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八大逻辑谬误举例哎呀呀，今天咱就来好好聊聊这八大逻辑谬误举例。
先说说“稻草人谬误”吧！就好比明明我说我喜欢吃苹果，你非说我讨厌所有水果，这不是把我的话曲解成一个完全不一样的“稻草人”来攻击嘛！就像王五和赵六争论，王五说要加强环保意识，赵六就说王五是要大家啥都不干就保护环境，这多离谱呀！再来看看“偷换概念”。
这就好像把猫说成狗一样！比如说咱说努力学习才能有好成绩，有人就说那天天熬夜看书就是努力学习呀，可这完全是两码事呀！就像张三说运动对身体好，李四就说那天天跑步累得半死也是好呀。
“诉诸情感”也很常见哦！动不动就打感情牌。
比如说不从事实角度出发，光说什么“你不支持就是不爱国”，哎呀，这多让人无语呀！就像是小明和小花争论一件事，小明不说道理，光说“你不这么认为就是不心疼我”，这算咋回事嘛！“滑坡谬误”呢，就是把事情想得特别夸张，一点点小问题就说成天大的灾难！就好比说今天上班迟到了，就觉得自己要被开除了、一辈子就完了，哪有这么严重呀！就好像小军迟到了一次就觉得自己要完蛋了。
说到“以偏概全”，就是看到一点就觉得所有都是这样！看见一个坏人就说这世界没好人了，多可笑呀！就像小周看到一个地方脏就说整个城市都脏得不行。
“非黑即白”，总觉得只有两种极端情况，没有中间地带！比如说不是成功就是失败，就不能有个过程嘛！就如同小郑说不是考第一就是没考好，哪有这样的呀！“循环论证”呢，就是用结论来证明结论，这根本就是没道理嘛！就像说因为这件事好所以它好，这不是废话嘛！“错误归因”也得注意呀！把不相干的事情硬扯到一起。
像是说今天出门摔了一跤就怪出门看了一眼天，这也太牵强了吧！就跟小吴生病了就怪前几天喝了冷水一样。
总之啊，这些逻辑谬误咱可得认清了，不然很容易被人绕进去呀！咱得保持清醒的头脑，别被这些错误的逻辑给忽悠了！这样咱才能在思考和交流中更准确、更明智呀！。
常见逻辑错误逻辑有其自身的规律，不管使用什么概念和命题，进行何种推理和论证,都必须遵守最基本的逻辑规律.否则，人们的思维就会出现错误。
常见的逻辑错误有偷换概念、偷换论题、自相矛盾、模棱两可、循环定义、同语反复、概念不当并列、因果倒置、循环论证、推不出等。
一、偷换概念、偷换论题在同一思维过程中，每一个思想必须与其自身保持同一，这是同一律的要求。
可用公式表示：A是A，A表示一个概念或命题。
一个概念反映什么对象就反映什么对象，在同一语言环境中，它不能既反映这类对象，又反映彼类对象。
在概念上有意识地违背同一律的要求而出现的逻辑错误,逻辑上称之为“偷换概念”.其特点是有意不明确某个概念的含义，进而在这个概念中塞进新的含义。
商家“买一赠一”的促销广告，玩的就是“偷换概念”的把戏。
两个“一”的概念内涵大不相同，“买一”的“一”是你要买的东西，比如一件西服，“赠一”的“一”，如果你也理解成一件西服，那就太幼稚了。
这个“一” 有可能是一根领带或一个精美的袋子而已，决不会是一件西服。
在概念的运用方面，有的人是不了解某个概念的确切含义，以至在后面运用这一概念时改变了这一概念的含义。
这种错误叫做"混淆概念"。
同一律还要求，在同一思维过程中一个命题肯定什么就肯定什么，否定什么就否定什么。
一个命题必须具有确定的“真”、“假”意义。
我们把不自觉地违背同一律的逻辑错误称为“转移论题”。
其表现为在说话或论述中，把所要说明或论证的问题无意识地变成了另外的问题。
比如小孩子讲话，前言不搭后语，即属于此。
对于在命题上有意识地违背同一律的要求而出现的逻辑错误，逻辑上称之为“偷换论题”。
其表现是有意识地改变论题内容，偷梁换柱，从而达到某种目的。
例如清朝时，某一书生坐于高台之上读书,台高风大,吹得书页哗哗乱翻，书生随口吟出两句诗：“清风不识字，何故乱翻书？”居心叵测之人有意歪曲“清”字的含义，诬陷书生讽刺清廷没文化，犯了大不敬罪。
15个常见逻辑谬误逻辑谬误是指在推理过程中出现的错误，这些错误可能导致结论不正确或者不合理。
以下是15个常见的逻辑谬误。
一、诉诸情感谬误诉诸情感谬误是指在推理过程中使用情感或者情绪来支持或者反驳一个观点。
这种谬误通常会在争论或者辩论中出现。
二、人身攻击谬误人身攻击谬误是指在辩论中攻击对方的人格而非其观点。
这种谬误通常会使辩论陷入低级趣味，而无法得出有效结论。
三、假设事实不清谬误假设事实不清谬误是指在推理过程中，基于没有证据支持的假设来得出结论。
这种谬误通常会导致结论不可靠。
四、虚假二元性谬误虚假二元性谬误是指将复杂问题简化为两个相互排斥的极端观点，并且要求必须选择其中之一。
这种思维方式忽略了复杂问题的多样性和复杂性。
五、自相矛盾谬误自相矛盾谬误是指在推理过程中，使用自相矛盾的观点来得出结论。
这种谬误通常会导致结论不可靠。
六、诉诸权威谬误诉诸权威谬误是指在推理过程中，使用权威的观点来支持自己的观点。
这种谬误忽略了自己对问题的独立思考和分析。
七、非黑即白谬误非黑即白谬误是指将复杂问题简化为两个极端观点，而忽略了中间地带和其他可能性。
这种思维方式常常导致结论不准确。
八、滑坡谬误滑坡谬误是指在推理过程中，从一个观点开始，逐渐滑向另一个观点。
这种谬误通常会导致结论错误或者不可靠。
九、负面证明谬误负面证明谬误是指试图证明某个事物不存在或者不正确，但是没有足够的证据来支持这一观点。
这种思维方式通常会导致结论不可靠。
十、假设因果关系谬误假设因果关系谬误是指在推理过程中，基于没有足够证据支持的假设来得出因果关系。
这种谬误通常会导致结论不可靠。
十一、谬误的谬误谬误的谬误是指试图证明某个观点错误，但是使用了错误的证据或者推理方式。
这种思维方式通常会导致结论不可靠。
十二、漏洞论证谬误漏洞论证谬误是指在推理过程中，发现一个观点的漏洞，然后假设整个观点都是错误的。
这种思维方式通常会导致结论不准确。
十三、诉诸普遍性谬误诉诸普遍性谬误是指在推理过程中，基于一些普遍性规律或者规则来得出结论。
十大逻辑谬误逻辑谬误是指在推理或论证过程中出现的错误，以下是十大常见的逻辑谬误。
一、诉诸人身攻击谬误诉诸人身攻击谬误是指在辩论或讨论中，将对方的个人品质或特点作为攻击对象，而不是对方的观点或论据。
这种谬误不仅违背了公正的原则，也无助于论证的有效进行。
例如，当我们在讨论某个政策时，如果只是因为某个人的政治立场与我们不同，而对其进行人身攻击，这就是诉诸人身攻击谬误。
二、无中生有谬误无中生有谬误是指在论证中提出没有依据或不可信的事实或数据。
这种谬误会导致论证的无效，因为没有足够的证据支持论点。
例如，如果我们声称某个产品是最好的，但没有提供任何实验证据或客观数据来支持这个说法，这就是无中生有谬误。
三、以偏概全谬误以偏概全谬误是指根据有限的个别事例或经验，就对整体进行一般化的断言。
这种谬误忽视了样本的无偏性和代表性，导致对整体的不准确理解。
例如，如果我们根据个别案例就断定某一群体的特征或行为，而忽略了其他可能的因素或例外情况，这就是以偏概全谬误。
四、虚假二选一谬误虚假二选一谬误是指在辩论或论证中，将问题简化为只有两个选择，而忽视了其他可能的选项。
这种谬误削弱了讨论的复杂性和多样性，使得辩论变得片面和不充分。
例如，如果我们在讨论教育问题时，只将问题归结为选择传统教育还是网络教育，而忽视了其他可能的教育方式，这就是虚假二选一谬误。
五、因果倒置谬误因果倒置谬误是指将因果关系误认为是逆向的，即将结果或效果当作原因或原因当作结果。
这种谬误会导致对问题的错误理解和推理。
例如，如果我们认为某个地区的犯罪率上升是由于警察力量的增加，而忽视了其他可能的因素，这就是因果倒置谬误。
六、无效比较谬误无效比较谬误是指在比较中使用了不恰当的标准或指标，导致比较结果无效或误导。
这种谬误会使得比较的结论不准确，缺乏客观性。
例如，如果我们在比较两个产品时，只关注价格而忽视了质量、性能和服务等因素，这就是无效比较谬误。
七、先验断言谬误先验断言谬误是指在论证过程中，未提供足够的证据或理由就假定或断言某个观点或结论。
15个常见逻辑谬误逻辑谬误是指思考过程中出现的错误推理或不合理的推断。
在日常生活和工作中，我们经常会遇到各种各样的逻辑谬误。
下面是15个常见的逻辑谬误及其解析。
1. 假设统一性谬误这种谬误是指把一类事物看成是完全一致的，忽视了它们之间的差异。
这种谬误常常会导致对特定事物的错误理解和判断。
例如，认为所有的年轻人都爱玩电子游戏，或者认为所有的女性都喜欢购物。
2. 因果关系谬误这种谬误是指把两个事件之间的因果关系看成是单向的，忽视了它们之间的相互作用。
例如，认为穿红色衣服会让人更具攻击性，或者认为熬夜可以提高工作效率。
3. 假设事实谬误这种谬误是指基于错误的假设或不正确的观点进行推论。
