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心理学专业名词中英文对照感觉记忆（SM）—sensory memory 短期记忆（STM）—short-term M.长期记忆（LTM）—long-term memory 复诵---rehearsal预示(激发)----priming 童年失忆症---childhood amnesia视觉编码（表征）---visual code (representation) 听觉编码—acoustic code运作记忆---working memory 语意性知识—semantic knowledge记忆扫瞄程序—memory scanning procedure竭尽式扫瞄程序-exhaustive S.P.自我终止式扫瞄—self-terminated S. .程序性知识—procedural knowledge命题（陈述）性知识--propositional（declarative）knowledge情节（轶事）性知识—episodic K. 讯息处理深度—depth of processing精致化处理—elaboration 登录特殊性—coding specificity记忆术—mnemonic 位置记忆法—method of loci字钩法—peg word （线）探索（测）(激发)字—prime关键词---key word 命题思考----propositional thought心像思考---imaginal thought 行动思考---motoric thought概念---concept原型----prototype 属性----property 特征---feature范例策略--exemplar strategy 语言相对性（假说）—linguistic relativity th.音素---phoneme 词素---morpheme(字词的)外延与内涵意义—denotative & connotative meaning（句子的）表层与深层结构—surface & deep structure语意分析法---semantic differential 全句语言—holophrastic speech过度延伸---over-extension 电报式语言—telegraphic speech关键期----critical period 差异减缩法---difference reduction方法目的分析---means-ends analysis 倒推---working backward动机---------motive 自由意志------free will决定论------determinism 本能-----------instinct种属特有行为-----species specific 驱力----drive诱因------incentive 驱力减低说---drive reduction th.恒定状态（作用）—homeostasis 原级与次级动机—primary & secondary M.功能独立—functional autonomy 下视丘侧部（LH）—lateral hypothalamus脂肪细胞说----fat-cell theory. 下视丘腹中部（VMH）—ventromedial H定点论---set point th. CCK───胆囊调节激素第一性征---primary sex characteristic第二性征---secondary sex characteristic自我效能期望—self-efficiency expectancy内在（发）动机—intrinsic motive外在（衍）动机—extrinsic motive成就需求---N. achievement需求层级—hierarchy of needs 自我实现---self actualization冲突----conflict 多项仪---polygraph肤电反应----------GSR (认知)评估---(cognitive appraisal)脸部回馈假说---facial feedback hypothesis (生理)激发----arousal挫折-攻击假说---frustration-aggression hy. 替代学习----vicarious learning 发展------development 先天-----nature后天-----nurture 成熟-------maturation(视觉)偏好法-----preferential method习惯法-----habituation 视觉悬崖-----visual cliff剥夺或丰富(环境)---deprivation or enrichment of env. 基模----schema同化----assimilation 调适-----accommodation 平衡----equilibrium 感觉动作期----sensorimotor stage 物体永久性----objective permanence运思前期----preoperational st. 保留概念----conservation道德现实主义---moral realism 具体运思期-----concrete operational形式运思期----formal operational st. 前俗例道德---pre-conventional moral俗例道德----conventional moral 超俗例道德----post-conventional moral气质----temperament 依附---attachment 性别认定---gender identity性别配合----sex typing 性蕾期---phallic stage 恋亲冲突—Oedipal conflict认同-----identification 社会学习----social learning 情结---complex性别恒定----gender constancy 青年期----adolescence 青春期-- -puberty第二性征---secondary sex characteristics 认同危机---identity crisis定向统合---identity achievement 早闭型统合---foreclosure未定型统合---moratorium 迷失型统合---identity diffusion传承---generativity心理动力------psycho-dynamics 心理分析------psychoanalysis行为论-------behaviorism 心理生物观---psycho-biological perspective 认知---------cognition 临床心理学家-clinical psychologist谘商--------counseling 人因工程-------human factor engineering组织--------organization 潜意识---------unconsciousness完形心理学---Gestalt psychology 感觉------------sensation知觉--------perception 实验法--------experimental method独变项-------independent variable 依变项--------dependent V.控制变项------control V. 生理------------physiology条件化---------conditioning 学习------------learning比较心理学---comparative psy. 发展-------------development社会心理学---social psy. 人格--------------personality心理计量学—psychometrics 受试(者)---------subject实验者预期效应—experimenter expectancy effect双盲法-----double—blind 实地实验--------field experiment相关-----------correlation 调查-------------survey访谈-----------interview 个案研究-------case study观察-----------observation 心理测验-------psychological test纹理递变度-----texture gradient 注意------------attention物体的组群---grouping of object 型态辨识—pattern recognition形象-背景----figure-ground 接近律--------proximity相似律--------similarity 闭合律-------closure连续律--------continuity 对称律-------symmetry错觉-----------illusion 幻觉----------delusion恒常性--------constancy 大小----------size形状-----------shape 位置---------- location单眼线索-----monocular cue 线性透视----linear- perspective双眼线索-----binocular cue 深度---------depth调节作用-----accommodation 重迭----superposition双眼融合-----binocular fusion 辐辏作用-----convergence双眼像差-----binocular disparity 向度--------- dimension自动效应-----autokinetic effect 运动视差----- motion parallax诱发运动---- induced motion 闪光运动----- stroboscopic motion上下文﹑脉络-context 人工智能------artificial intelligence A.I.