Yang_Liu_2007_MG
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A unique Yellow River-derived distal subaqueousdelta in the Yellow SeaZ.S.Yang a ,J.P.Liu b,⁎aCollege of Geo-Marine Sciences,Ocean University of China,Qingdao 266003,ChinabDepartment of Marine,Earth and Atmospheric Sciences,North Carolina State University,Raleigh,NC 27695,USAReceived 31December 2006;received in revised form 7February 2007;accepted 16February 2007AbstractNewly acquired high-resolution Chirp sonar profiles reveal a unique Yellow River-derived,alongshore distributed,bidirectional (landward and seaward)across-shelf transported,omega-shaped (“Ω”)distal subaqueous deltaic lobe deposited around the eastern tip of the Shandong Peninsula in the Yellow Sea.This clinoform deposit directly overlies the postglacial transgressive surface,featured by convex-up seafloor morphology,up to 40m thick locally.Radiocarbon-14dates from the underlain pre-Holocene and transgressive sediments indicate this distal lobe has formed since the middle-Holocene highstand under a relatively stable sea level.This along-shelf distributed distal clinoform has been deposited mainly by the resuspended Yellow River sediments carried down by the coastal current,interacting with the local waves,tides and upwelling.Collectively,over the past 7000years,nearly 30%of the Yellow River-derived sediment has been re-suspended and transported out of the Bohai Sea into the Yellow Sea.Overall,the Yellow River-derived sediment could reach the −80m water depth in the central South Yellow Sea,about 700km from the river mouth;in contrast,a very small fraction of the modern riverine sediment could escape the outer shelf or reach the Okinawa Trough.©2007Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.Keywords:Yellow River;Yellow Sea;longshore transport;clinoform;subaqueous delta1.IntroductionSediment delivery to the global ocean is dominated by riverine input with about 20×109t/yr,while other sources (e.g.glaciers,wind,and coastal erosion)contribute only 3.1×109t/yr (Milliman and Meade,1983;Milliman and Syvitski,1992).Most of these global river-derived sediments,however,are still retained in estuaries,deltaic systems,or on their adjacent continental shelves,with less than 5–10%ofthe fluvial sediments presently reach the deep sea (e.g.,Meade,1996).Because modern worldwide coastal deltas began to form only at the time when the postglacial sea-level rise slowed and reached the mid-Holocene highstand (Stanley and Warne,1994),most of today's marine deltas are geologically quite young,less than 8000–6000yr.Extensive studies of the marine portion of worldwide large river systems have documented a universal across-shelf morphology near river mouths —the subaqueous deltaic clinoform deposit,characterized by relatively flat topset strata,steeper foreset strata,and gradual bottom-set deposits across the shelf with different sedimentation behaviors,such as the Amazon (Nittrouer et al.,1986;Marine Geology 240(2007)169–176/locate/margeo⁎Corresponding author.E-mail address:jpliu@ (J.P.Liu).0025-3227/$-see front matter ©2007Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2007.02.008Kuehl et al.,1986;Nittrouer et al.,1996),the Yellow River (Huanghe)(Alexander et al.,1991;Liu et al.,2002,2004),the Ganges –Brahmaputra (G –B)(Kuehl et al.,1997;Michels et al.,1998),the Yangtze (Changjiang)(Chen et al.,2000;Liu et al.,2006,2007a ),and Fly (Walsh et al.,2004).The nearshore oceanographic processes (e.g.,tidal current and waves)transport the fluvial sediments seaward across the shelf from the shallow-water topset area to the deep-water bottomset and result in a high accumulation in the foreset region.At the same time,numerous studies of the suspended-sediment transport rates on high-energy continental shelves reveal a strong along-shelf component of transport with only a minor across-shelf component,e.g.,Amazon,Yangtze,Po,Ebro,Eel,Columbia,etc.