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国外：精细陶瓷（高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷）系列标准（日本）1、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).使用电流中断技术的固体氧化物电化学电池用单个电池电极试验方法标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Single cell polarization test method for solid oxide electrochemical cell by current interruption technique标准编号: JIS R1684-2008标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 14P;A4国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本2、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).光催化材料的空气净化性能的试验方法.第5部分:甲苯的清除标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for air purification performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 5: Removal of methylmercaptan标准编号: JIS R1701-5-2008标准类型发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 18P;A4国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:3、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).光催化材料的空气净化性能试验方法.第4部分:甲苯的清除标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for air purification performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 4: Removal of formaldehyde标准编号: JIS R1701-4-2008标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1开本页数: 16P;A4国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:4、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).光催化材料的空气净化性能的试验方法.第3部分:甲苯的脱除标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for air purification performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 3: Removal of toluene标准编号: JIS R1701-3-2008标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 20P;A4中国标准分类号: Q30国际标准分类号: 81.060.30关键词:5、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).光催化材料空气净化性能的试验方法.第2部分:乙醛的脱除标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for air purification performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 2: Removal of acetaldehyde标准编号: JIS R1701-2-2008标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 20P;A4中国标准分类号: Q30国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:6、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).光致辐照下光催化产品抗菌活性的试验方法标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for antifungal activ ity of photocatalytic products under photoirradiation标准编号: JIS R1705-2008标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 20P;A4中国标准分类号: Q30国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:7、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷和高级技术陶瓷).光催化材料的自清洁性能用试验方法.第1部分:水接触角的测量标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for self-cleaning performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 1: Measurement of water contact angle标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックス―ヒカリショクバイザイリョウノセルフクリーニングセイノウシケンホウホウ―ダイ１ブ：ミズセッショクカクノソクテイ标准编号:JIS R1703-1-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期: 2007-1-1开本页数: 24P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:8、标准名称[中文]：、精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷和高级技术陶瓷).光催化材料的自清洁性能用试验方法.第2部分:湿亚甲蓝的分解标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics ) -- Test method for self-cleaning performance of photocatalytic materials -- Part 2: Decomposition of wet methylene blue标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックス―ヒカリショクバイザイリョウノセルフクリーニングセイノウシケンホウホウ―ダイ２ブ：シツシキブンカイセイノウ标准编号: JIS R1703-2-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期: 2007-1-1开本页数: 24P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:9、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).通过测量活性氧的形成能力测定光催化材料的水净化性能的试验方法标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) -- Test method for water-purification performance of photocatalytic materials by measurement of forming ability of active oxygen标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックス―カッセイサンソセイセイノウリョクソクテイニヨルヒカリショクバイザイリョウノスイシツジョウカセイノウシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1704-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 16P;A4中国标准分类号:Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:10、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷用精细氮化铝粉的化学分析方法标准名称[英文]：Methods for chemical analysis of fine aluminium n itride powders for fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスヨウチッカアルミニウムビフンマツノカガクブンセキホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1675-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 46P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 71.040.40 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:11、标准名称[中文]：高温下精细陶瓷弯曲疲劳性的测试方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for bending fatigue of fine ceramics at elevated temperature标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスノコウオンマゲヒロウシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1658-2008发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 16P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:12、标准名称[中文]：室温下精细陶瓷弯曲疲劳性的测试方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for bending fatigue of fine ceramics at room temperature标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスノシツオンマゲヒロウシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1621-2008发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 14P;A4采用关系: ISO 22214-2006,MOD中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 日本关键词:13、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷用碳化硅细粉末的化学分析方法标准名称[英文]：Methods for chemical analysis of fine silicon carbide powders for fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスヨウタンカケイソビフンマツノカガクブンセキホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1616-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期: 2007-1-1开本页数: 58P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:14、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷用氮化硅细粉末的化学分析方法标准名称[英文]：Methods for chemical analysis of fine silicon nitride powders for fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスヨウチッカケイソビフンマツノカガクブンセキホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1603-2007标准类型:发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期: 2007-1-1开本页数: 46P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.10国别: 日本关键词:15、标准名称[中文]：多孔精细陶瓷球形缺口的测试方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for sphere indentation of porous fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノキュウアツシオシコミシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1681-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 12P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:16、标准名称[中文]：多孔精细陶瓷用测定液体中颗粒保持力的测试方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for determining particle retention in liquid for porous fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノエキチュウリュウシホソクセイノウシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1680-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 14P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:17、标准名称[中文]：室温下多孔性精细陶瓷的挠曲疲劳用试验方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for bending fatigue of porous fine ceramics at room temperature标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノシツオンマゲヒロウシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1677-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 16P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:18、标准名称[中文]：多孔性精细陶瓷的抗热冲击用试验方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for thermal shock resistance of porous fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノネツショウゲキシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1676-2007发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2007-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 