脉络关系作用-context effect 模板匹配------template matching整合分析法---analysis-by-synthesis 丰富性---------redundancy选择性---------selective 无意识的推论-unconscious inferences运动后效---motion aftereffect 特征侦测器—feature detector激发性---excitatory 抑制性----inhibitory几何子---geons 由上而下处理—up-down process由下而上处理---bottom-up process 连结者模式---connectionist model联结失识症---associative agnosia 脸孔辨识困难症---prosopagnosia意识--conscious（ness）意识改变状态---altered states of consciousness无意识----unconsciousness 前意识---------preconsciousness内省法---introspection 边缘注意---peripheral attention多重人格-----multiple personality午餐排队(鸡尾酒会)效应—lunch line(cocktail party) effect自动化历程----automatic process解离----dissociate 解离认同失常----dissociative identity disorder 快速眼动睡眠----REM dream非快速眼动睡眠—NREM dream神志清醒的梦----lucid dreaming 失眠---insomnia显性与隐性梦---manifest & latern content 心理活动性psychoactive冥想------meditation 抗药性---- tolerance 戒断----withdrawal感觉剥夺---sensory deprivation 物质滥用----substance abuse成瘾--------physical addiction 物质依赖----sub. dependence戒断症状----withdrawal symptom 兴奋剂--stimulant幻觉（迷幻）剂----hallucinogen 镇定剂---sedative﹐抑制剂--depressant 酒精中毒引起谵妄—delirium tremens麻醉剂---narcotic 催眠-------hypnosis催眠后暗示----posthypnotic suggestion 催眠后失忆 posthypnotic amnesia超心理学---parapsychology 超感知觉extrasensory perception ESP心电感应---telepathy 超感视---clairvoyance 预知---precognition心理动力—psycokinesis PK 受纳器-----receptor 绝对阈----absolute threshold 差异阈----------difference threshold 恰辨差------- -JND韦伯律---------Weber's law 心理物理-----psychophysical费雪纳定律---Fechner's law频率-----frequency振幅----------amplitude 音频-------pitch基音----------fundamental tone 倍音-----overtone和谐音-------harmonic 音色------timbre白色噪音----white noise 鼓膜-----eardrum耳蜗----------cochlea 卵形窗—oval window圆形窗-------round window 前庭-----vestibular sacs半规管-------semicircular canals 角膜-------cornea水晶体-------lens 虹膜------------iris瞳孔----------pupil 网膜---------retina睫状肌-------ciliary muscle 调节作用---accommodation脊髓---------spinal cord 反射弧--------reflex arc脑干---------brain stem 计算机轴性线断层扫描-- CA T 或CTPET---正子放射断层摄影 MRI-----磁共振显影延脑----medulla 桥脑-----pons 小脑----cerebellum网状结构---reticular formation RAS----网状活化系统视丘----thalamus 下视丘----hypothalamus大脑----cerebrum 脑（下）垂体（腺）—pituitary gland脑半球---cerebral hemisphere 皮质---cortex胼胝体----corpus callosum 边缘系统------limbic system海马体----hippocampus 杏仁核--------amygdala中央沟---central fissure 侧沟-----------lateral fissure脑叶------lobe 同卵双生子----identical twins异卵双生子—fraternal twins古典制约--classical conditioning 操作制约---operant conditioning非制约刺激—(US unconditioned stimulus非制约反应—(UR)unconditioned R. 制约刺激---(CS) conditioned S. 制约反应----(CR)conditioned R.习(获)得-----acquisition 增强作用------reinforcement消除(弱)------extinction 自(发性)然恢复----spontaneous recovery前行制约—forward conditioning 同时制约--simultaneous conditioning回溯制约---backward cond. 痕迹制约——trace conditioning延宕制约—delay conditioning 类化(梯度)---generalization (gradient)区辨------discrimination (次级)增强物-------(secondary) reinforcer嫌恶刺激---aversive stimulus 试误学习---trial and error learning效果率-----law of effect 正(负)性增强物—positive (negative) rei.行为塑造—behavior shaping 循序渐进-----successive approximation自行塑造—autoshaping 部分(连续)增强—partial (continuous)R定比(时)时制—fixed ratio (interval) schedule FR或FI变化比率(时距)时制—variable ratio (interval) schedule VR或VI逃离反应---escape R. 回避反应—avoidance response习得无助----learned helplessness 顿悟--------insight学习心向—learning set 隐内(潜在)学习---latent learning认知地图---cognitive map 生理回馈------biofeedback敏感递减法-systematic desensitization 普里迈克原则—Premack's principle洪水法----flooding 观察学习----observational learning动物行为学----ethology 敏感化—sensitization习惯化---habituation 联结---association认知学习----cognitional L. 观察学习---observational L.登录﹑编码----encoding 保留﹑储存-----retention提取------retrieval 回忆----(free recall全现心像﹑照相式记忆---eidetic imagery﹑photographic memory.舌尖现象（TOT）—tip of tongue 再认---------recognition再学习--------relearning 节省分数----savings外显与内隐记忆--explicit & implicit memory 记忆广度---memory span组集--chunk 序列位置效应---serial position effect起始效应---primacy effect 新近效应-----recency effect心(情)境依赖学习---state-dependent L. 无意义音节—nonsense syllable顺向干扰---proactive interference 逆向干扰---retroactive interference闪光灯记忆---flashbulb memory 动机性遗忘----motivated forgetting器质性失忆症—organic amnesia 阿兹海默症---Alzheimer"s disease近事（顺向）失忆症—anterograde amnesia旧事（逆向）失忆—retrograde A. 高沙可夫症候群—korsakoff"s syndrome 凝固理论—consolidation th.。