(Wright and Nittrouer,1995;Driscoll and Karner,1999;Nittrouer et al.,1996;Cattaneo et al.,2003;Liu et al.,2006,2007a ;etc.).Sediments in these large river systems are found to be transported greater distances from the river mouths and form a large-scale alongshore clinoform deposits and depocenter away from the source.Along-shelf sediment transport dramatically modifies the morphology of the deltas,subaqueous deltas,and mid-shelf deposits and imparts a shore-parallel trending clinoform deposit (Driscoll and Karner,1999).The modern Yellow River,which presently dis-charges into the western Bohai Sea (BS)(Fig.1),along with the Amazon and G-B,is widely recognized as having the highest sediment load on Earth,about 1×109t/y (Qian and Dai,1980;Milliman and Syvitski,1992).Highly turbid gravity flows transport some sediment off the modern delta (Wright et al.,1988,1990;Li et al.,1998),but most of the fluvially derived sediment (N 90%)appears to temporally remain trapped within the modern deltaic system (Bornhold et al.,1986;Martin et al.,1993;Wright et al.,2001).Fig.1.Study area and selected Chirp sonar profiles off the southeastern Shandong Peninsula in the South Yellow Sea.170Z.S.Yang,J.P .Liu /Marine Geology 240(2007)169–176In the1980s a prominent mud wedge was noted extending southward from the eastern tip of the Shandong Peninsula(Milliman et al.,1987),some350km east of the present-day river mouth.Alexander et al.(1991) suggested that the Shandong subaqueous delta represents a direct escape route of Yellow River sediment into the South Yellow Sea(SYS).The40?m thick clinoform formed predominantly between6200and4060yrs BP. More recent works have shown that this clinoform also extends along the northern side of the Shandong Peninsula in the North Yellow Sea(NYS),wrapping around the eastern end of the ShandongPeninsula, Fig.2.High-resolution Chirp sonar profiles show a unique omega-shaped deltaic lobe located off the eastern Shandong Peninsula.This longshore distributed distal mud is40m thick,and directly overlies the postglacial transgressive surface.Selected cores indicated the deltaic deposits formed during the Holocene sea-level highstand under strong coastal current and wave conditions.Ages of core CC02and B10are from Kim and Kennett(1998)and Chen et al.(2003),YE-2is from this study.171Z.S.Yang,J.P.Liu/Marine Geology240(2007)169–176extending from the BS into the SYS(Liu et al.,2002, 2004).The ages of basal peat samples and underlain transgressive subsurface suggest the overlain subaqueous deltaic clinoform might have begun to form after the postglacial rapid sea-level rise of melt-water pulse1b (mwp-1b)and re-intensification of the Asian summer monsoon at around11ka BP(Liu et al.,2002,2004).Because previous surveys usually used large research vessels,the sediment records were only available seaward of20-m isbath(Alexander et al.,1991;Liu et al.,2004,2007b).As a result of this,we were not able to see how the longshore-transported distal sediment wrapped the shoreface and nearshore seafloor,nor could we see the whole picture of the depositional sequences that have formed from nearshore to offshore.In this paper,we present and discuss the newly acquired high-resolution Chirp sub-bottom profiles,and the sedimen-tary structure and facies of a unique clinoform deposit as well as its formation history.2.MethodsTwo geophysical cruises had been conducted in the summer of2004and2005in the SYS(Fig.1).We collected approximately1600km of high-resolution seismic profiles using EdgeTech0512sub-bottom Chirp sonar profiler at the frequency of0.5–6kHz.By using a small boat,we were able to map the nearshore seafloor (b5m water depth),which allowed us to depict the entire cross-section of the clinoform from shore to the deep water. All seismic sub-bottom profiles were post-processed using the Discover software;an acoustic velocity of1500m s−1 was assumed to calculate water depth and sediment thickness.All dates in the selected cores are presentedas Fig.3.Isopach map of the Holocene mud in the North and South Yellow Sea indicates that the Yellow River derived sediments could reach the−80m water depth in the central South Yellow Sea,about700km from the river mouth.172Z.S.Yang,J.P.Liu/Marine Geology240(2007)169–176calibrated radiocarbon-14ages calculated from the CALIB5.0software(/).3.ResultsIn contrast to previous reports(Milliman et al.,1987; Alexander et al.,1991;Liu et al.,2002,2004,2007b), the newly acquired Chirp sonar profiles show a unique thick mound-like Omega-shaped(“Ω”)clinoform deposit off the eastern tip of Shandong Peninsula.A landward,∼20m deep moat can be seen around the peninsula.Unlike previously well-defined sigmoid-shaped clino-forms or mud wedge deposits,the new profiles show very little fluvial sediment deposition on the seafloor