10P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:19、标准名称[中文]：多孔精细陶瓷液压当量直径和水渗透性的试验方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for water permeability and hydraulic equivalent diameter of porous fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノミズトウカリツオヨビスイリョクトウカチョッケイシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1671-2006发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2006-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 12P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:20、标准名称[中文]：多孔精细陶瓷液压当量直径和水渗透性的试验方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for water permeability and hydraulic equivalent diameter of porous fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスタコウタイノミズトウカリツオヨビスイリョクトウカチョッケイシケンホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1671-2006发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2006-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 12P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:21、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷微观结构中粒度的试验方法标准名称[英文]：Testing method for grain size in microstructure of fine ceramics标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックスノグレインサイズソクテイホウホウ标准编号: JIS R1670-2006发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2006-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 16P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:22、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷.滚动轴承球的氮化硅材料的基本特征和分类标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics -- Fundamental characteristics and classification of silicon nitride materials for rolling bearing balls标准名称[日文]：ファインセラミックス―コロガリジクウケキュウヨウチッカケイソザイノキホントクセイオヨビトウキュウブンルイ标准编号: JIS R1669-2006发布单位: JP-JISC发布日期: 2006-1-1实施日期:开本页数: 8P;A4中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别:日本关键词:国外精细陶瓷（高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷）系列标准（英国）1、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).陶瓷涂层粘附力评估用洛氏针入试验].标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Rockwell indentation test for evaluation of adhesion of ceramic coatings标准编号：BS ISO 26443-2008—2008发布单位: GB-BSI发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期: 2008-1-1开本页数: 16P;A4采用关系: ISO 26443-2008,IDT国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:粘附高级工业陶瓷分析陶瓷涂层陶瓷复合材料定义测定评估精整硬度测量解释层材料测试机材料测试测量测量技术金相学方法渗透探伤穿透深度防护覆层洛氏(硬度) 洛氏硬度测量抽样方法测试测试装置厚度Adhesion Advanced echnical ceramics Analysis Ceramic Ceramiccoatings Ceramics Compositematerials Definition Definitions Determination Evaluations Finishes Hardness measurement Interpretations Layers Material testing machines Materials testing Measureme2、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).室温下整体陶瓷的抗拉强度用试验方法标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method for tensile strength of monolithic ceramics at room temperature标准编号：BS ISO 15490-2008—2008发布单位: GB-BSI发布日期: 2008-1-1实施日期: 2008-1-1开本页数: 18P.;A4采用关系: ISO 15490-2008,IDT中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:高级工业陶瓷室温陶瓷定义测定材料规范整体材料特性质量温度测量抗拉强度测试须晶Advanced echnical ceramics Ambienttemperatures Ceramics Definition Definitions Determination Materialsspecification Monolithic materials Properties Quality Temperature measurement Tensile strength Testing Whisker3、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).使用微尺度磨损试验测定涂层的耐磨性标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Determination of the abrasion resistance of coatings by a micro-scale abrasion test标准编号：BS ISO 26424-2008—2008发布单位: GB-BSI实施日期: 2088-1-1开本页数: 24P;A4采用关系: ISO 26424-2008,IDT国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:磨蚀抗磨性磨蚀试验高级工业陶瓷陶瓷涂层陶瓷涂层厚度涂层定义解释层材料试验数学计算测量耐力试样制备试验设备试验程序试验报告试验磨损试验Abrasion Abrasion resistance Abrasion tests Advanced technical ceramics Ceramic Ceramic coatings Ceramics Coatingthickness Coatings Definition Definitions Interpretations Layers Materialstesting Mathematical calculations Measurement Resistance Specimen4、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).半导体光催化材料的空气净化性能用试验方法.一氧化氮的移除标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Removal of nitric oxide标准编号: BS ISO 22197-1-2008发布单位: GB-BSI实施日期: 2008-1-1开本页数: 22P;A4采用关系: ISO 22197-1-2007,IDT国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:高级工业陶瓷空气过滤空气净化催化催化剂定义光影响细陶瓷实验室器皿数学计算氧化氮一氧化氮光化反应半导体材料试验方法试件试验报告Advanced technical ceramics Air filtration Airpurification Catalysis Catalysts Definition Definitions Effect of light Fineceramics Laboratory ware Mathematical calculations Nitric oxide Nitrogenmonoxide Photochemical reactions Semiconductor materials T5、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).用弯曲表面裂纹(SCF)法测定室温下单片陶瓷的断裂韧性标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Determination of fracture toughness of monolithic ceramics at room temperature by the surface crack in flexure (SCF) method标准编号: BS EN ISO 18756-2006发布单位: GB-BSI发布日期: 2006-1-1开本页数: 40P.;A4采用关系: EN ISO 18756-2005,IDT ISO 18756-2003,IDT中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:高级工业陶瓷环境温度弯曲样品断裂试验陶瓷定义裂纹断裂韧性努氏(硬度) 机械试验整体材料试样裂纹表面温度法试验方法试验韧性Advanced technical ceramics Ambient temperatures Bend specimens Breakingtests Ceramics Definition Definitions Flaws Fracture toughness Knoop Mechanical testing Monolithic materials Samples Surface cracking Temperature method Test method Testing Toughness6、标准名称[中文]：精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).用比重计测定陶瓷粉末的绝对密度标准名称[英文]：Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Determination of absolute density of ceramic powders by pyknometer标准编号: BS EN ISO 18753-2006发布单位: GB-BSI发布日期: 2006-1-1开本页数: 16P;A4采用关系: EN ISO 18753-2005,IDT ISO 18753-2004,IDT中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:高级工业陶瓷分析陶瓷粉末陶瓷定义密度测定法密度密度测定瓶密度瓶密度测量测定实验室试验材料试验机械试验比重瓶测量分析法试验方法试验Advanced technical ceramics Analysis Ceramicpowders Ceramics Definition Definitions Densimetry Density Density bottles Density measurement Determination Laboratory testing Materials testing Mechanicaltesting Pycnometric analysis Test method Testing7、标准名称（中文）精细陶瓷(高级陶瓷、高级工业陶瓷).室温下用单边预裂束法(SEPB)测定块体陶瓷破裂韧性的试验方法标准名称（英文）Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method for fracture toughness of monolithic ceramics at room temperature by single edge precracked beam (SEPB) method标准编号: BS EN ISO 15732-2006发布单位: GB-BSI发布日期: 2006-1-1开本页数: 30P.;A4采用关系: EN ISO 15732-2005,IDT ISO 15732-2003,IDT中国标准分类号: Q32国际标准分类号: 81.060.30国别: 英国关键词:高级工业陶瓷环境温度抗弯强度抗弯应力破坏试验陶瓷定义挠性挠曲蠕变断裂韧性材料试验测量机械试验整体材料温度试验试验方法试验韧性Advanced technical ceramics Ambient temperatures Bending strength Bendingstress Breaking tests Ceramics Definition Definitions Flexibility Flexural creep Fracture toughness Materials testing Measurement Mechanical testing Monolithicmaterials Temperature。
journal of advanced ceramics字数要求标题：《Journal of Advanced Ceramics：突破陶瓷领域的前沿研究》引言概述：Journal of Advanced Ceramics（《陶瓷学报》）是一本国际知名的学术期刊，致力于发表关于陶瓷材料领域的最新研究成果。
本文将从五个大点出发，详细阐述该期刊在突破陶瓷领域的前沿研究中的重要作用。
正文内容：1. 陶瓷材料的新型合成方法1.1 无机合成方法的创新1.2 有机-无机杂化合成的突破1.3 仿生合成的应用研究1.4 纳米陶瓷材料的制备技术1.5 多功能陶瓷材料的设计与合成2. 陶瓷材料的性能调控与优化2.1 结构与性能的关联性研究2.2 材料微观结构调控的方法与技术2.3 陶瓷材料的力学性能研究2.4 电子与磁性能的调控与优化2.5 光学与光电性能的研究与应用3. 陶瓷材料的功能化与应用3.1 陶瓷材料在能源领域的应用3.2 陶瓷材料在环境保护中的应用3.3 陶瓷材料在生物医学中的应用3.4 陶瓷材料在信息技术中的应用3.5 陶瓷材料在航空航天中的应用4. 陶瓷材料的性能评价与测试4.1 陶瓷材料的物理性能测试4.2 陶瓷材料的化学性能测试4.3 陶瓷材料的热学性能测试4.4 陶瓷材料的电学性能测试4.5 陶瓷材料的机械性能测试5. 陶瓷材料的理论模拟与计算5.1 陶瓷材料的量子化学计算5.2 陶瓷材料的分子动力学模拟5.3 陶瓷材料的晶体学计算5.4 陶瓷材料的相场模拟5.5 陶瓷材料的有限元分析总结：Journal of Advanced Ceramics作为陶瓷领域的重要学术期刊，通过发表突破性的研究成果，推动了陶瓷材料领域的发展。
在新型合成方法、性能调控与优化、功能化与应用、性能评价与测试以及理论模拟与计算等方面，该期刊为研究者提供了广阔的研究平台。