例如，认为所有的政客都是骗子，或者认为所有的商人都是贪婪的。
4. 无中生有谬误这种谬误是指基于不存在的事实进行推论。
例如，认为外星人已经来到地球，或者认为某个人有超能力。
5. 市场先知谬误这种谬误是指基于市场行为进行推论，而忽视了其他可能的因素。
例如，认为某个公司股价上涨是因为它的产品非常好，或者认为某个城市的人口增长是因为它有良好的经济环境。
6. 统计谬误这种谬误是指基于不正确的统计数据进行推论。
例如，认为某个国家的经济增长率非常高，但忽视了它的人均收入和生活水平。
7. 漏洞谬误这种谬误是指利用推理中的漏洞进行论证。
例如，认为某个人是个骗子，因为他不愿意谈论自己的家庭背景。
8. 诉诸恐惧谬误这种谬误是指利用恐惧感进行论证。
例如，认为某个政治团体的主张是危险的，因为它会导致社会动荡。
9. 诉诸情感谬误这种谬误是指利用情感进行论证。
例如，认为某个人应该被判有罪，因为他长得很可怕。
10. 常识谬误这种谬误是指基于一般常识进行推论，而忽视了具体情况。
例如，认为所有的猫都喜欢吃鱼，或者认为所有的学生都应该能够背诵诗歌。
11. 诉诸权威谬误这种谬误是指利用权威进行论证。
例如，认为某个理论是正确的，因为它是由某个著名学者提出的。
12. 诉诸人群谬误这种谬误是指基于大众观点进行论证。
诡辩就是有意地把真理说成是错误，把错误说成是真理地狡辩。
用一句简单明了的话来说，就是有意地颠倒是非，混淆黑白，其实质是违反逻辑的。
有以下几种主要的诡辩的策略：（如果可以，最好区分一下“谬误”与“诡辩”，前者更多的是无意的逻辑错误，后者更多的是故意的似是而非的论证。
也就是说诡辩都是谬误，但并非谬误都是诡辩。
）一、含糊其词，模棱两可。
在论证过程中，诡辩者故意违反论题要明确的原则，论点含混暧昧，似是而非，企图在不同的情况下作不同的解释，为自己的某种目的辩护。
（在经济发展和环境保护可否并行，武大的蒋舸在一辩陈词中提到概念模糊：“第一是概念模糊。
何为并行，静态的并存不是并行，有先后主次之分的同行并不是并行，只有两件事齐头并进不冲突才是并行。
因此，您今天论证的其实是同行和并存，又何尝给大家论证了并行呢？”）二、偷换概念、偷换论题。
主要手法有：1、偷换概念：①偷偷改变一个概念的内涵和外延，使之变成另外一个概念。
②利用多义词混淆不同的概念。
③抓住概念之间的某种联系和表明相似之点，抹煞不同概念之间的根本区别。
④混淆集合概念与非集合概念，集合概念反映的是一类事物的整体属性，而非集合概念所反映的是组成一事物类的每个分子的属性。
2、偷换论题。
在论证过程中故意违反论题要明确、要同一的规则，偷偷地转移论题。
主要分为以下几种情况：①把原论题换成与之不同的论题；②利用语言的歧义来偷换辩题；③利用改变语境来偷换论题。
（给辩题增加了一些前提。
例如“发展优先兼顾环境/环境优先兼顾发展”，有这么一组设问“如果连环境都被毁灭了，人类是否无法生存？如果没有环境，人就不能生存，不能生存，根本就无法发展。
”这里面有一个隐含的前提，就是“没有”其中一个时，另一个怎样。
问题是，题目为“兼顾”，你其中一个没有了还谈何兼顾呢？这里给辩题增加了一个“两者其中之一不存在”的前提，违背了题目中“兼顾”的要求。
加了一个隐含的前提，可以说是偷换了辩题。
经济全球化的环境中，合作多于竞争/竞争多于合作。
推断题的错误类型一、因果关系：因果关系不成立//因果倒置/强加因果二、条件失当（过于绝对只有……才）三、假设错误（假如如果即使）四、递进关系不成立（不仅/不但……而且/还）并列关系不成立（并且，既……又不是……而是）五、概念上存在交叉关系、不包含或者偷换概念六、不合事理（否定失当）七、以偏概全或范围绝对（都）八、答非所问九、不当类比例题一、因果关系：因果关系不成立//因果倒置/强加因果1.．《祝福》中，鲁四老爷知道祥林嫂的死讯后说：“不早不迟，偏偏要在这时候，这就可见是一个谬种！”强加因果，违反了充足理由律，祥林嫂“不早不迟，偏偏要在这时候”死，不能构成她是“谬种”的充足理由。
2.【原文】因为它鲜明、开朗、深入浅出；那形象的飞动，想象的丰富，情绪的饱满，使得思想性与艺术性在这里统一为丰富无尽的言说。
【选项】盛唐时代的作品思想性与艺术性高度统一，所以盛唐气象呈现鲜明、开朗、深入浅出，以及飞动的形象、丰富的想象等特征。
因果倒置二、条件失当（过于绝对只有……才）1.喜鹊叫，喜事到；今天喜鹊在小明门口叫，他肯定能金榜高中。
强加条件关系，“喜鹊叫”与“他肯定能金榜高中”没有必然关系。
2.只有有微笑的人生才能趋于幸福“只有……才……”表述绝对化。
3.以后只有看到这段笔记,才可以从这个小小的想法展开思考。
“只有……才”表示条件唯一；“只要……就”表示条件非唯一，“只要”则强调的是必要条件，即“就”后面的内容要实现，“只要”的条件是必备之一，但不是唯一。
三、假设错误（假如如果即使）1.一个家庭，如果物质生活过于优裕，就会导致精神生活远远滞后”“如果……就”这一假设关系不成立四、递进关系不成立（不仅/不但……而且/还）并列关系不成立（并且，既……又不是……而是）1.诚信教育已成为我国公民道德建设的重要内容，因为诚信不仅关系到国家的整体形象，而且体现了公民的基本道德素质。
递进关系不成立，不但……而且表递进关系，应先公民再国家。
常见逻辑错误一、自相矛盾违反矛盾律的逻辑错误“自相矛盾”是一切逻辑错误中最严重的一种，它指的是思想、言论中的自我否定现象。
一个理论必须是逻辑自恰的，就是说任何理论体系都不允许包含逻辑矛盾。
有一种逻辑推理叫做“归谬式”推理，即由一个假定如果能合乎逻辑地推出互相否定的结论（逻辑矛盾）来，就能证明该假定是错误的。
二、偷换概念偷换概念是违反同一律对概念运用的要求的逻辑错误。
三、偷换论题,避实就虚，攻其不意偷换论题是违反同一律对判断运用的要求所犯的逻辑错误，辩论中最常见的表现有两种：1.故意回避对方的问题，王顾左右而言他；2.故意歪曲对方的观点然后加以振振有词的“批驳”，然后宣布自己“得胜”。
四、以偏概全以偏概全是指仅根据少数事例得出一般性结论的简单化的归纳方法。
由于任何实例都不难找到，因此在严肃的科学思维中，仅仅靠例子只能提出初步的假说，而不能证明任何严肃的科学命题。
五、机械类比在运用类比推理时, 仅仅根据两事物为数很少的又不具备典型性的共同属性,就推断类比对象具有与已知属性相关性程度不高的另一属性, 这种错误的类推逻辑上叫做机械类比。
好几本逻辑教材上引用一个典型的机械类比的例子：“一个家庭需要有一个家长, 在家庭里发生纠纷的时候, 就需要家长来裁决。
国际问题要比家庭纠纷复杂得多,所以,国际大家庭也应该有一个“家长”,当国与国之间的纠纷通过协商不能解决时,就应该让承担“家长”职责的国家来裁决。
”这个例子是国际霸权主义者用机械类比来论证霸权主义合理性的逻辑错误。
六、双重标准双重标准是一种实用主义的诡辩术，指在同一问题上对不同对象采取不同的是非标准和取舍标准, 以混淆是非, 达到有利于自己的目的。
七、诉诸情感诉诸情感是指用煽情的语言来唤起公众的某种怜悯、义愤等情感以转移中心论题、逃避理论交锋的诡辩术, 又叫做“以情感为据”。
但是，在严肃的理论探讨中，仅仅有感情的抒发而缺少合乎逻辑的理论思考，对于得出理性的结论来说是毫无作用的，因为情感是感性的东西，情感有时会阻碍理性的思考。
八大逻辑谬误实例
八大逻辑谬误实例包括：
1. 稻草人谬误：歪曲了别人的观点，使自己能够更加轻松地攻击别人。
这种行为影响了理性的讨论，也影响了自己观点的可信度。
2. 假意谬误：通过假设一个虚假的意图来攻击对方的论点。
例如，小明说：“你应该把钱捐给慈善机构。
”小红回答：“你真虚伪，明明知道我不想捐。
”
3. 偷换概念谬误：在讨论中故意改变某个词的含义，以混淆或逃避对方的攻击。
4. 以人攻击谬误：攻击某个人的性格或个人特征，而不是他们的观点或论据。
例如，小明说：“小红是个自私的人，所以她的观点肯定是错误的。
”
5. 以暴制暴谬误：认为通过暴力或强制手段可以达到某个目的。
例如，小明说：“如果你不按我说的做，我就打你。
”
6. 群体压力谬误：认为大多数人的观点是正确的，因此忽视或排除少数人的观点。
例如，小明说：“大家都认为这个方案是好的，所以它肯定没问题。
”
7. 偏见谬误：由于个人偏见或偏见导致的错误判断。
例如，小红认为某个种族的人都有某种特点，并以此作为判断该种族人的依据。
8. 滑坡谬误：认为一件事情会引发一连串的不好的后果，最终导致严重的后果。
例如，小明说：“如果你买了那个产品，你就会上瘾，最终失去所有财产。
”。
八大逻辑谬误01/草率前提（Dicto Simpliciter）它发生在人们没有考虑具体情况或背景，就对某个问题或话题做出一般性的结论或断言。