within 20km from the shore(Fig.2).A near symmetric offshore mud mound has been directly deposited over a strong acoustic reflector,which has been explained as the last transgressive surface(TS)(Liu et al.,2004).Overlying the TS,there is a thin semi-transparent layer beneath the mud mound,bounded by a maximum flooding surface (MFS)(Fig.2b).AMS14C dates from piston cores collected in the bottomset deposits indicate the trans-gression occurred around11ka BP,which corresponds to the melt-water pulse1b(mwp-1b)event(Liu et al., 2004).The MFS represents the maximum landward flooding during the middle-Holocene sea-level high-stand.All these features indicate this thick mud mound represents a late Holocene Highstand System Tract (HST),which has been formed in the past7ka.The thickest part of this lobe(∼40m)is centered at ∼50km from the coast.Because the underlain transgressive surface is very gently dipping to the seaward,the Yellow River-derived sediment becomes a predominant and topographically positive mud mound sitting on the seafloor off the eastern tip of Shandong Peninsula(Fig.2).The survey in the NYS indicates this mud mound is a continuous sediment body connecting to the along-shelf clinoform in the northern Shandong Peninsula(Liu et al.,2004).The mud sediment has also been found extending progressively southward into the central SYS(Fig2c,d).Based on the collective analysis of seismic profiles in the SYS,this mound-like deltaic deposit extends southward from the tip of Shandong peninsula,gradually thins and diminishes at a water depth of−80m(Fig.3).The southernmost boundary of the mud deposits can be found at around34°30′N,about 700km from the river mouth in the western Bohai Sea.Based on the current result and previous studies (Milliman et al.,1987;Saito et al.,2001;Liu et al., 2002;Wang et al.,in press),over the past7ka,nearly 30%of the Yellow River-derived sediment has been ultimately transported out of the Bohai Sea into the Yellow Sea.However,Fig.3also indicates that most of the Holocene Yellow River-derived sediments have been still kept in the Yellow Sea system,maybe only a small fraction could escape into the Okinawa Trough.4.DiscussionThe fate of sediment dispersed from the river into the coastal ocean involves at least four processes:supply via plumes,initial deposition,re-suspension and transport by marine processes,and long-term net accumulation (Wright and Nittrouer,1995).Numerous studies have found a rapid deposition and accumulation center near many worldwide large river mouths,such as Ganges–Brahmaputra,Mississippi, Nile,and Yellow rivers,etc.(Bornhold et al.,1986; Coleman et al.,1993;Stanley and Warne,1994;Kuehl et al.,1997).Typically,the across-shelf sediment transport also causes high accumulation rates on the middle shelf and creates a clinoform morphology-sigmoid-shaped(“S”)bathymetry:gently dipping top-set,steep foreset,and gentle bottomset(i.e.Kuehl et al., 1986).Important mechanisms that influence across-shelf transport include wind-driven flows,internal waves,wave-orbital flows,infragravity phenomena, buoyant plumes,and surf zone processes(Nittrouer and Wright,1994).Along-shelf clinoform deposits away from the river mouth also have received attention,such as the recent studies of the Po(Cattaneo et al.,2003)and Yangtze (Liu et al.,2006,2007a).The combined effect of oceanographic processes(tidal,wave and current) redistributed most of large river-derived sediments along the shelf,extending hundreds of kilometers from the river mouths and the proximal subaqueous deltas, e.g.,the Amazon River's suspended mud is transported alongshore and deposited for more than1500km along the inner shelf(Nittrouer et al.,1986;Allison et al., 2000);the Yangtze River's distal clinoform has been found to extend nearly800km along the coast southward into the Taiwan Strait(Liu et al.,2006, 2007a);But most of those along-shelf distributed distal clinoform deposits still show some similar stratigraphic sequences to their proximal deltas—gentle topset, steep foreset,and flat bottomset.The data of suspended sediment concentration along the Shandong Peninsula verify the plume-transport from the Bohai Sea to the Yellow Sea(Milliman et al.,1985, Martin et al.,1993).The source of this distal clinoform deposit is mainly the longshore-transported sediment plume from the Bohai Sea(see Fig.4).Previous