通过不断推动陶瓷材料领域的前沿研究，Journal of Advanced Ceramics为实现陶瓷材料的应用创新和产业发展做出了重要贡献。
•Types of Materials材料的类型Materials may be grouped in several ways. Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas. They also separate them into organic (once living) and inorganic (never living) materials.材料可以按多种方法分类。
科学家常根据状态将材料分为：固体、液体或气体。
他们也把材料分为有机材料(曾经有生命的)和无机材料(从未有生命的)。
For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials. Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products.就工业效用而言，材料被分为工程材料和非工程材料。
那些用于加工制造并成为产品组成部分的就是工程材料。
Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product.非工程材料则是化学品、燃料、润滑剂以及其它用于加工制造过程但不成为产品组成部分的材料。
Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①Metal ②Ceramics ③Composite ④Polymers, etc.工程材料还能进一步细分为：①金属材料②陶瓷材料③复合材料④聚合材料，等等。
Unit 2 Classification of MaterialsSolid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of important engineering materials —composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.译文：译文：固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。
固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。
固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。
这个分类是首先基于这个分类是首先基于化学组成和原子结构来分的，化学组成和原子结构来分的，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，尽管有许多中间品。
尽管有许多中间品。
除此之外，此之外， 有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。
有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。
Composites consist of combinations of two or more different materials, whereas semiconductors are utilized because of their unusual electrical characteristics; biomaterials are implanted into the human body. A brief explanation of the material types and representative characteristics is offered next.译文：复合材料由两种或者两种以上不同的材料组成，然而半导体由于它们非同寻常的电学性质而得到使用；生物材料被移植进入人类的身体中。
journal of advanced ceramics字数要求Journal of Advanced Ceramics: Advancements in Ceramic Materials and ApplicationsIntroduction:The Journal of Advanced Ceramics is a prestigious publication that focuses on the latest advancements in ceramic materials and their applications. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the key topics covered in the journal, highlighting the significant contributions made by researchers in the field of advanced ceramics.I. Ceramic Material Development:1.1 Composition Design:- Researchers focus on developing novel ceramic compositions by manipulating the chemical composition of materials.- The composition design aims to enhance specific properties such as mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity.1.2 Microstructure Engineering:- Microstructure engineering involves controlling the arrangement of atoms and grains within ceramic materials.- This technique enables researchers to tailor the material's properties, such as porosity, grain size, and phase distribution.1.3 Synthesis Techniques:- Various synthesis techniques, including sol-gel, solid-state reaction, and chemical vapor deposition, are explored to fabricate advanced ceramic materials.- Researchers optimize these techniques to achieve high purity, uniformity, and desired microstructures.II. Characterization and Evaluation:2.1 Structural Analysis:- Advanced characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy are used to analyze the crystal structure and morphology of ceramic materials.- These analyses provide insights into the material's properties, defects, and interfaces.2.2 Mechanical Properties:- Researchers investigate the mechanical behavior of ceramics, including their strength, toughness, and fracture resistance.- Mechanical testing methods, such as indentation, compression, and flexural tests, are employed to evaluate these properties.2.3 Thermal and Electrical Properties:- The thermal and electrical properties of ceramics are crucial for their applications in various industries.- Researchers study the thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical resistivity, and dielectric properties of ceramic materials.III. Applications of Advanced Ceramics:3.1 Electronics and Optoelectronics:- Advanced ceramics find extensive applications in electronic devices, such as semiconductors, capacitors, and sensors.- Their excellent electrical and optical properties make them ideal for optoelectronic components like LEDs, lasers, and photovoltaic devices.3.2 Energy and Environment:- Ceramic materials play a vital role in energy storage and conversion systems, such as fuel cells, batteries, and photovoltaic cells.- Their chemical stability and high-temperature resistance make them suitable for environmental applications like catalysis and gas sensing.3.3 Biomedical and Healthcare:- Advanced ceramics are widely used in biomedical implants, dental applications, and drug delivery systems.- Their biocompatibility, wear resistance, and ability to mimic bone structure make them ideal for these applications.IV. Emerging Trends and Future Directions:4.1 Nanoceramics:- Nanotechnology has opened new avenues for the development of nanoceramic materials with enhanced properties.- Researchers explore the synthesis, characterization, and applications of nanoceramics in various fields.4.2 Advanced Processing Techniques:- Advanced processing techniques, such as additive manufacturing and spark plasma sintering, are revolutionizing the fabrication of ceramic components.- These techniques enable the production of complex shapes, improved mechanical properties, and reduced processing time.4.3 Multifunctional Ceramics:- Researchers are focusing on developing multifunctional ceramics that possess multiple properties, such as electrical, thermal, and mechanical functionalities.- These materials have the potential to revolutionize various industries, including electronics, energy, and healthcare.Conclusion:In conclusion, the Journal of Advanced Ceramics covers a wide range of topics related to ceramic materials and their applications. From composition design and microstructure engineering to characterization techniques and emerging trends, the journal provides valuable insights into the advancements made in this field. The applications of advanced ceramics in electronics, energy, and healthcare highlight their immense potential for technological advancements. The continuous research and development in the field of advanced ceramics promise a future with even more innovative and functional ceramic materials.。
ContentPART 1 Introduction to Materials Science &Engineering 1 Unit 1 Materials Science and Engineering 1 Unit 2 Classification of Materials 9 Unit 3 Properties of Materials 17 Unit 4 Materials Science and Engineering: What does the Future Hold? 25 PartⅡMETALLIC MATERLALS AND ALLOYS 33 Unit 5 An Introduction to Metallic Materials 33 Unit 6 Metal Manufacturing Methods 47 Unit 7 Structure of Metallic Materials 57 Unit 8 Metal-Matrix Composites 68 PartⅢCeramics 81 Unit 9 Introduction to Ceramics 81 Unit 10 Ceramic Structures —Crystalline and Noncrystalline 88 Unit 11 Ceramic Processing Methods 97 Unit 12 Advanced ceramic materials –Functional Ceramics 105 PARTⅣNANOMATERIALS 112 Unit 13 Introduction to Nanostructured Materials 112 Unit14 Preparation of Nanomaterials 117 Unit 15 Recent Scientific Advances 126 Unit 16 The Future of Nanostructure Science and Technology 130 PartⅤPOLYMERS 136 Unit17 A Brief Review in the Development of Synthetic Polymers 136 Unit18 Polymer synthesis: Polyethylene synthesis 146 Unit19 Polymer synthesis:Nylon synthesis 154 Unit 20 Processing and Properties Polymer Materials 165 PART VI POLYMERIC COMPOSITES 172 Unit21 Introduction