例如，有人可能会说：“所有的狗都是危险的动物，我家的狗也是狗，所以我的狗是危险的。
” 这个推理就犯了草率前提的错误。
首先，它做出了一个一般性的结论，即所有的狗都是危险的动物。
然后，它没有对这个一般性的结论进行任何限制或例外，就直接将其应用到特定的例子上，即自己的狗。
02/过度概化（Hasty Generalization）指的是基于有限的信息或经验，对整个群体或事物做出不准确的概括或推断。
例如，一个人在一家餐馆用餐后感觉食物不好吃，于是得出结论认为该餐馆的所有菜品都不好吃，这就是过度概化的例子。
03/误用因果（Post Hoc）也称为后此谬误或巧合关系，指的是错误地将一个事件视为另一个事件的原因，仅仅因为它们在时间上相继发生。
例如，有人可能会说：“自从我开始吃这个减肥药，我的体重就一直在下降，所以这个减肥药非常有效。
” 这个推理就犯了误用因果的错误。
它错误地将吃减肥药视为体重下降的原因，仅仅因为这两个事件在时间上相继发生。
实际上，可能存在其他因素导致体重下降，例如饮食和运动的改变。
04/矛盾前提（Contradictory Premises)指在推理或论证中使用的两个或多个前提之间存在相互矛盾或冲突的情况。
例如，一个论证的前提是“所有的动物都是哺乳动物”，而另一个前提是“有些动物不是哺乳动物”，这两个前提之间就存在矛盾。
05/渗加同情（Ad Misericordiam）它发生在人们利用对方的同情心或善良心来试图影响对方的判断或行为时。
一位男生向心爱的女孩表白，他说：“亲爱的，没有你的日子，我的整个世界都是黑暗的。
看不到你，我吃不下去饭，晚上辗转反侧，难以入眠。
我的世界真的不可以没有你，亲爱的，嫁给我吧！”这是典型的渗加同情的逻辑谬误。
06/错误模拟（False Analogy）指的是在论证中错误地将一个不相关的类比作为支持论点的依据。
提纲：1非因果关系 Non Causal relationship相关非因果后此谬误混淆因果因果关系简单化2横比 The Fallacy of Analogy & Comparison3纵比 Assuming All things remains over time4数据与调查 Problematic DataA 不充分采样错误Insufficient Sample Fallacy数量不够不具有代表性B 有偏采样错误The Biased-Sample Fallacy问卷设计问题谁组织的调查数据问题5充分/必要Sufficient Evidence & Necessary ConditionA 充分条件?有它就好B 必要条件?缺它不行C 充要条件先打必要条件再打充分条件6整体与部分 Composition and Division整体适用部分个体适用整体7非此即彼 False DilemmaA考虑问题不全面B没有限定重要词语C循环论证D为2对立目标辩论E无理取闹8其它一．N on Causal relationship 非因果关系1相关非因果2后此谬误3混淆因果4因果关系简单化相关非因果In the last several years, whenever sales of personal computers went up, sales of athletic shoes also rose strongly; therefore, buyers of personal computers must have bought athletic shoes as well Commuter use of the new subway train is exceeding the transit company’s projections. However, commuter use of the shuttle buses that transport people to the subway stations is below the projected volume. If the transit company expects commuters to ride the shuttle buses to the subway rather than drive there, it must either reduce the shuttle bus fares or increase the price of parking at the subway stations具体攻击方法1 The argument depends on an unproven cause-and-effect relationshipbetween the ___&___. (P)The argument depends on an unproven cause-and-effect relationship between the unexpectedly low shuttle-bus usage and shuttle-bus fares or stationparking fees.2 The reason for ____ might have nothing to do with____The reason for the unexpectedly low shuttle-bus usage might have nothing to do with either shuttlebus fares or station-parking fees.3 For instance______.For instance, commuter awareness of the shuttle-bus option might be growing more slowly than anticipated. For that matter, many commuters might be wary of riding the buses due to a recent shuttlebus accident.4 Without ruling out these and other alternatives explanations for_____, the author cannot draw a conclusion that_____.Without ruling out these and other alternative explanations for the low shuttle-bus usage, the author cannot reasonably conclude that adjusting shuttle fares or stationparking fees will have any effect on that usage.后此谬误I found my love after having a special style of haircut, so the haircut mustbe the reason I found my love In the first 4 years that Montoya has served as mayor of the city of SP, the population has decreased and the unemployment rate has increase. Two businesses have closed for each new business that has opened.Under Varro, who served as mayor for four years before Montoya, the unemployment rate decreased and the population increased. Clearly, the residents of SP would be best served if they voted Montoya out of office and reelected Varro具体攻击方法1 The author assumes that ___ caused ____. (P)The author assumes that the Montoya administration caused the unemployment in SP as well as its population loss.2 The line of reasoning is that because____ was before ____, the