下载文档原格式
1.管理经济学：是一门研究如何把传统经济学的理论和经济分析方法应用于企业管理决策实践的学科。
2.机会成本：是指一项资源在被放弃的其他用途中可能获得的最高净收入。
3.边际分析法：是运用导数和微分方法研究经济运行中微增量的变化，用以分析各经济变量之间的相互关系及变化过程的一种方法。
4.增量分析法：是边际分析法在实际运用中的变形，只要分析一个方案引起的收入是否大于由此引起的成本即可。
5.委托—代理问题：现代企业制度下企业所有权和经营权是分离的，使所有者作为委托人，经营者作为代理人，由于目标差异，产生“委托-代理问题”。
6.需求的变动：除了价格之外，任何一种决定需求的因素发生变化时，需求曲线移动。
7.需求量的变动：在其他条件不变时，由于某种商品自身价格变动导致的该商品的需求数量的变动。
8.供给的变动：是指非价格因素变动，它导致供给曲线发生移动。
9.供给量的变动：是指价格因素发生变动它导致供给量沿供给曲线变动。
10.需求-供给分析法：就是通过绘制供给和需求曲线，可以分析供给、需求与价格之间的关系，还可以分析供需曲线背后诸因素对价格和市场交易量的影响的一种方法。
11.需求弹性：需求数量对某种影响因素变化的反应程度。
12.需求价格弹性：反映需求量对价格变动的反应程度。
13.需求收入弹性：反映需求量相对变动对消费者收入水平相对变动的反应程度。
14.需求交叉价格弹性：一种产品需求量的变动对另一种产品价格变动的反应程度。
15.生产函数：生产过程中生产要素的投入量和产品的产出量之间的关系。
16.边际收益递减规律：在一定技术条件下，若其他投入不变，只是不断增加某一变动投入，则这一变动投入的边际产量开始递增，达到一定值后逐步递减。
17.规模经济：指当企业扩大经营规模时单位成本下降，因而使效率提高及总成本下降。
18.范围经济：是指一个企业因从事多种产品的生产，而引起的长期平均成本降低的现象。
19.沉没成本：指决策前已经指出，或承诺要支出，因而是不受将来决策影响的成本，属于非相关成本。
名词解释：1、管理经济学：是一门研究如何把传统经济学的理论和经济分析方法应用于企业管理决策实战的学科。
2、边际分析法：是进行经济、管理决策的一种基本方法。
在这里，“边际”含有“边缘”和“新增”之意。
根据这一方法，一个方案是否值得采用，不是看其全部收入是否大于全部成本，而是看其新增的收入（边际收入）是否大于新增的成本（边际成本）。
根据边际分析法原理，利润最大化的决策规则是：使边际收入等于边际成本。
3、增量分析法是边际分析法的变形。
二者的共同之处是，判断一个方案对决策是否有利，都要看由此引起的收入是否大于由此引起的成本，即看它能否为决策者增加利润。
它们都体现了向前看的决策思想。
二者的区别公公在于，边际分析法分析的是变量的微量（或单位）变化对收入、成本或利润等的影响，增量分析法分析的则是某种决策对收入、成本或利润等的影响。
4、企业价值最大化：也就是说股东财富的最大化。
现代企业管理的理论办都把它当作企业决策的长期目标。
在这里，企业价值是指企业未来预期利润往返现值之和。
5、现代企业制度下的企业，所有权和经营权是分离的。
所有者（股东）并不直接经营企业，而是通过董事会启用经理人员来管理企业。
在这里，所有者是委托人，经理人员则是代理人。
所有者（股东）的目标是企业价值最大化（反映在酱市场上就是股票价格的最大化，即股东财富的最大化）。
经理人员追求的则是高薪和更多的福利。
所以，所有者的目标和经理人员的目标是有差异的；经理人员有可能以牺牲股东的利益为代价来谋求个人的利益。
这就是经济学中所说的委托—代理问题。
6、会计利润：等于销售收入与会计成本之差。
经济利润等于销售收入与机会成本之差。
计算会计利润的目的是报告企业的盈亏情况，以便投资者作为投资的根据、政府作为征税的根据等。
经济利润则是企业决策的依据。
7、机会成本是指资源用于次好的、被放弃的其他用途本来可以得到的净收入。
或者说，资源用于某一用途的机会成本就是必须放弃的次好方案的价值。
管理经济学中英文术语及其解释Ability-to-Pay principle (税收的)能力支付原则the idea that taxes should be levied on a person according to how well that person can shoulder the burdenAbsolute advantage绝对优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivityAccounting profit会计利润total revenue minus total explicit costAdverse selection逆向选择the tendency for the mix of unobserved attributes to become undesirable from the standpoint of an uninformed partyAgent代理人 a person who is performing an act for another person, called the principalArrow ‟s impossibility theorem阿罗不可能定理a mathematical result showing that, under certain assumed conditions, there is no scheme for aggregating individual preferences into a valid set of social preferencesAverage fixed cost平均固定成本fixed costs divided by the quantity of outputAverage revenue平均收益total revenue divided by the quantity soldAverage tax rate平均税率total taxes paid divided by total incomeAverage total cost平均总成本total cost divided by the quantity of outputAverage variable cost平均可变成本variable costs divided by the quantity of outputBenefits principle受益原则the idea that people should pay taxes based on the benefits they receive from government servicesBudget constraint预算约束the limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can afford Budget deficit预算赤字an excess of government spending over government receiptsBudget surplus预算盈余an excess of government receipts over government spending Business cycle经济周期fluctuations in economic activity, such as employment and production Capital资产the equipment and structures used to produce goods and servicesCartel卡特尔a group of firms acting in unisonCircular-flow diagram循环流向图 a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firmsCoase theorem科斯定理the proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their ownCollusion共谋an agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to chargeCommon resources共源goods that are rival but not excludableComparative advantage比较优势the comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity costCompensating differential补偿性工资差别 a difference in wages that arises to offset the nonmonetary characteristics of different jobsCompetitive market竞争性市场 a