to Polymeric Composite Materials 172 Unit22 Composition, Structure and Morphology of Polymeric Composites 178Unit23 Manufacture of Polymer Composites 185 Unit24 Epoxy Resin Composites 191 Part 7 Biomaterial 196 Unit 25 Introduction to Biomaterials 196 Unit 26 Biocompatibility 205 Unit 27 Polymers as Biomaterials 213 Unit 28 Future of Biomaterials 224 PARTⅧMaterials and Environment 237 Unit29 Environmental Pollution & Control Related Materials 237 Unit30 Bio-degradable Polymer Materials 241 Unit 31 Environmental Friendly Inorganic Materials 248 Unit 32 A Perspective on the Future: Challenges and Opportunities 256 附录一科技英语构词法263 附录二科技英语语法及翻译简介269附录三:聚合物英缩写、全名、中文名对照表280 附录四:练习题参考答案284 PART 1 Introduction to Materials Science &EngineeringUnit 1Materials Science and Engineering Historical PerspectiveMaterials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production —virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials. Historically, the development and advancement of societies ha ve been intimately tied to the members‘ ability to produce and manipulate materi- als to fill their needs. In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age.The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics.①It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized charac- teristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers. deep-seated根深蒂固的, 深层的pottery / ☐☯❑♓陶器structural elements结构成分;property / ☐❑☐☜♦♓/⏹.性能The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. An advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example, automobiles would not havebeen possibl- e without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute. In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials. Materials Science and EngineeringThe discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.―Structure‘‘ is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed‗‗microscopic,‘‘ meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed ‗‗macroscopic.‘‘The notion of ‗‗property‘‘ deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, aspecimen subjected to forces will experience deformation; or a polished metal surface will reflect light. Property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size.Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and stepwise /♦♦♏☐♦♋♓/ ♎逐步的sophisticated/♦☯♐♓♦♦♓♏♓♦♓♎/ ♎精制的,复杂的; semiconducting materials 半导体材料nebulous/ ⏹♏♌✞●☯♦/♎含糊的,有歧义的subatomic/ ♦✈♌☯❍♎亚原子的microscopic/❍♓❑☯☐♓♎微观的❍♋♍❑☐♦♍☐☐♓♍/❍✌❑☯✞☐♓♎宏观的deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provokingdifferent responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermalconductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electro- magnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics indicate the chemical reactivity of materials.In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and engineering of materials, viz. ‗‗processing‘‘ and‗‗performance.‘‘ With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material‘s perf ormance will be a function of its properties.Fig. 1.1 Photograph showing the light transmittance of three aluminum oxide specimens. From left to right: single crystal material (sapphire, which is transparent;a polycrystalline and fully dense (nonporous material, which is translucent; and a polycrystalline material that contains approximately 5% porosity, which is opaque. (Specimen preparation, P. A. Lessing; photography by J. Telford.We now present an example of these processing-structure-properties-perfor- mance principles with Figure 1.1, a photograph showing three thin disk specimens placed over some printed matter. It is obvious that the optical properties (i.e., the deformation/♎♓♐❍♏♓☞☯变形deteriorative/♎♓♓☯❑♓☯❑♏♓♦♓破坏(老化的elastic modulus 弹性模量strength /♦♦❑♏⏹♑强度;dielectric constant介电常数;heat capacity 热容量refraction/❑♓♐❑✌☞☯折射率; reflectivity/ ❑♓♐●♏♓♓♦♓/ 反射率processing/☐❑☯◆♏♦♓☠加工light transmittance of each of the three materials are different; the one on the left is transparent (i.e., virtually all of the reflected light passes through it, whereas the disks in the center and on the right are, respectively, translucent and opaque.All of these specimens are of the same material, aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is what we call a single crystal—that is, it is highly perfect—which gives rise to its transparency. The center one is composed of numerous and verysmall single crystals that are all connected; the boundaries between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the printed page, which makes this material optically translucent.②And finally, the specimen on the right is composed not only of many small, interconnected crystals, but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces. These pores also effectively scatter the reflected light and render this material opaque.Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each material was produced using a different processing technique. And, of course, if optical transmittance is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-service application, the performance of each material will be different.Why Study Materials science and Engineering?Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Ofcourse, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials.Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be charac- terized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. transmittance/♦❑✌❍♓♦☜⏹♦/ ⏹. 透射性sapphire /♦✌♐♓☯蓝宝石transparent/♦❑✌☐☪☯❑☯⏹♦/ ♎透明的;polycrystalline/ ☐♓❑♓♦♦☯♓多晶体; translucent/♦❑✌✞♎半透明的; opaque☯✞☐♏♓♎不透明的single crystal 单晶体Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mecha- nical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive envir- onments.Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of proper- ties but is prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable.The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape. The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices based on these criteria.③Reference:William D. Callister, Materials science and engineering : anintroduction, Press:John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,2007;2-5 transmission gear传动齿轮dictate/♎♓♏♓决定trade off 权衡;折衷ductility♎✈♓●♓♦♓延展性/ ☯✞☯❑♋♓♎♓☠/♎最主要的judicious/♎✞✞♎♓☞☯♦/♎明智的Notes1.At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding froma given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of itscharacteristics由此看来,材料的使用完全就是一个选择过程,且此过程又是根据材料的性质从许多的而不是非有限的材料中选择一种最适于某种用途的材料。
第49卷第5期2021年5月硅酸盐学报Vol. 49，No. 5May，2021 JOURNAL OF THE CHINESE CERAMIC SOCIETY DOI：10.14062/j.issn.0454-5648.20200805“增才制造”：以增材原理推动个性化陶瓷材料“成型—成性一体化”设计宋路，王殿政，赵若时，马静，沈志坚(清华大学材料学院，新型陶瓷与精细工艺国家重点实验室，北京 100084)摘要：增材制造是近10年来全球范围内热议的话题。
相比于高分子和金属材料，陶瓷的增材制造技术突破较晚，但近年来的发展也使其成为了业界一大热点。
依据陶瓷增材制造发展现状与高分子和金属增材制造的发展历程，提出“增才制造”这一通过增材原理实现“成型—成性一体化”部件的理念。
首先剖析增材制造“个性化”内涵的演变及这一演变的根本原因，而后分析了当前各类陶瓷增材制造技术的技术瓶颈以及这些瓶颈中蕴含的陶瓷材料“成型—成性一体化”潜力，最后指出实现陶瓷“增才制造”的可能路径与关注点。