seismic173Z.S.Yang,J.P.Liu/Marine Geology240(2007)169–176studies in this region were only able to show the N 20m water depth profiles and one-way seaward progradation (Liu et al.,2002,2004,2007b ).Early interpretations mainly focused on the role of the postglacial sea-level rise in controlling the alongshore clinoform formation,particularly the rapid rise of mwp-1b at 11ka BP and the history of the Yellow River north –south shifts.Different from the classic sigmoid-shaped,seaward prograding sequence,the distal clinoform observed in the Yellow Sea indicates an omega-shaped,bidirectional (landward and seaward)dipping convex sedimentary body.The point source forming this unique clinoform is the Yellow River-derived suspended sediment plume,whose sediment is carried down the dispersal system by several cycles of transport,deposition and resuspension under intense tidal,wave and coastal conditions.A numerical model for clinoform development by Pirmez et al.(1998)indicates shear stresses in shallow water are too large to allow deposition at the topset region.Near-bed shear stresses decrease with increasing water depth,and sediment is allowed to deposit at the foreset region,with gradually decreasing rates toward deeper water.This sedimentation pattern leads to progradation of the clinoform surfaces through time,and forms a nearly-flat topset,a steeper foreset,and a gradual rollover bottomset.Unlike the across-shelf sediment plume discharged directly from a river mouth,the longshore-transported distal plume,which is strongly influenced by the river discharge and ambient oceanographic regimes,is mainly governed by the coastal currents,tides and waves.Along the transport route,suspended sediment particles begin to settle over the seabed when the near-bed shear stresses decrease,causing gradual aggradation and progradation laterally in both directions (seaward and landward).The absence of sediment deposits at the landward shoreface may be caused by the strong near-bed shear stress under the local strong oceanographicregimes.Fig.4.A NASA satellite image (06September 1998)shows the Yellow River-derived sediment plume transports into the North and South Yellow Sea along the Shandong Peninsula coast.174Z.S.Yang,J.P .Liu /Marine Geology 240(2007)169–176Recent observations and modeling simulations over the Adriatic Sea also revealed a similar offshore depocenter with an across-shelf clinoform formed by the Po River-derived,longshore-transported mud depos-its(e.g.,Cattaneo et al.,2004;Pratson et al.,2004).With clinoform growth,the nearshore topset becomes a surface bypass region leading to sediment starvation. However,the across-shelf seismic profiles on the Po still show a flat surface.In contrast,the Yellow River distal clinoform near the Shandong Peninsula shows a unique erosional depression,which might represent extremely active wave and tidal-induced nearshore erosion and offshore deposition.Most recent deep drilling over the clinoform and14C dating(Liu et al.,2007b)confirmed the early assump-tion by Liu et al.(2004),which suggested this clinoform began to form after the early Holocene sea-level rise at around11ka BP,and the major portion—the Highstand System Tracts,as we observed in the chirp profiles,have mainly formed during the Holocene sea-level highstand in the past7ka.5.ConclusionsThe observed omega-shaped mud mound represents a unique bidirectional-transported distal clinoform formed in the Yellow Sea under stable sea-level condition,which represent a Holocene Highstand System Tract sequence formed mainly over the past 7ka.These sediments are believed to be transported from the modern Yellow River by an alongshore sediment plume.Overall,the Yellow River-derived sediments travel700km from the Bohai Sea to the SYS and form an extensively distributed alongshore clinoform,across shelf lobe,and distal subaqueous delta.A very small fraction of the modern riverine sediment that could escape the outer shelf or reach the Okinawa Trough.Continued research is needed to understand the salient mechanisms control the formation of this unique clinoform and to monitor them over a range of timescales.AcknowledgementsMany thanks to our colleagues,Wang Houjie,and the graduate students,Li Haidong,Chen Xiaoshui,Liu Yong,and Bi Naishuang,for their help on the cruises. 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