness or goodness that can be applied to culturalbehavior; cultural difference is neither good nor bad; it is just different. Accepting and allowing difference to be difference.Comparing Communication styles☐Direct – indirect☐Linear – circular☐Self-enhancement – self-effacement☐Talk – silence☐Succinct –elaborate☐Person- and task- oriented – relation- and status-orientedHigh context communication☐Collectivists are expected to “read the other’s mind” during communication, so the message is quite indirect, dependent on hints, the use of the eyes, distance between bodies, and so on.☐In speech, collectivists employ ‘we’ more often and they depend on context (tone of voice, gesture, posture, etc.) to convey meaning.Low context communication☐In speech, individualists tend to use ‘I’ and emphasize content.☐Individualists say what is on their minds, even if it risks damaging the relationship.☐Americans, valuating pragmatic action, are quick to come to the point in conversations.☐The responsibility for meaning falls mainly to the speakers, whose job it is to formulate ideas into clear language. The more lucid speakers are the more highly regarded they are as communicators.Looseness vs. Tightness☐“Loose” cultures do not demand a high degree of conformity.☐“Tight” cultures exp ect a relatively high degree of conformity.☐Individualist cultures tend to be “looser” than collectivist cultures.☐The Middle of the road/Golden mean/Happy medium/via mediaEthnocentrism and Projected Cultural Similarity☐They are closely related, but describe somewhat different phenomena.☐Ethnocentrism is taking one’s own cultural norms as the standard by which to judge people of other cultures.☐Projected cultural similarity is assuming that people of other cultures view things the same way we do.第七单元In-groups and out-groupsWe generally have more positive feelings toward members of our in-groups than we do toward outsiders.We tend to have a stronger sense of obligation to insiders than to outsiders.We tend to judge in-groups and out-groups by different standards.For better communication, we need to find ways to counter-balance our natural tendency to judge out-groups more harshly.第八单元Dealing with conflict☐Collectivists and preservation of harmony: Collectivists want their in-groups to be monolithic and homogeneous—with everyone thinking, feeling, and acting in the same way; they think that in such groups, there will be harmony. They feel more comfortable than individualists in the presence of like-minded others. Individualists emphasize harmony less and often think that an argument clears the air.Dealing with conflict☐Honesty vs. tact: collectivists often find themselves in a dilemma when they have to communicate an unpleasant message. Although they value honesty, theyvalue even more keeping relationships. If telling the truth means damaging a relationship, they would rather tell a white lie.Lying is an acceptable behavior in collectivist cultures, especially if it saves face or benefits the ingroup. In contrast, individualists see lying as breaking the contract, and since contracts are very important, this is a serious offense.Dealing with conflict☐American directness:When faced with a problem, Americans like to get to its source. This means facing the facts, meeting the problem heed on, putting the cards on the table, and getting information “straight from the horse’s mouth.” Consistent with these tendencies, it is also desirable to face people directly —to confront them. Confrontation is not necessarily rancorous, but it does involv e reporting one’s feelings honestly, expecting reciprocal honesty, and dealing with the person involved in the problem.Dealing with conflict☐American directness:There is also, however, a strong need to preserve “surface cordiality.” In communication, Americans (especially white middle-class) tend not to express strong emotions. Americans also abide by a strong convention to preserve surface cordiality in social interactions. Kind words and pleasant smiles are natural and expected; sharp opinions and critical positions in face-to-face encounters are avoided for fear of disrupting social conviviality.Dealing with conflict☐American views of conflict:At the root of the American confrontation style is the concept that adversaries can compete against each other and at the same time cooperate under the rules for interpersonal conflict.☐Chinese and harmony:Harmony is the foundation of Chinese culture.Dealing with conflict☐Chinese provisional responses that allow avoidance of a direct “no”:⏹It’s not conve nient.⏹There may be some difficulties.⏹The problem isn’t too big.⏹We should study this.⏹We should think about this.第十单元Advice forcommunicating with westerners☐Try not to read too much into North Americans’ words or be oversensitive to nonverbal nuances. Focus on what North Americans actually say; what they say is often what they really mean.☐Be aware that self-affirmation and individuality are important to North Americans.☐Be aware that everyone should be treated equally. One should use polite speech with family members and intimate friends, and also with strangers (including store clerks, waiters, and so forth).Advice forcommunicating with westerners☐Accept that North Americans consider it good to speak directly and that requests are often stated directly and explicitly.☐Recognize that being assertive is valued in North American culture, and that “no” is accepted as an assertive — not necessarily rude — response.☐Understand that what Chinese consider modesty may be viewed by NorthAmericans as low self-confidence. Speak positively about oneself and one’s abilities is expected.Advice forcommunicating with westerners☐Be cautious about asking personal questions, because North Americans may consider them offensive and insulting. North Americans may also feel that what Chinese consider guan xin (concern) is meddling and intrusive.☐Accept that North Americans like to express their opinions openly.Usage☐to read into : to think that a situation, action etc, has a meaning or importance that it does not really have. 理解时加进（原本没有的意思）⏹You read love into her casual friendliness.⏹Don’t read more into her letter than she intend ed.⏹Just because he is so nice to you doesn’t necessarily mean he is in love with you. He is really nice to every woman he meets, so don’t read too much into it.⏹It was only a casual remark, I think you’re reading too much into it.Usage☐to read into →to read sth. into sth.; to read much into sth. 理解时加进（原本没有的意思）⏹Although it was a comedy, you could read biting social comment into the actors lines.⏹Too much should not be read into the minister’s statement: we can’t expect a sudden easing of the situation.⏹Try not to read too much into North American’s words or be oversensitive to nonverbal nuances.Things collectivists need to learn for interacting with individualists☐Tend to give priority to individual goals.☐Often base behavior on “internal attributes”.☐Are more likely to ask questions in class.☐Less willing to maintain relationships at a cost.☐May want to spend time alone, consider privacy important.☐Tend to attribute behavior to internal (personal) causes.☐Try to change social situations into which they do not fit.Things collectivists need to learn for interacting with individualists☐Are able to interact in relatively superficial social relationships, moving in and out of them.☐Need to compliment in-group members more.☐Expect competition.☐Tend to get to the point during meetings.☐Generally take contracts seriously.☐Don’t expect in-group membership to confer too many special privileges.Things East Asians should learn about (individualistic) Westerners☐Tend to have high self-esteem and need to express this.☐Are relatively enthusiastic and expressive.☐Stress pleasure, fun, and happiness.☐Decide quickly, but implement decisions more slowly because relatively few people are included in the decision making process.☐Place value on consistency between attitu des and behavior. Dislike “hypocrisy”.☐Don’t make sharp distinctions between public and private behavior.Things East Asians should learn about (individualistic) Westerners☐More likely do something because they want to than out of obligation.☐Expect clear definition of relationships. Like to use contracts.☐Expect most relationships to last a relatively short time.Strategies for Chinese☐Treating one another as equals.（平等相待）☐Mutual respect for privacy. （相互尊重私人权）☐Seeking the common ground. （求同存异）☐Placing one’s self in the other’s shoes. （换位思维）☐When negotiating with Westerners or trying to make arrangements with them, a “multiple choice” strategy should be adopted to give Westerners many options to choose from. This plays to Westerners’ individualistic tendenc ies.。
