修辞手段
1.明喻(the simile)
Definition: an expression of comparison between two different things.明喻通常是把被比喻的“本体”和用以比喻的“喻体”同时说出，说明本体事物象喻体事物，用介词like ，连词as，as if，as…so，动词seem等以及句型A …to B as C…to D等等表示“好像”意思的比喻说法就叫明喻。
Markers: English: as, like
Chinese: 好像、如同、仿佛、一样、犹、若、如、似
Pattern: Tenor（本体）＋ Marker（比喻标记）＋ Vehicle（喻体）
(1a) O, my luve (=love) is like a red, red, rose,
(1b) 美人如花隔云端，上有青冥之长天，下有绿水之波澜。（李白：《长相思》）
Sustained Metaphor (连续明喻)博喻或复喻：用一连串喻体进行多维的、多角度的描述，反复设喻，加深印象，提高艺术感染力。
My heart is like a singing bird whose nest is in a watered shoot;
My heart is like an appletree Whose bough are bent with thickest fruit;
英语中除上述的用介词、连词或句型等的明喻表达方式外，还有许许多多常用的明喻习语。例如：
1). as…..as
as white as a sheet /snow;
as bold/brave as a lion
as cool as a cucumber; as free as a bird
as hungry as a hunter/hawk/bear/wolf
as happy as a prince
as long as it′s broad半斤八两；结果一样
as clear as crystal清如水晶
Jim looks like his brother Bill.(not simile)
Jim and Bill are as like as two peas.(simile)
As innocent as a baby; as light as a feather
As poor as a church mouse;
as stubborn as a mule
As quick as a lightning/a flash
Hurry up! You walk as slow as a snail.
2). Like/as
I wandered lonely as a cloud.
Beauty is as summer fruits, which are easy to corrupt and cannot last.
3). As if (as though)
He was a beautiful horse that looked as though he had come out of a painting by Velasquez.
4). Liken…to…
Life has often been likened to a journey.
5). Compare…to…
Shakespeare compared the world to a stage.
6). The way (in which)
I should smell it the way a cat smells a mouse.
7). Might as well…as
You might as well throw your money into the ditch as give it to him.
8). A is to B what C is to D
What lungs are to the body, that parks are to the city.
公园对于都市正如肺对于人的身体一样。
9). No more… than
He had no more idea of money than a cow.
他对于金钱，像牛对金钱一样一无所知。
10). A and B
Love and cough cannot be hid. 爱情象咳嗽一样难以隐藏。
A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled. 覆水难收。
Fish and visitors stink in three days. 鱼肉易臭，访客难久。
Truth and roses have thorns about them. 玫瑰难摘，真理难得。
Old friends and old wine are best. 老友如老酒，情深意厚。
11) to eat like a horse—狼吞虎咽
to drink like a fish—牛饮
like a drowned rat—像落汤鸡一样
like a peacock among sparrows—鹤立鸡群
like a hen on a hot girdle—像热锅上的蚂蚁
as drunk as a rat—烂醉如泥
as merry as a cricket—快乐得像百灵鸟
as poor as a church mouse—一贫如洗 as thin as a lath n.木板条, 条板—骨瘦如柴
as close as an oyster—守口如瓶oyster n.[动]牡蛎, 蚝, 沉默者
as stupid as a goose—愚蠢如猪goose n.鹅, 雌鹅, 鹅肉, (裁缝用的有长曲柄的)熨斗
12).verbs and verbal phrases
crawl like a snail; drink like a fish，run like a hare; speak like a book
sleep like a top/log，They spent money like water.
He is pitiless 无情的 as steel, cold as frost.，When in a fury, she is more savage than a tigress.
Her face resembled a silver moon.，Records fell like ripe apples on a windy day.
She is as thin as a rake耙
2.隐喻(the metaphor)
Definition: A metaphor is an implied simile. It differs from a simile in that the comparison is implied. 它是根据两个事物间的某些共同的特征，用一事物去暗示另一事物的比喻方式。本体和喻体之间不用比喻词，只是在暗中打比方。
(1) All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. (Shakespeare)
(2) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. (Francis Bacon: Of Studies)：书有可浅尝着，有可吞噬者，少数则须咀嚼消化。
举一个简单的例子：Argument is war.实际上argument和 war是两种不同的事物，前者是口语谈论，后者是武装冲突。但argument和war都可能十分激烈，因此该句用战争(war)来暗指辨论(argument)激烈的程度。再如：
(1)He has a heart of stone.他铁石心肠。
(2)To me, the pageant of seasons is a thrilling and unending drama.对于我来说，四季的奇妙变幻犹如一出动人心弦永不完结的戏。
1). 喻体直陈式：These pigs of boys eat so much.