market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price takerComplements互补性商品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to a decrease in the demand for the otherCondorcet paradox孔多塞悖论（投票悖论）the failure of majority rule to produce transitive preferences for societyConstant returns to scale规模报酬不变the property whereby long-run average total cost staysthe same as the quantity of output changesConsumer surplus消费者剩余 a buyer‟s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually paysCost成本the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a goodCost-benefit analysis成本收益分析 a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public goodCross-price elasticity of demand需求的交叉价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in the price of the second goodDeadweight loss无谓损失the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a taxDemand curve需求曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDemand schedule需求表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDiminishing marginal product边际产品递减the property whereby the marginal product of an input declines．As the quantity of the input increasesDiscrimination歧视the offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristicsDiseconomies of scale规模不经济the property whereby long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increasesDominant strategy占优策略 a strategy that is best for a player in a game regardless of the strategies chosen by the other playersEconomic profit经济利润total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costsEconomics经济学the study of how society manages its scarce resourcesEconomies of scale规模经济the property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increasesEfficiency效率the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources Efficiency wages效率工资above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityEfficient scale有效规模the quantity of output that minimizes average total costElasticity弹性 a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to one of its determinantsEquilibrium均衡 a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demandedEquilibrium price均衡价格the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demanded Equilibrium quantity均衡数量the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium priceEquity平等the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of societyExcludability排他性the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using it Explicit costs显性成本input costs that require an outlay of money by the firmExports出口goods produced domestically and sold abroadExternality外部性the uncompensated impact of one person‟s actions on the wellbeing of a bystanderFactors of production生产要素the inputs used to produce goods and servicesFixed casts固定成本costs that do not vary with the quantity of output producedFree rider免费搭车者 a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying for it Game theory博弈论the study of how people behave in strategic situationsGiffen good吉芬商品 a good for which an increase in the price raises the quantity demanded Horizontal equity横向公平the idea that taxpayers with similar abilities to pay taxes should pay the same amountHuman capital人力资本the accumulation of investments in people, such as education andon-the-job trainingImplicit costs隐性成本input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firmImport quota进口配额 a limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domesticallyImports进口goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyIncome effect收入效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer to a higher or lower indifference curveIncome elasticity of demand需求的收入弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers‟ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in incomeIndifference curve无差异曲线 a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfactionInferior good低档物品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demandInflation通货膨胀an