名次解释Bilingualism: refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of BilingualismComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE] Context is a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. It determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.Creole: when pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole Cross-association: In English we sometimes may come across words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. This aspect of interference is often referred as cross-associationcultural diffusion：Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as cultural diffusion. One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.Cultural overlap：Despite the cultural differences, there exist a greater or lesser degree of cultural overlap. It refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.Diglossia:it was first used by Ferguson, it refers to a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social functions and appropriate for certain situations. 大题区别One is a more standard variety called the high variety (H-variety), the other is a non-prestige variety called the low variety (L-variety).Most bilingual communities have one thing in common, i.e. a fairly clear functional differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations known as domains. fossilization: it is defined as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Even if learners full access to the universal grammar, it is done through their native language and therefore short of native-like proficiency.Inter-language:When the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. The language they produce, which is called inter-language or learner language. It is abstract system of learner’s target language system, it has been widely used to refer to the linguistic expressions learners produce especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones.linguistic relativity Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativityPidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes or trading, it is a variety of language that is generally used by native of speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. Prediction analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning. The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g “The dog bites the man” issemantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are the same. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. If we say “the dog is barking” we must talk about a real dog exist in the situation.Register: Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.Sapir-whorf hypothesis: Sapir and Whorf believed that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.Sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. It has to do with separation brought by different social conditions. The social background of people may influence their choice of linguistic forms and language features.Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the John Austin in the late 1950s. it is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication aiming to answer “what do we do when using the language”speech community：in sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups which is singled out for any special study. For general linguistics, it is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language. Speech variety: also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be found at the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of language.Sentence meaning, when taking a sentence as a grammatical unit, the meaning of a sentence is abstract and context-independent. It is the intrinsic property and literal meaning of the sentence itself in terms of predication.Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning. It is the realization of the abstract meaning of the sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in the context.The utterance meaning of a sentence is concrete and context-dependent.填空1. A speaker may perform 3 acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary 言内act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); illocutionary言外act----n act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). Perlocutionary言后act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.2. Constatives (叙述句) ---- statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable; Performatives (施为句) sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state and unverifiable.3. Recently with the increasing cultural diffusion has been recognized as a tendency of cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism. Linguistic imperialism is a kind of linguicismwhich can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the worldwide expansion of one language.4. Chomsky referred to this innate ability as language acquisition device(LAD), it is an imaginary “black box” exiting somewhere in the human brain. The “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human language.5. over-extension: it happened when a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. e.g. at very beginning a young child calls all adults “daddy”. in this case ,”daddy” refers to {+ adult} {+male}. In other words children “over-extend” the meanings of early words. Later the child will acquire the conventional meaning of “daddy”. Here “daddy” refers to {+adult} {+male} {+parent}.6. Overgeneralization: it is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations.e.g. the coffee is too hot, I can’t drink it.