关键词：增材制造；陶瓷材料；个性化；跨尺度结构；结构—性能关联性；三维(3D)打印中图分类号：TQ175 文献标志码：A 文章编号：0454–5648(2021)05–0819–10网络出版时间：2021–04–13“Additive Materialization”: Promoting Customized Design in Ceramic Components with Integrated Structure & Performance via Additive ManufacturingSONG Lu, WANG Dianzheng, ZHAO Ruoshi, MA Jin g, SHEN Zhijian(State Key Laboratory of New Ceramics and Fine Processing, School of Materials Science and Engineering,Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China)Abstract: Additive manufacturing is a worldwide hot issue during the last decade. Compared with counterparts in polymer and metal, additive manufacturing for ceramic had a relatively late breakthrough, but the development in recent years has also make it a highlight as well. In this perspective, based on state-of-the-art of ceramic additive manufacturing and the development history of polymer & metal additive manufacturing, we propose the idea of “additive materialization”, that is, making additively manufactured components with customized structure and performance simultaneously. The evolution of the connotation in “customization” in additive manufacturing will be analyzed first together with its essential causes. Then current obstacles in various ceramic additive manufacturing techniques and corresponding embedded potentials to realize additive materialization in ceramic components would be pointed out and summarized. At last, possible approaches and related focuses towards “additive materialization” would be proposed. Keywords: additive manufacturing; ceramics; customization; multiscale structure; structure-performance relationship; three dimensional (3D) printing从“衔泥筑巢”到“添砖加瓦”，通过逐步添加材料实现成型与制造的例子在自然界与人类社会中并不鲜见。
古代陶瓷工艺流程醴陵陶瓷1.醴陵陶瓷工艺起源于唐代。
Liling ceramic craftsmanship originated in the Tang Dynasty.2.古代醴陵陶瓷工艺主要包括器型设计、胎土配制、制胎、装饰、烧制等环节。
Ancient Liling ceramic craftsmanship mainly includesshape design, clay preparation, molding, decoration, and firing.3.制陶师傅需要通过多年的学徒磨练才能掌握醴陵陶瓷的制作工艺。
It takes many years of apprenticeship for a potter to master the craft of making Liling ceramics.4.配制陶胎时需要选用当地优质黏土，经过反复淘洗、搁置、沉淀、过筛等工艺步骤。
The preparation of clay body requires the selection of local high-quality clay, which goes through processes such as repeated washing, settling, and sieving.5.制胎是指将陶泥按设计图案模具成型。
Molding refers to shaping the clay according to the design pattern.6.醴陵陶瓷的装饰工艺采用刻、泥贴、彩绘等多种手法。
Liling ceramics are decorated using various techniques such as carving, applique, and painting.7.在醴陵陶瓷的烧制环节，需要控制温度、烧速、还原气氛等多个因素。
During the firing process of Liling ceramics, multiple factors such as temperature, firing speed, and reduction atmosphere need to be controlled.8.醴陵陶瓷被誉为东方瓷都，因其优秀的工艺和丰富的文化内涵而闻名世界。
o ( ( 4S e P ]R T S F c d S h 6T ]c T a 6 c SCorresponding author: D. Hotza, e-mail: dhotza@ ADVANCED CERAMICS WITH DENSE AND FINE-GRAINEDMICROSTRUCTURES THROUGH FAST FIRING0 1 3D Q F V D 1, A.N. Klein 2 and D. Hotza 11Group of Ceramic and Glass Materials (CERMAT),Department of Chemical Engineering (EQA), Federal H ]X e T a b X c h U F P ]c P 6P c P a X ]P H 9F 6! 9[ a X P ]m [X b 5a P i X [2Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Materials (LABMAT),Department of Mechanical Engineering (EMC),9T S T a P [ H ]X e T a b X c h U F P ]c P 6P c P a X ]P H 9F 6! 9[ a X P ]m [X b 5a P i X [Received: April 9, 2012Abstract. Fast firing has been used to produce dense ceramics usually in less than 10 minusing conventional furnaces. Most of densification occurs under non-isothermal conditions. The very fast densification rates observed are related to high heat inputs, originated from changes in the internal structure of the sample during fast firing. The amount of energy available for sintering increases by the formation of a dense outer layer which controls the flux of heat to the interior of the compact. High thermal stresses were expected to be generated from high heating rates in fast firing, but no serious manufacturing defect was observed. This fact could be related to the formation of a densification front moving from the outer surface towards the centre of the sample.In this paper, the production of dense, fine-grained ceramics through fast firing is reviewed. The variables that control the microstructure and densification are discussed.1. INTRODUCTIONThe most part of the energy consumed by the ceramic industry is used for firing operations. A reduction of the energy necessary for firing could be obtained by varying furnace design concepts, as well as properties of ceramic bodies allowing higher heat inputs [1].Most ceramics are known to be refractory.Thermal diffusivity determines the rate of rise of temperature in the centre of a sample which is being heated at the surface. The low thermal diffusivity of the green compact tends to slow down the rate at which heat is transported to the centre of the body during firing [2,3].Powder compacts may show most of sintering and the highest densification rate during the heating-up period, i.e., under non-isothermal conditions [4].Rapid densification accompanies fast heating-up [5].It was found experimentally that the temperature could be raised quite rapidly and the sinteringprocess enhanced to a large extent by fast firingschedules using either conventional furnaces [6],heated by electric resistance or fuel combustion, or alternative techniques, such as microwave (MW)[7,8] or millimeter-wave sintering (mS) [9], spark plasma sintering (SPS) [10], self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) [11,12] and flash sintering (FS) [13-17].G W T S T ] X ]P c X ] q U P b c U X a X ]V r W P b Q T T ] T [ h T S b X ]R T c W T /- p b c Q c W c a P S X c X ]P [ N . ( O P ]S advanced ceramics [21,22]. The rapid thermal c a T P c T ]c X ] R ]c a P b c c R ]e T ]c X ]P [ q b [ f r U X a X ]V X b usually meant for cycles taking less than 60 min cold-to-cold, sometimes even less than 1 min!Nevertheless, firing cycles in the tile, brick and porcelain industry of up to 6 h have been formerly a T U T a a T S c P b q U P b c r U X a X ]V N () ( OFast fired traditional ceramics include silicate-based bricks and tiles [26-28], and porcelain [29-31], both at laboratory and industrial scales [32]. Inthe latter case, fast firing has been carried out in tunnel [33] or roller kilns [34].Advanced ceramics sintered in high heating rates have been reported for alumina [21,35-37], zirconia [38,39], ferrites [40-43], barium titanate [44-47], indium tin oxide (ITO) [48], ceria [49], lead iron niobate (PFN) [50], lead magnesium niobate (PMN)[51], lead zirconate titanate (PZT) [52-55], yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) [56], as well as composites [57,58], glasses [59,60], glazes [61,62], and glass-ceramics [63-65].When using conventionally heated furnaces, the very high densification rates observed seems to be related to high heat inputs, due to changes in the internal structure of the sample during fast firing [5]. The formation of a dense outer layer during the initial stage of fast firing increases the rate at which heat is transferred to the centre of the body. Increased diffusion caused by the thermal and/or density gradient seems to be the driving force which speeds up ceramic processing rates.In this paper, the production of dense, fine-grained ceramics through fast firing is reported. MW and SPS techniques are beyond the scope of this review, which is restricted to electrical resistance ovens as heating sources and to advanced ceramics as sintered products. The variables that control the microstructure and densification are discussed. 