increase in the overall level of prices in the economyIn-kind transfers实物转移支付transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cashInternalizing an externality外部性的内在化altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actionsLaw of demand需求定理the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good risesLaw of supply and demand需求与供给定理the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balanceLiberalism自由主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies deemed to be just, as evaluated by an impartial observer behind a “veil of ignorance”Libertarianism自由至上主义the political philosophy according to which the government should punish crimes and enforce voluntary agreements but not redistribute incomeLife cycle生命周期the regular pattern of income variation over a person‟s lifeLump-sum tax定额税 a tax that is the same amount for every personMacroeconomics宏观经济学the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growthMarginal changes边际变动small incremental adjustments to a plan of actionMarginal cost边际成本the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production Marginal product边际产品the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of input Marginal product of labor劳动的边际产品the increase in the amount of output from an additional unit of laborMarginal rate of substitution边际替代率the rate at which a consumer is willing to trade one good for anotherMarginal revenue边际收益the change in total revenue from an additional unit soldMarginal tax rate边际税率the extra taxes paid on an additional dollar of incomeMarket市场 a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or serviceMarket economy市场经济an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services Market failure市场失灵 a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficientlyMarket power市场势力the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market pricesMaximin criterion极大极小准则the claim that the government should aim to maximize the well-being of the worst-off person in societyMedian voter theorem中位选举人定理 a mathematical result showing that if voters are choosing a point along a line and each voter wants the point closest to his most preferred point, then majority rule will pick the most preferred point of the median voterMicroeconomics微观经济学the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in marketsMonopolistic competition垄断竞争 a market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identicalMonopoly垄断 a firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutesMoral hazard道德风险the tendency of a person who is imperfectly monitored to engage in dishonest or otherwise undesirable behaviorNash equilibrium纳什均衡 a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the other actors have chosenNatural monopoly自然垄断 a monopoly that arises because a single firm can supply a good or service to an entire market at a smaller cost than could two or more firmsNegative income tax负所得税 a tax system that collects revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income householdsNormal good正常商品 a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demandNormative statements规范性表述claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should be Oligopoly寡头 a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical productsOpportunity cost机会成本whatever must be given up to obtain some itemPerfect complements完全互补品two goods with right-angle indifference curvesPerfect substitutes完全替代品two goods with straight-line indifference curvesPermanent income持久性收入 a person‟s normal incomePhillips curve菲利普斯曲线 a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemploymentPigovian tax庇古税 a tax enacted to correct the effects of a negative externalityPositive statements实证表述claims that attempt to describe the world as it isPoverty line贫困线an absolute level of income set by the federal government for each family size below which a family is