College is a comma of a sentence of life. This is a very kitten of a woman.
2). 喻体半隐式：The corridor was flooded with boys and girls.
They stormed the speaker with questions.他们猛烈质问演讲者。
3). 喻体全隐式
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested.
4). lock the stable door after the horse is stolen—亡羊补牢
feather one's nest—中饱私囊
beard the lion in his den—虎口拔牙
add insult to injury—雪上加霜
cast pearl before swine—对牛弹琴
hold the candle to the devil—助纣为虐
cry up wine and sell vinegar—挂羊头，卖狗肉fish in the air—水中捞月
kill two birds with one stone—一箭双雕Teach a fish to swim—班门弄斧set a fox to keep one's geese—引狼入室
let sleeping dogs lie—不要打草惊蛇
kick against pricks—以卵击石
hold the wolf by the ears/take the bull by the horns —骑虎难下
a flash in the pan—昙花一现
sit on two chairs/stand between two boats/ride two horses at the same time－脚踩两只船
英语中有许多数词习语和俚语，主要用作隐喻（也有个别用作明喻）。许多数词习语和俚语本身所代表的数字意思，在某种情况下往往失去具体的含义，引申演变为与某一事物相关或具有某一事物特征的含义。例如：
(1)A hundred to one it will be a failure.这件事极可能失败。 (2)He has one over the eight.他酩酊大醉。
英语中还有许多隐喻成语。例如： to teach fish to swim班门弄斧to plough the sand白费力气
这些隐喻成语的最大特色就是通过具体的、妇孺皆知的形象来表情达意。请看：a square peg in a round hole用“园洞中的方钉”，来说明“不适宜担任某一职务的人”，真是十分恰当；between the devil and the deep sea,一边是魔鬼，另一边是大海，叫人走投无路，十分传神地表达出“进退两难”的境界。
3．转喻(the metonymy)
Definition: Figures of speech which substitutes the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.‘借’同要说的人和事物有密切关系的其他事物来‘代’的一种修辞手法倪宝元（1980：228）转喻是比隐喻更进一步的比喻，它根本不说出本体事物，直接用比喻事物代替本体事物。
Differences:
Metaphor: founded on a likeness: the thing spoken of and the thing meant are alike in some aspect. Metonymy: founded upon relation: the thing spoken of and the thing meant may be wholly unlike, but the relation between them is such that the mention of one suggests the other.例如：
(1)The buses in America are on strike now.美国的公共汽车司机正在罢工（这里buses 喻指司机drivers)。
(2)The pen is mightier than the sword.文人胜于武士（以pen，sword喻指使用这物的人）。
英语中一些鸟兽鱼虫的名字，除本义外，常可转借喻人，形象生动，意味隽永。例如：
(1)Mrs Smith is nice but her husband is such a bear that nobody likes him.史密斯夫人和蔼可亲，但她丈夫为人粗鲁，脾气暴躁，谁都不喜欢他（以兽喻人）。(2)She is a social butterfly.她是一个交际花（以虫喻人）。
①不拿群众一针一线。(一针一线代群众的一切财产) ②不要大锅饭。("大锅饭"代抽象的"平均主义")
③花白胡子坐在墙角里吸旱烟。(花白胡子是以特征代本体)
④千万个雷锋活跃在祖国大地上。("雷锋"以具体的形象代抽象的共产主义思想)
Classification:
A. The container for the thing contained
(a) The mother did her best to take care of the cradle.
(b) 严致和又道：“却是不可多心；将来要备祭桌，破费钱财，都是我这里备齐》” （吴敬梓：《儒林外史》）The kettle is boiling.
Sorry, my pocket can't afford such a pair of shoes.
B. A place for the people The whole town attended the funeral.
C. A location for the institution or organization Downing Street—the British cabinet, the British government Fleet Street—the British press
the White House — the US government Kremlin—government of the former Soviet Union Hollywood—the US film-making industry
D. An instrument for its user
The pen is mightier than the sword.“手术刀不如剃头刀“绝不是无稽之谈。我们有多少本末倒置的怪事霍达：《国殇》
E. A striking feature for the person or thing Bob was promoted from the grey-collar to the white-collar in the shortest time.
F. An organ for its function He has a rough tongue.
G. Author for work
To read a Shakespeare or a Mark Twain is to eat a food full of protein; likewise, to read a pornographic magazine is to eat a sugar-coated poison.