former eventcaused the latter.The line of reasoning i s that because Montoya’s election was before the rise in unemployment and the decline in population. The former event caused the latter3 To illustrate___.To illustrate, perhaps a state wide or nationwide recession is the cause of these events. Or perhaps the current economic downturn is part of a larger picture of economic cycles and trends, and has nothing to do with who happens to be mayor.Yet another possibility is that Varro enjoyed a period of economic stability and Varro’s own administration se t the stage for the unemployment and the decline in population.混淆因果他做了很多好事，所以是一个好人 2 years ago, the town of Ocean View built a new municipal golf course and resort hotel. During the past 2 years, tourism in Ocean View has increased, new businesses have opened there, and Ocean View’s tax revenues have risen by 30 percent. Therefor, the best way to improve Hopewell’s economy, and generate additional tax revenues, is to build a golf course and resort hotel similar to those in Ocean View.具体攻击方法1 It’s possible that the author has confused cause with effect respecting____It’s possible that the author has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View.2 Perhaps____ was a response to ____Perhaps Ocean View’s constr uction of a new golf course and hotel was a response to previous increases in tourism and business development.3 Without ruling out these and other alternative explanations for_____, theauthor cannot reasonably infer_____(总论点)Without ruling out these and other alternative explanations for the recent trends, the author cannot reasonably infer Hopewell’s economy would benefit by following Ocean View’s example.因果关系简单化男人有钱就会变坏 For the third year in a row, the average household income in our country has risen significantly. That prosperity means that families are likely to be spending more time and money on leisure activities. Megamart stores should therefore concentrate on enlarging and promoting its line of products typically used in leisure activities: athletic and outdoor equipment, televisions, gourmet cooking equipment, and luggage and travel accessories.1 The author attempts to establish a positive relationship between the fact that ____ and the claim that ___The author attempts to establish a positive relationship between the fact that a significant rise in average household income and the claim that the families are likely to be spending more time and money on leisure activities.2 This argument, nonetheless, is based on an oversimplified analysis of the cause of ___.This argument, nonetheless, is based on an oversimplified analysis of the cause of spending more time and money on leisure activies.3 Actually, it is equally possible that ____ or it is possible that ___Actually, it is equally possible that the local residents is in greater need for necessities, nor luxuries for instance the cooking and leisure equipment, or it is possible that an inflation happened meanwhile the increase of the income, thus whether the actual income will be raised is unveiled.4 Without ruling out such alternative explanations, the author can not convince me that ____ necessarily results in _____Without ruling out such alternative explanations, the author can not convince me that the increase of income necessarily results in spending more time and moneyon leisure activities二．