2. FAST FIRING TECHNIQUES ANDEQUIPMENTSIntroducing a green compact in a pre-heated furnace at sintering temperature represents an ultimate heat input. Fast firing has been successfully used to fabricate high-density, fine-grained ceramics [66]. In order to obtain economical benefits through energy saving from the superior densification resulting from firing in a short time at high temperature, there is a need for a specific furnace design.In fast firing furnaces, heating requires the highest transfer rate; therefore, heat should be transmitted primarily by radiation. As radiation necessitates exposure of a large area to radiant heat, powder compacts must pass through the furnace one at a time. The reduction in mass of products to be heated (refractory and loading material) per unit of time, contributes to reducing the furnace size and its thermal inertia allowing that all internal chamber faces could be heated to uniformly high temperature.As the load is only one piece high, the use of furnace furniture is reduced, additional energy savings could be made if the powder compacts can Fig. 1. Schematic representations of the fast firing technique: (a) continuous tubular furnace; (b) intermittent chamber furnace.be set directly at high temperature without need of additional furniture. A significant reduction in capital costs associated with the use of furniture and the energy needed to heat it could be expected.The dynamics of the fast firing technique allows observing any detrimental effect of the processing variables on products earlier than in conventional firing, making possible a rapid adjustment in production.Fast firing of ceramics has been successfully accomplished in both continuous zone-sintering furnaces and intermittent resistive electric chamber furnaces, as shown schematically in Fig. 1.2.1. Zone-sintering furnacesShort firing times were achieved for alumina, by using a fast firing zone-sintering process developed by Jones and Miles (Fig. 1a) [67]. Powder compacts were subjected to a non-isothermal treatment, and sintered for a short time when pushed from one end to the other, through a hot zone held at very high temperatures. Through this process, dense and fine-grained ceramics could be fabricated in about 15 X] P c . n6 N,)OIn the technique of zone-sintering, the temperature profile of the furnace is very steep and the furnace is not at constant temperature. Samples were pushed at rates ranging between 10-4 and 10-2 m/s through a short cylindrical furnace (0.02m diameter, 0.05 m hot zone length). For each maximum temperature of the hot zone, there was an optimum speed of traverse through the furnace for obtaining the highest sintered density [69]. 2.2. Intermittent chamber furnacesIn order to obtain the highest possible heating rate, samples have been introduced rapidly into a furnace preheated at the sintering temperature (Fig. 1b). After fast fired for a short period of time (typically 5 to 10 min) the samples were taken out of the furnace andair cooled. Cooling to room temperature took about 15 min. In order to reduce the thermal shock and to create a homogeneous heating field, the green compacts were placed in the centre of a box comprising of alumina ceramic foam plates with 80to 90 vol.% porosity. A commercial submicrometric Al 2O 3 powder was used to prepare fired bodies of relatively high density (>98.5% TD) after firing for 5or 10 min at temperatures n 6 P b b W f ] X ]Fig. 2 [36].3. HEAT TRANSFER PHENOMENAThe common firing schedule in conventional sintering involves the use of a constant heating rate to maximum temperature (T max ) and a dwell time at this temperature until the required properties are obtained (Fig. 3a). In fast firing, instead, the heating rate is some orders of magnitude higher than in conventional sintering and there is no need for an isothermal hold at the sintering temperature (Fig.3b).In conventional sintering, both convection and radiation are present. Heat transfer by convection provides the major contribution at lower temperatures, and heat transfer by radiation is most important at higher temperatures, typically where b X ]c T a X ]V R R d a b 2 n 6!The rate of heating is governed primarily by the rate of heat transfer from the furnace to the specimen. The heat transfer process may be described by:c r q h h A T ,(1)where A is the surface area of heat transfer, h c and h r are the heat transfer coefficients by convectionFig. 2. Relative density-temperature profile of Al 2O 3compacts fast fired at indicated times (adapted [36]).Fig. 3. Firing programmes compared: (a)conventional; and (b) fast firing.and radiation, respectively; and T the temperature difference between the body surface and the surrounding fluid at bulk temperature, and between the body surface and the font of radiation,respectively for convection and radiation.T emperature gradients within the body depends on the rate of heat input at the surface; hence, the faster the heating rate, the greater the temperature gradient. If the surface temperature increases rapidly, internal temperatures lag significantly behind.The limit of densification rate is determined by the ability of the sample to diffuse heat. If sufficient time is not allowed for heat to penetrate into the body,the resulting steep temperature gradient might originate body damage, in the form of cracks and microcracks.Fast firing is accomplished mainly by radiation.As powder compacts are placed in or pushed through a region of high temperature, its surface is exposed to radiation. Radiation coefficients are much higher than convection coefficients. The amount of heat transferred by radiation is proportional to the difference of the fourth power of the temperatures of the transmitting and receiving bodies, furnace and samples, respectively. Thus, the amount of heat transferred to the sample is higher the hotter the temperature of the furnace.When a green compact at room temperature is inserted in a pre-heated furnace or travels through a hot zone, a large temperature gradient appears between the surface and the inside, as consequence of the low thermal diffusivity [70]. As shown in Fig.4, if the furnace temperature is high enough to produce dense Al 2O 3 under conventional schedules,a dense outer layer is formed after a period of time enough to increase its surface to the furnace temperature. These structural changes strongly affect the densification rate, due to the high thermal diffusivity of dense alumina when compared to a green compact. The formation of a dense Al 2O 3 layer at the interface air/green compact has a significant effect on the temperature distribution and the resulting density profile. As it controls the flux of heat to the interior of the compact, there is a signifi-cant increase in the amount of energy available toFig. 4. Scanning electron micrograph of a cross section of fast fired Al 2O 3, showing the densification front moving from the dense outer surface (D) to-wards the porous centre of the sample (P), see [5].densification. High densification rates observed dur-ing fast firing seem to be related to these changes in the internal structure of the sample. This phenomenon is not considered a complementary sintering mechanism but may contribute to the enhancement of sintering. As radiation could enhance diffusion, at least for surfaces that are q b T T ]r Q h c W T b d a R T U a P S X P c X ] a T P X ]b c W T question if radiation is contributing directly to rapid densification or is merely a heat transfer medium.4. FORMATION OF A DENSIFICATION FRONTAfter the formation of a measurable and dense layer at surface of the sample, its thermal diffusion controls the heat flux to the interior of the compact.The thermal diffusivity ( ) of the dense outer layer determines the rate of temperature rise in the interior of the compact:p k c /,(2)where k is the thermal conductivity; , the density;and c p , the specific heat capacity of the material.The thermal diffusivity represents the ratio of