H. The concrete for the abstract, or the specific for the general
Without sweat, without bread. “我们这些人也可怜。”老魏断断续续地说，“说来归其，我们太爱惜乌纱帽了。（王蒙《不扎》）
I. The abstract for the concrete or the general for the specific
The work is a pleasure to me.(乐事）Death fell in showers.(子弹）
4. the synecdoche
Definition: a figure which consists chiefly in putting a part for the whole, or the whole for the part. 比喻一定要用一种事物比方另一种事物，无论明喻、隐喻和转喻都是如此。转喻虽然表面上只剩下喻体事物，省去了本体事物，但仍然是两种事物相比。然而借代只有一种事物，不过没说出该事物原来的名称，另外借用一个名称来代替它。修辞中这种“换一个名称”的办法，就是借代。替代的方式可以是人、物互代，部分和全体互代，单数代复数，描象代替具体或具体代替抽象等等。
Classification:
A. A part for the whole
(7) How to earn daily bread by my pen was the problem. (G. B. Shaw)
B. The whole for the part
(8) All the plants in this cold country become green in the smiling year
C. The material for the thing made
The judges has put the criminal in irons. At dinner, I would have some grape.
(1)The river is crowded with masts. 河中帆樯林立（用船的一部分樯mast代替船boat本身）。
(2)Our second year we attacked Homer.第二年我们攻读荷马的作品（以人Homer代替其作品）。
使用借代修辞方式要选用最突出最明显的事物特征来代替事物名称。借代运用得好，能使语言表达简洁明快、具体、形象，以避免重复、累赘，并给人以新鲜感。
5.夸张(the exaggeration)
Definition: A figure of speech that deliberately uses exaggeration in order to give emphasis. (Ruse et al 1992: 143) 把事物的特征，有意地加以夸大或缩小，就叫夸张，即采用“言过其实”的说法，使事物的本质特征更好地呈现出来。例如：
(1) The sun has roasted him, the cold frozen him, and hunger famished him on the forced marches of twenty miles a day in the heat and cold and the rain and the shine.
(2) 我笑得那石头裂开了嘴，我笑得那大树折断了腰，我笑得那刘三爷门前的旗杆咔喳一声栽倒了！
(3)The old man lived a year in a minute.老人度日如年。
(4)The wretched man because famous overnight.这可怜人竟一夜之间出了名。
6. Understatement:
故意轻描淡写，缩小事态，从而收到加强的效果。常见格式之一是否定事务的反面。构成间接肯定。从字面上看语气较弱，其结果则能产生比直接肯定更强烈的效果
1). No(not) + adj. + n.
He is no fool. (= He is exceedingly clever.)
That civil servant was not without ambition.
(= That civil servant was quite ambitious.) 2). Nobody(nothing; none, ect) + words with negative meaning Nobody failed. (= Everybody succeeded.)
3). Not + negative adj. (or verb)
Such accidents are not uncommon. (= Such accidents are common.)
He did not deny his fault. (= He admitted his fault.)
4). Not(…) + without (or unless; until)…
At the beginning of learning English we cannot speak it without making mistakes.
(= At the beginning of speaking English we can not avoid making mistakes.)
There is no sweet without sweat.(= There is sweet with sweat.) 5). Not(…) + all (altogether; always; every; everybody; everything; everywhere; often; etc.)
That's not altogether bad. (= That's somewhat good.)
Not everyone agreed with him. (= Some people agreed with him.)
6). No( not) + comparative degree of adj./adv. + than Joe is no richer than his friend. (= Joe was as poor as his friend.)
Joe was not richer than his friend. (= Joe was as rich as his friend.)
It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming pool
There was a slight disturbance in the city yesterday. All the shops were shut.(= There was a great disturbance…)
7.拟人(the personification)
Definition: a figure of speech which represents an inanimate object, an animal, or an abstract idea as a person---as capable of thought, feeling and speech This figure adds dignity, animation, and force to style. 所谓拟人就是把无生命的事物当作有生命的事物来描写，赋予无生命之物以感情和动作或是把动物人格化。例如：Classification:
A. Produced by the use of adjectives or pronouns. The qualities of living beings are attributed to inanimate things.
(1) The thirsty soil drank in the rain.
(2) The pitiless cold bites shrewdly.
B. Produced by the use of verbs. The inanimate things or abstract ideas are represented as having life.
(3) The wind howled last night.