The Fallacy of Analogy & Comparison 横比Over time, the costs of processing go down because as organizations learn how to do things better, they become more efficient. In color film processing, for example, the cost of a 3-by-5-inch print fell from 50 cents for 5-day service in 1970 to 20 cents for 1-day service in 1984. The same principle applies to the processing of food.1 It is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from the ___ are applicable to the ____It is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from the color-film processingindustry are applicable to the food processing industry.2 Differences between the 2 ____ clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy less than valid.Differences between the 2 industries clearly outweigh the similarities, thus making the analogy less than valid.3 For instance _____.For instance, problems of spoilage, contamination, and timely transportation all affect the food industry but virtually absent in the film-processing industry.三. Assuming All things remains over time 纵比拿破仑时代送礼送什么最贵重? 技术革新引发巨变 Con-Edison 收购专利 98年F/A-18 可用植物油 ?国际粮油价格现在你认为宝贵的一切, 未来可能… Mental health experts have observed that symptoms of mental illness are less pronounced in many patients after group music-therapy sessions, and job opening in the music therapy field have increased during the past year. Consequently, graduates from our degree program for music therapists should have no trouble finding good positions. To help improve the financial status of Omega U, we should therefore expand our music-therapy degree program by increasing its enrollment targets.1 Committing the fallacy of all things are equal overtime, the author assumes that ___ will remain unchanged in the future.Committing the fallacy of all things are equal overtime, the author assumes that the job market will remain unchanged in the future.2 However, ____ is an insufficient evidence that ____However, a recent one-year increase is an insufficient evidence that guarantee the coming year’s employment.4-Problematic Data 数据与调查A 不充分采样错误Insufficient Sample FallacyB 有偏采样错误The Biased-Sample Fallacy充分采样的条件1 样本必须具有足够大的数量2 具有代表性A 不充分采样错误之数量不够After experiencing a decline in usage by its members, healthy Heart Fitness Center built an indoor pool. Since usage did not increase significantly it appears that health club managers should adopt another approach – lowering membership fees rather than installing expensive new features. 1 The conclusion that ___ is basedon too small sample to be reliable.The conclusion that installing new features at fitness centers will not increase member usage is based on too small sample to be reliable.2 The only evidence offered in support of this conclusion is that ___The only evidence offered in support of this conclusion is that Healthy Heart Fitness Center did not experience an increase.3 Unless it can be shown that ___ is typical of all, the conclusion that ___ is groundless.Unless it can be shown that Healthy Heart is typical of all, the conclusion that all health club managers should abolish purchasing new features rather than lowering membership fees is dubious.A 不充分采样错误之没有代表性As overall life expectancy continues to rise, the population of our country is growing increasingly older. For example, over 20% of the residents of 1 of our more populated regions are now at least 65 years old, and occupancy rates at resort hotels in that region declined significantly during the past 6 months. Because of these 2 related trends, a prudent investor would be well advised to sell interest in hotels and invest in hospitals and nursing homes instead.1 The example cited, is insufficient to warrant the claim because there is no reason to believe data drawn from ___ is representative of all.The example cited, is insufficient to warrant the claim because there is no reason to believe data drawn from this more populated region is representative of all.2 For instance _____.For instance, if the region from which the data was gathered was Florida, it would clearly be unrepresentative. Florida is populated by a disproportionate number of retired people over 65 years old.B 有偏采样错误1问卷设计问题2谁组织的调查3数据问题1问卷设计问题选项科学否?