heat conducted through a material to the heat stored per unit volume. Thermal diffusivity is both a function of density and temperature. The specific heat capacity increases with temperature and the thermal conductivity decreases with temperature indicating that thermal diffusivity decreases with temperature.As a green compact at room temperature is inserted in a pre-heated furnace or goes through a hot zone at high temperature, and the surface of the sample has not already reached the sintering temperature,i.e., density remains approximately constant andequal to the green density, heat tends to accumu-late at the surface. As the surface of the samplereaches a temperature high enough, densification begins, absorbing some amount of energy (~150kcal/mol in the case of Al 2O 3)[71], which further hinders the flux of heat to the interior of the com-pact. After the formation of a dense layer at surface of the sample, the surplus of heat can diffuse to the interior of the compact. As the time required for heat to diffuse through the porous compact is higher than the time required for full densification, a densifica-tion front is formed just at the heat front moving into the material.As heat emerges from the dense alumina layer,it is consumed at the front by heating up and by the sintering mechanisms, i.e., the velocity of advance of the densification front is controlled by heat diffusion through the dense layer. The difference between the thermal diffusivity of the dense layer ( d ) and the porous core ( p) determines the form of the densification front. The higher the d / p ratio, the sharper the densification front [72].The effect of porosity on the thermal conductivity of sintered alumina has been first investigated by Coble and Kingery [73]. As the thermal conductivity decreases rapidly with the increase in porosity, a relatively high value of ~5 is expected for the d / p ratio. Simultaneously, it could be speculated that as the core has not been affected by the temperature until is reached by the sintering front, its thermal diffusivity could be significantly low.An increase in thermal conductivity of ceramic powders has been determined to be a consequence of thermal treatments [74,75]. Healing of microcracks within the particles during heating,relaxation of pressure of the contact surface between particles (necks), and increase in the degree of crystallization could be responsible for this behaviour.In conventional sintering schedules, considerable time is spent at relatively high temperatures before sintering. In fast firing, due to the short time required for heating up, the core is more likely to remain unmodified and to retain the thermal characteristics of the as-received powder. If it is so, a lower than expected thermal diffusivity at the sintering front could favour heat storing instead of heat diffusion,increasing locally the amount of energy available for sintering.Simultaneously, the presence at the sintering front of powder, which has not experienced a previous thermal history, may contribute to the enhancement of sintering. In conventional sintering, as demonstrated by Greskovich and Lay [76], much of(a)Fig. 5. Weibull plot of conventional and fast fired ceramics: (b) reaction-bonded aluminium oxide (RBAO) [57],and (a) lead zirconate titanate (PZT), adapted from [52].the initial surface area can disappear during initial heating of alumina before measurable densification takes place. In fast firing, an increment of the sintering rate could be expected, since the driving force and the diffusion distance remain almost unchanged until reached by the sintering front.Therefore, high densification rates observed during fast firing seem to be related to a change in the internal structure of the sample by the formation of a densification front. An enhancement of sintering may be achieved by (a) a significant increase the amount of energy available at the densification front, as a consequence of its high thermal diffusivity when compared to a green compact, (b) the presence at the sintering front of powder, which has not experienced a previous thermal history, (c) a considerable vacancy gradient at the sintering front, enhancing diffusion via vacancies.5. STRESS-RELATED PHENOMENA As the densification rate is a function of local temperature and time, the presence of steep thermal gradients within the sample and the continually changing physical-chemical parameters related to the material during fast firing make a reliable calculation very difficult.During conventional firing, the tensile stresses originated by the use of high heating rates may cause failure of the material during heating. As the green compact has a low thermal diffusivity, a large temperature gradient appears between the surface and the interior. Differential thermal expansion causes tensile stresses on the surface and compressive stresses in the centre. Since the strength of the green compact is low, at high heating rates the tensile stresses might cause failure.The ability of the sample to withstand the inter-nal stresses produced by fast firing remains to be explained. Fracture strength and Weibull moduli of fast fired Al2O3[36], lead zirconate titanate ceram-ics (PZT)(Fig. 5a) [52], as well as fracture strength of reaction-bonded aluminium oxide (RBAO) (Fig. 5b) [57], are similar or higher comparing to conven-tionally sintered ceramics. This indicates that there is no remarkable change of the defects character when compared to conventional sintering.If the stress exceeds the strength of the material, then some stress relief mechanism has to take place. In conventional sintering, during the heat up period, using slow to moderate heating rates, the creep rate is comparable to the densification rate which implies that the tensile stresses build during sintering are relaxed quickly [77]. During rapid shrinkage in fast firing, the possibility of stress relief by plastic deformation may also be considered. Both lattice and boundary diffusivities are enhanced by a fine-grained microstructure in a high temperature region, what gives the basic conditions to promote superplastic deformation.The ability a powder compact of withstanding rapid heating during fast firing, resulting in dense and crackles products, could be related to the presence of a thermal/densification front. A thermal/ densification front was observed in fast firing in intermittent, as well as in continuous furnaces. In the technique of zone sintering, as samples are pushed through the furnace, a front of temperature/ densification is formed. As the sample passes through the short hot zone, held at high temperature, a front end of the sample fully fired and dense together with a rear end unfired can be found, and intermediate densities are present in the middlesection.