=the coffee is too hot to drink (it).7. individual differences: it includes 1,language aptitude(natural ability for learning),2,motivation(learner’attitudes and affective), 3,learning strategies（learners’conscious, goal-oriented, problem-soving）4,age of acquisition,5, personality.In motivation, it refers to instrumental motivation, integrative motivation, resultative motivation, intrinsic motivation; learning strategies divides as cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, affect/social strategies.以上填空是老师说可能出的, 也有点可能出选择之类, 我标出了关键词,应该好找.名词解释是所有的重点,出大题也可以随机应变,按字母排序的,比较好找.。
1.Globalization is considered as a process of increasing involvment in international businessoperations.经济学视角中的全球化表现为不断增加的国际商务往来过程。
2.Macroculture:The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming onelarge society.宏观文化意味着种族差异的消失和一个大社会的形成。
3.Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds andnationlities.熔炉:不同背景和国籍的人们之间的社会文化的同化。
4.Microcultures:cultures within cultures微观文化：文化中的文化5.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultureperceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.跨文化交际:指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人文之间进行的交际。
Chapter 16.Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affectthe behavior of a relatively large group of people.文化是习得的一套关于信仰，价值观，规范的公认的解释，这些信仰，价值观，规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。
Exercise 7-1I. Choose the best answer.1. __B____ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____C___.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. ____A______ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. ____A___ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. __C_______ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transferII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers. F2. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. T3. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can not be used to refer t o standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. F4. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. F5. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. FⅢ. Explain the following terms, using examples1.Sociolinguistics2.Context of Situation3.Nida’s Classification of Culture4.Linguistic Determinism5.Linguistic RelativityⅣ. It has been widely recognized that the so-called “magic words” like “thank you” and “please” are more commonly used in English speaking society than they will in Chinese speaking society. One of explanations for this phenomenon may go like this: Look, these foreigners are really more polite than our countrymen. Try to use your knowledge in sociolinguistics and make some comments on this understanding of cultural difference.Basically speaking, the above explanation is not a correct one. As we all know, people from different cultural backgrounds speak differently. A maxim we should keep in mind is that one culture’s meat can be another culture’s poison. Take the quoted example again. English people and Chinese people have their distinctive ways to express politeness. In most cases, expressions like “thank you” and “please” are used as a lip service (口惠)in English, not really meaning that the speaker owes you something. On the other hand, a friendly smile or a slight nodding will be a more common practice in Chinese culture to express politeness. If we are not aware of this subtle difference, new cultural misunderstanding will come into being. For instance, you may either feel that English speakers are so polite for trivial thing s that appear false and less sincere (虚情假意) or consider that Chinese speakers are so rude that they never know how to speak politely.Ⅴ. What will you say to a statement like “One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?In cross-cultural communication, when people have some trouble and don’t know how to behave correctly, they tend to turn to their source culture for help. This is a strategy often used by communicators in a new cultural setting. Convenient as it is , this strategy may not always work. For too many bad stories can be told to illustrate this point. This is because people from different communities think, behave, and speak differently. As our case studies in Chapter show, if we are not ready for this difference, we may run into trouble. Therefore, a principle that cross-cultural communicators should follow is to understand the target culture by transcending the source culture. Put alternatively, try to do as the Romans do when in Rome.。