信息保密否?Among Newtrue employees participating in our department’s most recent survey, about half indicated that they are happy with our current four-day work week. These survey results show that the most effective way to improve overall productivity at Newtrue is to allow each employee to choose for himself or herself either a four-day or five-day work week1 The survey methodology might be problematic. First ___. Second___.The survey methodology might be problematic. First we are not informed whether survey required that respondents choose their workweek preference between the 2 alternatives. A third one could be omitted. Second, we are not informed whether thissurvey is anonymous or even confidential. 2谁组织的调查KPMG-红十字会-王石 Managers at our central office report that their employees tend to be most productive in the days immediately preceding a vacation. To help counteract our declining market share, we could increase the productivity of our professional staff members, who currently receive 4 weeks paid vacation a year, by limiting them to a maximum of 1 week’s continuous vacation time. They will thus take more vacation breaks during a year and give us more days of maximum productivity. The memo provides no evidence that the reports from the managers are ___ . The managers all have their own ____ in the vacation policies, and therefore might have fabricated the reports so that ____.3数据问题Reelect Adams, and you will be voting for proven leadership in improving the state’s economy. Over the past year alone, 70% of the state’s workers have had increases in their wages, 5 thousand new jobs have been created, and 6 corporations have located their headquarters here.1 The statistics listed are vague and oversimplified.2 For example ____.For example, the 5,000 new jobs may have been too few to bring state unemployment rates down significantly; the pool indicates that 6 new corporations located in the state, but fails to indicate if any left.5-Sufficient Evidence & Necessary Condition 充分/必要条件A 充分条件?有它就好B 必要条件?缺它不行C 充要条件葵花宝典欲练神功，必先自宫若不自宫，亦可成功若是自宫，未必成功A 充分条件It makes no sense that in most places 15 year olds are not eligible for their driver’s license while people who are far older can retain all of their driving privileges by simply renewing their license. If older drivers can get these renewals, often without having to pass another driving test, then 15 year olds should be eligible to get a license. 15 year olds typically have much better eyesight, especially at night, much better hand-eye coordination; and much quicker reflexes. They are also less likely to feel confused by unexpected developments or disoriented in unfamiliar surroundings, and they recover from injuries more quickly.1 Even if ____, _____is not acceptable.Even if it is granted that 15 year olds possess better night vision, reflexes, hand-eye coordination, and are less disoriented in unfamiliar surroundings than older drivers, these abilities to qualify them to obtain a driver’s lic ense is not acceptable.2 The author assumes that_____, in addition ____ .The author assumes that physical capabilities are the only attributes necessary to operate a motor vehicle. In addition to these abilities, drivers must be able to exercise good judgment in all types of driving situations and conditions and must be aware of the consequences of their decisions and actions when driving.B 必要条件Scientists must typically work 60-80 hrs a week if they hope to further their careers; consequently, good and affordable all-day