deemed to be in povertyPoverty rate贫困率the percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the …poverty linePrice ceiling价格天花板（上限） a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold Price discrimination价格歧视the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customersPrice elasticity of demand需求的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in pricePrice elasticity supply供给的价格弹性 a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in pricePrice floor价格地板I下限） a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold Principal委托人 a person for whom another person, called the agent, is performing some act Prisoners‟ dilemma囚徒困境 a particular “game” between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficialPrivate goods私人物品goods that are both excludable and rivalProducer surplus生产者剩余the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller‟s cost Production function生产函数the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that goodProduction possibilities frontier生产可能性曲线 a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technologyProductivity生产率the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker‟s timeProfit利润total revenue minus total costProgressive tax累进税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a larger fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersProportional tax比例税 a tax for which high-income and low-income taxpayers pay the same fraction of incomePublic goods公共产品goods that are neither excludable nor rivalQuantity demanded需求数量the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase Quantity supplied供给数量the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sell Regressive tax累退税 a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a smaller fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersRivalry竞争the property of a good whereby one person‟s use diminishes other people‟s use Scarcity稀缺性the limited nature of society‟s resourcesScreening筛选an action taken by an uninformed party to induce an informed party to reveal informationShortage短缺 a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied Signaling信号显示an action taken by an informed party to reveal private information to anuninformed partyStrike罢工the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a unionSubstitutes替代品two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to an increase in the demand for the otherSubstitution effect替代效应the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer along a given indifference curve to a point with a new marginal rate of substitution Sunk cost沉淀成本 a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recoveredSupply curve供给曲线 a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSupply schedule供给表 a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSurplus过剩 a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demandedTariff关税 a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyTax incidence税收归宿the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a marketTotal cost总成本the market value of the inputs a firm uses in productionTotal revenue (for a firm)总收益the amount a firm receives for the sale of its outputTotal revenue (in a market)总收益the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed as the price of the good times the quantity soldTragedy of the Commons公共地的悲剧a parable that illustrates why common resources get used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a wholeTransaction costs交易成本the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargainUnion工会 a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditionsUtilitarianism功利主义the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies to maximize the total utility of everyone in societyUtility效用 a measure of happiness or satisfactionValue of the marginal product边际产品价值the marginal product of an input times the price of the outputVariable costs可变成本costs that vary with the quantity of output producedVertical equity纵向公平the idea that taxpayers with a greater ability to pay taxes should pay larger amountsWelfare福利government programs that supplement the incomes of the needyWelfare economics福利经济学the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-beingWillingness to pay支付意愿the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a goodWorld price世界价格the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good。