(4) Beauty is as summer, which are easy to corrupt, and cannot last;…but yet certainly again, if it light well, it maketh virtues shine, and vices blush.(Francis Bacon: Of Beauty)
美貌如夏日果疏，易腐难存；不过，倘若美貌属于圣贤之士，它又定能叫德行习习发光，恶习脸红。（Tr. Wang Zuoliang 王佐良)
C. Produced by the use of nouns. Personal nouns are used in connection with impersonal ones.
(5) the whisper of leaves.
(6)She is the favoured child of Fortune她是幸运之宠儿。
(7)Lies have short legs. Justice has long arms.
(8) Love is blind. (9)Time is best physician.
(10)The stubborn door won’t open.
(11)Necessity is the mother of invention.需要乃是发明之母。
两句中名词mother和child通常用于人，而这里分别用于(12) the smiles of spring无生命的名词invention 和Fortune，使这两个词拟人化了。
8. 反语(the irony)
Definition: a figure of speech in which the words of the speaker or writer seem to mean one thing, but in reality mean just the contrary.Irony is a disguised satire, so this figure is also called sarcasm. 反语就是说反话，用反话来表达思想、观点、事物等等。例如：
(12) That’s a fine excuse. (13) You’ve got us into a nice mess. (14) A fine friend you are!
This hard-working boy seldom reads more than an hour per week. This is a feast for the gods.
(15) 孙占元……，肥头大耳的，是猪肉铺的标准美男子。(老舍：《也是三角》)
（16）哼，多有本事！你在这儿哭吧，打吧，多伟大的男子汉！（贾平凹：《小月前车》）
(1)There is no easy job in language learning.语言学习不是一件容易事(no easy job＝difficult j ob).
(2)He seldom failed to order a bleeding.他很少不给病人放血（实际上他常常给病人放血）。
英语中有些明喻习语在使用时也是以反语的形式出现的。如：as welcome as a storm象欢迎暴风雨一样受欢迎（实则“不得人心”）；as slender in the middle as a cow in the waist腰细如牛（实际是“腰粗如牛”）。
用反语来表达思想、观点或描绘事物，实际上是一种意重语轻的修辞方式，常常含有讽刺、幽默或揶揄的意味。
9.头韵与拟声(the alliteration and oh omatopoeia)
Definition: the use of a more agreeable word or expression instead of an indelicate, harsh, or depressing one. It is the opposite of Hyperbole. 头韵即连续数个单词的头音或头字母相同，这种现象在英语中常见。例如：
(1) His relation with his wife has not been very fortunate.
(2) She is expecting.
(3) on the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon , the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep forever.
(1)He is all fire and fight.他从不放弃任何机会。
(2)There was something simple,sincere in that voice.那声音里有种纯朴真诚的东西。
As busy as a bee, as green as grass, as slow as a snail, as good as gold, as hungry as a hawn.山楂, 吆喝牲畜左转, 瞬膜, 呃=Heavy Antitank Assault Weapon 重型反坦克攻击武器, as fit as a fiddle, as cool as a cucumber, as thick as thieves, as clear as crystal, as dull as ditchwater死水, as pleased as punch英国木偶戏中的主角, as different as chalk and cheese
He never forgives nor forgets.
Let's Learn the Lesson by heart.
Many a man, many a mind.
When wine sinks, words swim.
A fair face may hide a foul邪恶的 heart. Practice makes perfect.
Many a little makes a mickle多.
His bark is worse than his bite.
Penny wise, pound foolish. Without wisdom, wealth is worthless.
Stuff today and starve tomorrow.
Love’s L abour Lost
Pride and Prejudice
A traveler travels by train in Austria.
The drunken drinker drank a strong drink. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. She sells sea-shells on the sea shore.
2.拟声。拟声是词模拟人，其它有生命或无生命物的声音。英语拟声词兼有双重功能，即融“拟声”与表示动作为一体。例如： (1)He flopped down the bag and ran to help us.他噗地一声放下袋子，赶来帮助我们。
(2)The door banged shut.门砰地一声关上了。
10.Euphemism: 委婉法(Euphemism)是指为了策略或礼貌起见,使用温和的,令人愉快的,不害人的语言来表达令人厌恶的,伤心或不宜直说的事实,这样的一种修辞手段。
1.The greatest living thinker ceased to think.当代最伟大的思想家停止了思想。(Here “ceased to think” is
an euphemism for“ died”.)
2.He's a bit off his head.他有点精神错乱。(euphemism for "he's a bit crazy")
1). Euphemisms for "die”
He is gone. He is no more. Pass away.
close one’s life, be departed f rom us.
Breathed one’s last, fell a sleep, closed one’s eyes.
Went to his last home. Paid the debt of nature Joined his ancestors, took his last sleep, be finished.