child care must be made available to both male and female scientists if they are to advance in their fields. Moreover, requirements for career advancement must be made more flexible so that preschool-age children can spend a significant portion of each day with a parent.1 In this argument, the author asserts that ____ must ____ . However, the author fails to consider and rule out other options.In this argument, the author asserts that in order for scientist, male and female alike, to further their career, they must have access to all-day child care. However, the author fails to consider and rule out other options.2 For instance_____.For instance, a scientist whose spouse has time during each day to spend with their child. Besides, many scientist-parents, might have friends or relatives who can provide child care. Furthermore, childless scientists or scientists whose children are old enough to take care of themselves will have no need for the services advocated in this argument.C 充要条件Applications for advertising spots on KMTV, our local cable television channel, decreased last year, Meanwhile a neighboring town’s local channel, KOOP, changed its focus to farming issues and reported an increase in advertising applications for the year. To increase applications for advertising spots, KMTV should and only focus its programming on farming issues as well1-先打必要条件The argument depends on the assumptions that ____ is the only way ____.The argument depends on the assumptions that the proposed change is the only way KMTV can stimulate advertising applications.However, this is not the case. For example____.For example, by reducing advertising rates, improving programming quality, or extending broadcast range.2-再打充分条件In addition, the author further assumes that the ____ would suffice to ____ . In addition, the author further assumes that the proposed programming change would suffice to bring about the desired increase.However, this is not always the case. For example _____.However, this is not always the case. For example the last year’s decline was due to a combination of factors - say the whole economy was experiencing a recession period.6-Composition and Division 整体与部分整体适用部分个体适用整体因为全球股价仍在持续下跌，我们不应该购买股票 AppleIt is no longer cost-effective for the Perks Company to continue offering its employees a generous package of benefits and incentives. In periods when national unemployment rates are low, Perks may need to offer such a package in order to attract and keep good employees, but since national unemployment rates are now high, Perks does not need to offer the same benefits and incentives. 1 概括论据论点The author relies on the reasoning that it is unnecessary to pay relatively high wages during periods of high unemployment because the market will supply many good employees at lower rates of pay. 2 The particular ____ may not be representative as a wholeThe particular industry that Perks is involved in may not be representative as a whole3 For instance_____.For instance, it is possible that relatively few unemployed people have the type of qualifications that match job openings at Perks.命题：男人都不是好东西There is a common misconception that university hospitals are better than community or private hospitals. This notion is unfounded. The university hospitals in our region employ 15% fewer doctors, have a 20% lower success rate in treating patients, make far less overall profit, and pay their medical staff considerably less than do private hospitals. From this it seems clear that the quality of care at university hospitals is lower.1 The most egregious reasoning error in the argument is ____The most egregious reasoning error in the argument is the author