管理经济学资料名词解释2021名词解释（一）曾经考过的1.管理经济学：管理经济学是一门研究如何把西方传统经济学的理论和经济分析方法应用作企业管理决策课堂教学的学科。
2.边际分析法：边际分析法是微观经济学分析和研究资源最优配置的基本方法。
边际即“额外”、“新增”之意。
用边际分析法去来衡量一个方案或一个项目与否不利，就是必须把这个方案的额外成本（边际成本）与引发的额外收益(边际收益)相比较。
如果边际收益大于边际成本，就是不利的。
否则，就是有利的。
3.外显成本：企业实际的支出，通常能在会计帐上表现出来。
4.机会成本（4）：指如资源用于其他的、次好的用途所可能得到的净收入5.经济利润：指销售收入与机会成本的差额6.需求量（3）：所指在一定时期内，在一定条件下，消费者愿并且能够出售不起的某种产品或劳务数量7.供给量（2）：指在一定时期内，一定条件下，生产者愿意并有能力提供某种产品或劳务的数量。
8.公共物品：（2）：那些没有价格，因而价格机制对其生产和消费不起调解作用的物品称作公共物品。
指具备两个关键的特征：存有非竞争性、非排它性的产品和劳务9.需求的变动（2）：是指某商品在自身价格不变的条件下，由于其他因素变动所引起的该商品的市场需求数量的变动。
它整体表现为市场需求曲线的平行加速度10.市场需求弹性（2）：需求量对某种影响因素变化的反应程度11.价格弹性：需求量对价格变动的反应程度。
12.需求收入弹性（2）：需求量对消费者收入水平变化的反映程度13.市场需求的交叉弹性：一种产品的需求量对另一种有关产品价格变化的反应程度14.优势互补Fanjeaux：两种产品必须分拆采用，就可以对消费者产生更大的效用15.生产函数：反映生产的投入与产出之间的关系，反映在生产过程中，一定的投入要素女团所能够生产的最小产量。
16.边际收益递增规律（4）：如果技术维持不变，减少生产要素中某个要素的投入量，而其他要素的投入量不变，增加的投入量起初会使该要素的边际产量增加，增加到一定点之后，再增加投入量就会使边际产量递减。
七夕，古今诗人惯咏星月与悲情。
吾生虽晚，世态炎凉却已看透矣。
情也成空，且作“挥手袖底风”罢。
是夜，窗外风雨如晦，吾独坐陋室，听一曲《尘缘》，合成诗韵一首，觉放诸古今，亦独有风韵也。
乃书于纸上。
毕而卧。
凄然入梦。
乙酉年七月初七。
-----啸之记。
绪论：一．管理经济学与微观经济学的异同同：前者与后者都是研究企业的行为，都要根据对企业目标的假设，再结合企业内外的环境来研究。
异：（1）后者是一门理论科学，研究的是抽象的企业，而前者则是一门应用科学，研究的是现实的企业（2）后者是以企业的唯一目标是追求最大利润为假设的，而前者则认为实现企业的目标从短期看，只能是有条件地谋求尽可能多的利润，从长期看，则是追求企业价值的最大化（3）后者是以企业所处环境的全部信息已知为假设的，据此来研究企业行为的一般规律，而前者则认为企业的环境信息是不确定的，因而需要依靠多种学科的知识对有关数据进行预测和估计，在不确定条件下进行具体决策。
二、管经的理论和支柱主要有：建立经济模型，边际分析法，需求弹性原理，关于市场机制和市场竞争的基本原理，边际收益递减规律，机会成本概念和资金的时间价值。
三、管经的决策准则1、企业目标：企业分为短期目标和长期目标。
短期目标是多样化的，长期目标是实现企业长期利润的最大化。
2、利润的种类及其在决策中的作用：可分为会计利润和经济利润，经济利润是决策的基础。
几种特殊情况下的机会成本：（1）业主用自己的资金办企业——把这笔资金借出可得到的利息。
（2）业主自己兼任经理——他在别处从事其他工作可得到的薪水。
（3）机器原来闲置，现在用来生产某种产品——零。
（4）机器原来生产A，可得利润X元，现在改生产B——生产A可得到的利润X元。
（5）过去买进的物料，现在市价变了，其机会成本——按市价计算。
（6）按目前市价购进的物料、雇用的职工以及贷入的资金——与其会计成本一致。
（7）机器设备折旧——该机器设备期初与期未可变卖价值之差。
常用的经济术语的英文缩写及简要解释经济学术语解释1、什么是CPI、通货膨胀、PPI和GNP缩减指数？消费者物价指数(Consumer Price Index)，英文缩写为CPI，是反映与居民生活有关的产品及劳务价格统计出来的物价变动指标，通常作为观察通货膨胀水平的重要指标。
如果消费者物价指数升幅过大，表明通胀已经成为经济不稳定因素，央行会有紧缩货币政策和财政政策的风险，从而造成经济前景不明朗。
因此，该指数过高的升幅往往不被市场欢迎。
例如，在过去12个月，消费者物价指数上升2。
3%，那表示，生活成本比12个月前平均上升2。
3%。
当生活成本提高，你的金钱价值便随之下降。
也就是说，一年前收到的一张100元纸币，今日只可以买到价值97。
70元的货品及服务。
一般说来当CPI>3%的增幅时我们称为Inflation，就是通货膨胀；而当CPI>5%的增幅时，我们把他称为Serious Inflation，就是严重的通货膨胀。
主要价格指数有三个：消费者价格指数CPI(Consumer’s Price Index)，生产者价格指数PPI(Producer’s Price Index)，GNP缩减指数(GNP Deflator)。
三种价格指数的计算方法基本一样，即各种商品的价格变化程度的加权平均。
不过，每一种价格指数计算中选择的商品篮子不一样。
计算消费者价格指数时，商品篮子中包含的典型市民的消费篮子。
所以，消费者价格指数也被称为生活成本指数。
生产者价格指数计算时，选取的商品篮子中包含的是生产资源。
GNP缩减指数则是一个更具综合性的指数，其计算中选取的商品篮子既包含消费品，也包含生产资源。
可以这样说，CPI是一个同步经济指标，PPI是一个先行经济指标。
一般来说生产者价格指数领先于经济3个月到半年，消费者滞后于经济3个月到半年。
CPI 可以显示目前经济状况，而PPI可以显示未来经济状况。
PPI计算的是厂商出售的价格，而CPI计算的是消费者购买的价格。
1.正常利润：正常利润(Normal profit)是指企业主如果把资源用于其它相同风险的事业所可能得到的收入，它属于机会成本性质。
在西方经济学中，正常利润指厂商对自己所提供的企业家才能的报酬及支付，正常利润是隐性成本的一部分。
正常利润通常是指厂商对自己所提供的企业家才能的报酬支付。
从机会成本的角度说，它是厂商生产成本的一部分，以隐成本计入成本。
2.经济利润：经济利润（Economic profit）是指厂商的收益与它的成本之差，后者包括从最有利的另外一种厂商资源的使用中可以获得的收益。
排除所有者投入和分派给所有者方面的因素，期末净资产与期初净资产相减以后的差额。
3.沉没成本：沉没成本是指由于过去已经支出的费用，或者根据协议将来必须支出的费用。
4.自然垄断：是指由于资源条件的分布集中而无法竞争或不适宜竞争所形成的垄断。
5.内部人控制：内部人控制（Insider Control）是指现代企业中的所有权与经营权（控制权）相分离的前提下形成的，由于所有者与经营者利益的不一致，由此导致了经营者控制公司，即“内部人控制”的现象。
6.私人成本：私人成本（Private cost）是指单个使用者为了能够使用某一资源而带来的费用指厂商生产过程中投入的所有生产要素的价格。
私人成本是从厂商私人角度来看的成本，厂商投入的生产要素如劳动、资本、土地、企业家才能等价格均应计入私人成本。
7.社会成本：社会成本（Social cost）是指按全社会各个生产部门汇总起来的总成本，也可以指某一种产品的社会平均成本。
社会成本是产品生产的私人成本和生产的外部性给社会带来的额外成本之和。
8.会计利润：会计利润（Accounting Profit) 是指企业在一定会计期间的经营成果。
利润包括收入减去费用后的净额、直接计入当期利润的利得和损失等。
会计利润也就是账面利润，是公司在损益表中披露的利润。
9.消费者剩余：消费者剩余是指消费者消费一定数量的某种商品愿意支付的最高价格与这些商品的实际市场价格之间的差额。