(b)After fast firing an almost fully densified sample shows increased tensile strength and thermal con-ductivity, so that it is not likely that a crackless sintered sample produced by fast firing will rupture during cooling in air. The stresses resulting from the sudden cooling of fast fired samples may also have desirable effects on final product [78].6. MASS TRANSPORTIn the absence of a chemical potential gradient, thepresence of temperature gradient results in mass transport due to thermal diffusion [79,80]. As the energy flows from high to low temperature in a temperature gradient, so is the direction of movement of matter. The mechanisms of matter transport under thermal gradients are still under discussion. Braudeau et al. [81] reported that the matter transport of alumina is faster under temperature gradient than in isothermal experiments performed at the same temperatures. Searcy [82]proposed an initial-stage vapour transport temperature gradient mechanism. Beruto et al. [83]found that temperature gradients supplement surface energy diffusion changes in driving sintering and related processes not only by vapour transport but also by a surface, grain-boundary, or bulk diffusion path. Regardless of the mechanism, the presence of temperature gradients enhances matter transport towards regions of lower temperatures, i.e., matter is transported inwards to cooler porous regions.Mass transfer for sintering is due to atomic diffusion D , according to the Arrhenius equation:d D D Q RT 0exp /,(3)where D o is the temperature-independent pre-exponential; Q d , the activation energy for diffusion;R , the gas constant; and T , the absolute temperature.The activation energy Q d represents the amount of energy necessary to break the bonds between an atom and its nearest neighbour atoms and move it to the next position, which may be a vacancy in the lattice.Moreover, when the vacancy diffusion [84] is considered:D C D ,(4)where D is the coefficient of self diffusion (when all atoms that exchange position are of the same type);C is the vacancy concentration; and D is the coefficient of vacancy diffusion.Since C is temperature-dependent, along a tem-perature gradient dT/dx there is a concentration gra-Fig. 6. Densification and grain growth as a functionof temperature, replotted from [2].dient dC /dx , which has a strong effect on mass transfer through volumetric self diffusion of atoms.Thus, the higher the concentration gradient, the higher the vacancies diffusion.The number of vacancies in thermodynamic equilibrium N is temperature-dependent according to:B N N Q k T exp /,(5)where N is the total number of positions in the lattice;Q is the necessary energy for producing a vacancy;and k B is the Boltzmann constant.In this case, there is preferential vacancy diffusion from the lowest to the highest temperature and, as a consequence, a preferential atomic diffusion in the opposite sense, i.e., from the core to the surface,which is hotter. This might explain the higher densification in the presence of a higher thermal gradient and the existence of a densification front which moves along the gradient, i.e., from the highest to the lowest temperature, corresponding to the sense surface to the core of the sintering sample.7. OBTAINING FINE-GRAINED MICROSTRUCTURESIn order to improve the properties of ceramics for either structural or functional applications, reducingFig. 7. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) of alumina U P b c U X a T S P c n 6 U a X ]the grain size and limiting the formation of defects are important. During the heat up period a consider-able microstructural development and the major part of densification of a powder compact takes place.Young and Cutler [85]suggested that, in constant heating rate experiments, there may be distinct tem-perature regions in which grain-boundary or volume diffusion may dominate over surface diffusion. To achieve small grain size in fired ceramics, without the use of additives as grain growth inhibitors, may be achieved by establishing conditions under which mass transport mechanisms leading to densifica-tion are favoured relative to those leading to grain boundary migration.In those cases where the densification and grain growth involve different transport mechanisms, the grain size-density relation is dependent on the ratio between the diffusion coefficient for grain boundary (D gb ) and diffusion coefficient for surface diffusion (D s ). Considering similar diffusion layer thickness for both mechanisms, low grain growth occurs if the diffusion coefficient ratio favours the densifying mechanism i.e., D gb >> D s . [86] The densification and grain growth process are exponentially related to the temperature by equations of the form [2]:d H RT 0exp /, (6) g G G H RT 0exp /,(7)where H d and H g are the enthalpies associated with the densification rate, , and grain growth rate,G , respectively, being 0and G 0, the correspondent pre-exponential coefficients.If favourable temperature conditions can be selected on the basis of H d and H g ( H d >> H g ),coarsening could be minimized spending as short time as possible in the low temperature region (Fig. 6) [2]. For compositions where the activationenthalpy for the densification process is high rela-tive to that for grain growth, samples with finer grainmicrostructure can be produced by high-temperature,short-time firing cycles.In general, this assumption can only be verified empirically because of the unavailability of requisite thermodynamic data. Corindon ( -alumina) is one of the few exceptions and, on the basis of diffusion data from the literature, it appears to be a suitable candidate for fast firing. As the heating rate is an intrinsic part of sintering conventional schedules,avoiding grain growth seems to be a difficult task in conventional sintering. If grain growth occurred before sintering was complete, the larger pore/boundary distances lower the density rate. In the fast firing technique, as the powder compact is heated rapidly to the maximum temperature, as fast as heat can be absorbed, densification can occur prior to substantial grain growth, as shown in Fig. 7. An isothermal hold at maximum fast firing temperature beyond the time required for achieving thermal uniformity throughout the sample seems not to be necessary.8. CONCLUSIONSHigh density and fine-grained microstructures can be achieved through fast firing of ceramics.It is possible to control the process responsible for the rates of densification and grain growth, by controlling the time/temperature conditions employed during sintering of the powder compact.Fast firing provides an opportunity to carry a compact through the temperature range where surface diffusion-controlled coarsening occurs readily to a regime where the densifying mechanisms of grain boundary and lattice diffusion predominate.An isothermal hold at the sintering temperature beyond the time required for achieving thermal uniformity throughout the sample is no longer necessary.Heat transfer phenomena play a role speeding up ceramic processing rates. High densification rates observed during fast firing in conventional chamber furnaces seems to be related to a change in the internal structure of the sample.The presence of high thermal gradients during fast firing is responsible for the formation of a densification front.The formation of a dense outer layer controls the flux of heat to the interior of the compact, and increases the amount of energy available for sinter-ing.Although the understanding of the mechanism governing densification and microstructural development is rather limited, fast firing processes offer a promising route for the fabrication of bulk ceramicsResearch activities in the fast firing technique have formed the basis for a sintering process that has the potential for simultaneously improving P c T a X P[b s a T a c X T b P]S a T S d R X]V P]d U P R c d a X]V costs.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors acknowledge Fornos Jung and the Brazilian agency CNPq for the financial support under project number 552504/ 2009-2. 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