use one region university hospitals’ phenomenon as evidence to generalize about all the university hospitals.2 The underlying assumption is____.The underlying assumption is that the hospitals of this region can be a good indicator or representative for all university hospitals.7-False Dilemma 非此即彼人死后，要么___, 要么___.Commuter use of the new subway train is exceeding the transit company’s projections. However, commuter use of the shuttle buses that transport people to the subway stations is below the projected volume. If the transit company expects commuters to ride the shuttle buses to the subway rather than drive there, it must either reduce the shuttle bus fares or increase the price of parking at the subway stations1 The author assumes that _____ and _____ are mutually exclusive alternatives. The author assumes that reducing shuttle fees and increasing parking fees are mutually exclusive alternatives.2 However, the author provides no reason for imposing an either-orchoice.3 For instance_____.For instance, the most effective solution might include a combination of policy changes, in shuttle fares, parking fees, change the route as well as rescheduling.8-other fallacies 其它A考虑问题不全面B没有限定重要词语C循环论证D为2对立目标辩论E无理取闹A考虑问题不全面When the Apogee Company had all its operations in one location, it was more profitable than it is today. Therefore, the Apogee Company should close down its field offices and conduct all its operations from a single location. Such centralization would improve profitability by cutting costs and helping the company maintain better supervision of all employees.B没有限定重要词语20 years ago, only half of the students who graduated from Einstein High School went on to attend a college. Today, 2/3 of the students who graduated do so. Clearly, Einstein has improved its educational effectiveness over the past 2 decades. This improvement has occurred despite the fact that the school’s funding, when adjusted for inflation, is about the same as it was 20 years ago. Therefore, we don’t need to make any increase in the school funding at this time1 The meaning of the vague concept _____ has to be established.The meaning of the vague concept “Educational efficien cy” has to be established.2 自由发挥Usually we are interested in something more than just the numbers of students who go on to college from a high school.3 For instance____.For instance, how well the school has prepared students for a successful college experience? How much the student can utilize their knowledge to serve the kind? Are they merely a cold-blooded calculator or a capable man with compassion upon others?C循环论证没有任何论据支持关键假设未被证明1 month ago, all the showerheads on the 1st 5 floors of Sunnyside Towers were modified to restrict the water flow to approximately 1/3 of its original force. Though actual readings of water usage before and after the adjustment are not yet available, the change will obviously result in a considerable savings for Sunnyside Corporation. D为2对立目标辩论Scientists must typically work 60-80 hrs a week if they hope to further their careers; consequently, good and affordable all-day child care must be made available to both male and female scientists if they are to advance in their fields. Moreover, requirements for career advancement must be made more flexible so that preschool-age children can spend a significant portion of each day with a parent.1 In essence, the 2nd assertion serves to undermine the 1st one.2 For instance_____.For instance, if the children of scientists spend significant time each day with a parent, without compromising to the scientistparent’s career, then all-day child care would seem unnecessary. E无理取闹诉诸权威：砖家辟谣人身攻击He’s gay, don’t believe in him。