Went out like the snuff of a candle,
2). Euphemism for “drunk”.
He is in his cups. He is merry. He had a drop too much. He is glorious. He is reeling 旋转
3) All music is alike to him. 不懂 Success is yet for to seek.远没成功
4). 使用带否定前缀或后缀的反义词
foolish—unwise
false—untruthful
rude—impolite
blind—sightless
bald—hair disadvantaged
5).通过简写省掉某些音节
cancer—Ca, big C
lavatory—lav厕所
call girl—C-girl
garbage man—G-man
bastard—B私生子
queer—Q(男同行恋）
drunk and disorderly (酒后滋事）—D ＆ D
Rape and robbery—R ＆ R
6). acronym
drug addict—DA drive while intoxicated喝醉的—DWI mental deficiency缺乏—MD body odor—BO bull shit—BS son of a bitch—S. O. B
God damn—GD
7). old
senior citizen, elderly people, mature people, grey-headed people, second childhood, seasoned people, well-preserved people, reach one's golden age, past one's prime, feel one's age, be advanced in age, be in sunset years, be getting on years 8). fat
plump, stout, mighty, chubby, heavyset, heavyside, outsize, full-figure
9). skinny
slender, slim, willowy, svelte苗条,—woman lean—man
11). fart—wind from behind, let a breezer, pass air, make a noise
12). Euphemism used in school
obtuse钝的, 圆头的, 愚蠢的, 迟钝的—underachiever, less able student; He has working at his own level; He is a bit slow for his age; He can do better work with help.
lazy—He should devote himself more diligently to his studies; He needs ample supervision in order to work well.
naughty—overactive
lie—mispresent the facts; He has difficulty distinguishing between imaginary and factual information
cheat—He needs help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play
steal—make off with; He needs help in learning to respect the property rights of others.
13). poor—needy, indigent, less well off, badly off, down on one's luck, negative saver, economically disadvantaged, underprivileged, culturally deprived, be shy of funds, temporarily short of liquidity
14). slum—substandard housing, depressed area, special area
15). unemployed—unwaged, involuntarily leisured, claimants, the less fortunate
16). dole cheque—unemployment benefit
17). debt—cash advance
10.Oxymoron: 矛盾修饰法(Oxymoron)是将两个互相矛盾，互不调和，的词放在同一个短语中，产生特殊的深刻含义的一种修辞手段。用它来状物写景，能突出事物的实质；用它来描绘人物，能使其更加鲜明；用它来表达复杂的思想感情或意味深长的哲理，能使其更强烈，更深刻。它是一种紧缩隽语。矛盾修饰法是将两个意思截然不同的词放在一起，
结合成一个词组，而对语是通过平行结构引起两个概念的对比。例如：
1.a clever fool聪明的傻瓜
2.a victorious defeat胜利的失败
3.cruel kindness残酷的仁慈
4.expressionless expression毫无表情的表情
5.sick health憔悴的健康
6.a living death行尸走肉
7.with careful carelessness小心翼翼又漫不经心地
8.bright and dark既光彩夺目，又朦胧黑暗
9.dove-feather’d raven披着白鸽羽毛的乌鸦
10.with her disagreeably pleasant laugh（她）自鸣得意却令人讨厌地笑起来
11.an honorable villain体面的恶棍
12.There was an audible stillness, in which the common voice sounded strange.(from Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser)
这时是一片听得见的寂静，连人声听起来都是异样的。(选自美国作家西奥多?德莱塞的长篇小说《嘉莉妹妹》)(作者用audible来修饰stillness，匠心独具地从反面烘托环境，使人耳目一新，过目难忘。矛盾的对立面取得了高度的一致，形成了完美的统一。).
1). adj. + n.
living death, hating love, a cheerful pessimist , clever fool, cruel kindness, delicious pain, beautiful tyrant, honorable villain.
2). adj. + adj. + n.
a cool warm embrace, an honest unscrupulous merchant, a stormy tranquil night
3).n. + adj.
darkness visible, discord dulcet愉快的, 美妙的, 悦耳的, faith unfaithful
4). adv. + adj.
wastefully thrifty, hard tender, rudely great 5). v. + adv.
Love harmfully, hasten slowly, die merrily
6). n. + of + n.
sickness of health
7). n. + n.
love-hate relationship, life-death struggle, a fire-water state
He is a cheerful pessimist. a shabby-genteel man. Poor rich guys, tearful joy, a living death, a love-hate relationship,
The state of this house is cheerless welcome.
They called my conviction a victorious defeat