语言学A__ is the study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.A. PhonologyB. LexicographyC. LexicologyD. MorphologyC2. ___C_ is defined as the scientific study of language, studying language in general.A. PsycholinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. LinguisticsD. PhoneticsB3. Which of the linguistic items listed below is best described as the smallest unit of meaningA. the wordB. the morphemeC. the phonemeD. the clauseB4. A prefix is an affix which appears ____.A. after the stemB. before the stemC. in the middle of the stemD. below the stemC 5. Which of the following is true ____A. Phonetics is the study of pronunciation.B. Phonetics is the scientific study of the movement of sound waves.C. Phonetics is the scientific study of the sounds of language.D. Phonetics is the scientific study of the organs of speech.D6. “What’s in a name That which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweetSo Romeo would, were he not Romeo called,” (Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2, 43~5)To what characteristic of language dose Shakespeare refer ___A. CreativityB. ProductivityC. DualityD. ArbitrarinessA7. Language, as a system, consists of two sets of structures or two levels, which is known as ____, one of a design features of human language.A. DualityB. DisplacementC. ProductivityD. ArbitrarinessD8. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning, are ____.A. phonemesB. phonesC. soundsD. allophonesA9. What is complementary distribution ____A. Different places of occurrence of allophones within a word.B. When a phone can only occur at the end of a word.C. When an allophone occurs at the beginning of a word.D. Contrastive distribution of allophonesD10. ___ deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.A. MorphemeB. VocabularyC. RootD. LexiconB1. Cold and hot are called ____ antonyms.A. complementaryB. gradableC. reversalD. converseC2. “I regret that I can’t help you.” This is an example of __ _.A. representativesB. directivesC. expressivesD. commissivesD. What is the duality of the language ____A. Letters and soundsB. Sounds and symbolsC. Symbols and meaningD. sounds and meaningA4. “I bought some roses” ___ “I bought some flowers”.A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous withC5. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into Prague School.A. BloomfieldB. SaussureC. JakobsonD. FirthC6. Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is often referred to as acquired ____.A. diglossiaB. aphasiaC. dyslexiaD. dysgraphiaA7. ____ A Dictionary of the English Language established a uniform standard for the spelling and word use.A. Samuel Johnson’sB. Bishop Lowth’sC. Firth’sD. Samuel John’sB8. What is phonology ____A. The study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted and receivedB. The study of the function, behavior and organization of speech sounds as linguistic items.C. The study of the International Phonetic Alphabet.D. The study of all possible speech sounds.D9. The morpheme “cast” in the common word “telecast” is a (n) ____.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD10. A phoneme is ____.A. a set of different realization of a phoneB. a set of contrastive allophones in free variationC. a set of phones in complementary distributionD. a set of phonetically similar noncontrastive phonesA1. Firstly, to which of these language groups dose English belong ____A. GermanicB. SlavonicC. romanceD. BalticD2. What is defined as “the study of sentence structure” ___A. MorphologyB. SemanticsC. PhonologyD. SyntaxD3. According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisitionC4. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is known as a(n) ____.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free formC5. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language, especially those items which have clear semantic references.A. PhonologyB. LexicologyC. MorphologyD. LexicographyA6. As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, ____ is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner. A. interlanguage B. interferenceC. language transferD. linguistic relativityA7. ____ means the lack of a logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds. A. Arbitrariness B. AbstractnessC. AmbiguityD. FuzzinessB8. The term ___ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeD9. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound that follows or precedes it, it is said to be ____.A. nasalizedB. voicedC. aspiratedD. assimilatedC10. F. de Saussure is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. BritishC. SwissD. RussianA1. N. Chomsky is a (n) ____ linguist.A. AmericanB. CanadaC. SwissD. FrenchB2. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: ___ and ____.A. Linguistic description, Linguistic determinismB. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic relativityC. Linguistic relativity, Linguistic descriptionD. Linguistic determinism, Linguistic performanceA3. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and used by people who speak different language for restricted purpose is ____.A. pidiginB. creoleC. dialectD. blendsB4. By ____, we refer to word forms which differ from each other only by one sound, . “pin” and “bin”.A. complementally distributionB. minimal pairC. Adjacency pairD. code—switchingA5. When two sounds never occur in the same environment they said to be in ___.A. complementary distributionB. free variationC. co-occurrenceD. minimal pairD6. ___ century is considered to be the beginning of Modern English.A. 18thB. 17thC. 19thD. 16thB7. Conventionally a __ __ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phonemeC. phoneD. morphemeD8. __ __ is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that the only things valid enough to confirm or refute o scientific theory are interpersonally observable phenomena, rather than people’s introspections or intuitions.A. MentalismB. Functional grammarC. Case grammarD. BehaviorismC9. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called __C.A. expressivesB. directivesC. commisivesD. declaratives*C 10. A __ _ is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.A. morphemeB. wordC. rootD. phonemeD1. Linguistics is the scientific study of ___.A. a particular languageB. the English languageC. human language in generalD. the system of a particular languageA2. __ __ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.A. InterlanguageB. IdeologyC. DialectD. InterferenceB3. Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called __ _ rule.A. DeletionB. SequentialC. superasegmentalD. AssimilationB 4. “There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to”. This is the __ view concerning the study of meaning.A. naming theoryB. conceptualistC. contextualistD. behavioristA5. English consonants can be classified into stops, fricatives, nasals, etc. , in terms of _.A. manner of articulationB. openness of mouthC. place of articulationD. voicingA6. According to Chomsky, _ __ is the ideal user’s internalized knowledge of his language.A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langueA7. __ is not a suprasegmental feature.A. AspirationB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA8 __ is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1language in their learning process.A. Language transferB. BlendingC. InterferenceD. CooperativeC9. _ are affixes added to an existing form to create a new word, . in-,-er.A. inflectional morphemeB. free morphemeC. derivational morphemeD. rootB10. Writing is the secondary language form based on ___.A. soundB. speechC. gestureD. signC1. ____ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular the study of linguistic communication.A. SemanticsB. SociolinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. LinguisticsA2. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so on are called ____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivationalC3. Which of the following is not a compound word ___A. clearwayB. rainbowC. scarcityD. withoutA4. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation to generation by process of learning, and not genetically is referred to as ____.A. culture transmissionB. performanceC. competenceD. acquisitionC5. ____ is the language of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who invaded Britain after AD 450.A. Old NorseB. CleticC. Old EnglishD. Middle EnglishC6. A group of two or more consonants together in a syllable is called a (n) ____.A. arresting clusterB. releasing clusterC. consonant clusterD. syllableC7. The semantic features of the word “woman” can be expressed as ____.A. +ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALEB. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, -- ADULT, + MALEC. + ANIMATE, + HUMAN, + ADULT, -- MALED. + ANIMATE, -- HUMAN, -- ADULT, -- MALEA8. ____ is to refer to an auxiliary language used to enable routine communication to take place between groups of people who speak different native languages.A. Lingua francaB. DialectC. PidginD. Ethnic dialectA9. ____ is the study of the relationship between brain and language, including research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning.A. NeurolinguisticsB. PsyhcholingisticsC. Applied LinguisticsD. SociolinguisticsB10. Modern synchronic linguistics traditionally dates from the ____ of Swiss scholar Ferdinand de Saussure.A. Syntactic structureB. Cours de Linguitique GeneralC. De Lingua LatinaD. Language and MindA1. According to the strong version of the ____ hypothesis, language determines speakers’ perceptions and patterns their way of life.A. Sapir WhorfB. inputC. GrimD.InnatenessD2. Which of the following is true ____A. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.B. A compound is the combination of only two words.C. The division of English into old English, Middle English, and Modern English is nonconventional and notarbitrary.D. If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully lateron.D3. Which of the following statements is not true ____A. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.B. Language is human specificC. Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraintsfirst language was invented by Adam, the first man.B 4. A group of people who do in fact have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes to- ward linguistic norms are defined as ____.A. speech varietyB. speech communityC. registerD. sociolectC5. “Your money or your life” is an example of ___.A. representativeB. expressiveC. directivesmissivesD6. Which of the following distinctive features can be used to separate [p] and [b] __A. stopB. fricativesC. bilabialD.voicedD7. ____ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language particularly those items which have clear semantic references.A. LexicographyB. PhonologyC. LexicologyD.MorphologyC8. ____ theorized that acquisition of language is an innate process determined by biological factors which limit the important period for acquisition of a language from roughly two years of age to puberty.A. Input hypothesisB. Interaction hypothesisC. Critical period hypothesisD.Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC9. An example of ___ would be the change in meaning undergone by the OE word, docga, modern day dog. In OE docga referred to a particular breed of dog, while in modern usage it refers to the class of dogs as a whole.A. semantic degradationsB. semantic reductionsC. semantic extensionsD. semantic elevationC10. According to Chomsky, the child is born with a built – in set of rules, which have the specific function of enabling her to construct the grammar of her mother tongue. This view is to be seen as ____.A. Input hypothesisB. X-theoryC. Language acquisition deviceD.Universal grammarD1. “Old” and “Young” are a pair of ____ opposites.A. complementaryB. relationalC. converseD. gradableB2. Systemic-Functional Grammar, one of the most influential linguistic theories in the 20th century, is put forward by ____.A. ChomskyB. HallidayC. FirthD.MalinowskiD3. Vowels that are produced between the positions for a front and back vowel are called ____ vowel.A. backB. frontC. unroundedD.centralD4. From Halliday’s viewpoint, language is a form of realization of ____ rather than a form of realizationof______.A. knowing, doingB. thinking, knowingC. doing, thinkingD.doing, knowingC5. ___ believes that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.A. The innatistB. The interactionistC. The behavioristD.The mentalistthe physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear.A. Articulatory phoneticsB. Physiological phoneticsC Acoustic phonetics D. Auditory phoneticsB7. Creativity refers to ____.A. the unconscious knowledge that language users have in their mindsB. the capacity of language users to produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentencesC. a property claimed to be characteristic of all languagesD. animals’ capacity to learn more than one human languageA8. Fossilization is a process _ _.A. in which incorrect linguistic features beca me a permanent part of a learner’s competenceB. in which incorrect as well as correct linguistic features beca me a permanent part of a learner’s competence,but the correct items gradually delete the incorrect itemsC. which can happen as a result of teachers’ disapproval of an incorrect itemand C are correctB9. “Competence” refers to ____.A. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesB. a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageC. the actual use of a speaker’s unconscious knowledge about his/her languageD. the laws that pertain to all languages throughout the worldA10. ___ refers to unintentionally deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker.A. An errorB. A mistakeC. A slip of the tongueD. FossilizationC1. ____ is a multiword construction that is a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituents.A. semantic componentB. collocationC. idiomD. referenceB2. The distinction between langue and parole is similar to that between ____.A. prescriptive and descriptiveB. competence and performanceC. speech and writingD. synchronic and diachronicA3. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as ____.A. open class wordsB. grammatical wordsC. closed class wordsD. function wordsB4. What is the meaning relationship between the two words “furniture/bed” ____A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. antonymyB5. Which description of componential analysis for the word “woman” is right ____A. +human,-adult, -maleB. +human, + adult, -maleC. +human, + adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +maleB6. The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a ____.A. regional dialectB. registerC. fieldD. repertoireD7. In structural grammar, distributional analysis is used to define ____, which are taken as the basic building blocks.A. morphemesB. wordsC. syllableD. phonemesD8. “Speech Act Theory” was proposed by ____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. Jane AustinD. John AustinD9. The major new development in linguistics in 20th century was ____ grammar.A. speculativeB. traditionalC. structuralD. transformational-generativeA10. ____ refers to the tendency of many learners to stop developing their inter-language grammar in the direction of the target language.A. FossilizationB. Error analysisC. OvergeneralizationD. InterferenceD1. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. structureB. grammarC. usageD. pronunciationC2. The study of how we do things with utterance is the study of ____, the nature of which is determined by context.A. contextB. pragmaticsC. speech actD. semanticsA3. A(n) ___ is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, . “pass away” for “die”.A. euphemismsB. deleteC. coinageD. tabooB4. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, ____ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.A. transferB. bilingualismC. diglossiaD. inter-languageD5. Pragmatics differs from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation, but in ____.A. relationshipB. dependenceC. sentenceD. contextis a design feature of human language that enables speakers to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.A. cultural transmissionB. dualityC. displacementD. productivityB7. Traditional grammarians begin with ____ definition of the sentence and components.A. structuralB. notionalC. descriptiveD. prescriptiveA8. ____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. Speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A countryA9. ___ invasions established three major groups in England: Saxons, Angles and Jutes.A. GermanicB. NormanC. FrenchD. RomanD10. Japanese is the only major language that uses ___ writing system.A. a word-writingB. a logographicC. an alphabeticD. a syllabicC1. ____ is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, . a word or group of words, which serves as a definable “center” or “head”.A. Exocentric constructionB. CoordinationC. Endocentric constructionD. CollocationA2. Of the following linguists, ____ should not be grouped into American school.A. FirthB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. BoasD3. When people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career, we say they learn a foreign language with a (n) ___.A. intrinsic motivationB. resultative motivationC. integrative motivationD. instrumental motivationB4. What is the sense relation in the sentence “M y unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.” ____A. PresupposeB. ContradictionC. EntailmentD. InconsistentB5. ---TRUTH.---Do not say what you believe to be false.---Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Those can be defined as the features of ____ of Gricean maxims.A. maxim of quantityB. maxim of qualityC. maxim of relationD. maxim of mannerC6. ____ caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords refers to the use of pitch in language to distinguish words.A. IntonationB. StressC. ToneD.AspirationC7. ____ is a socially prestigious dialect that is supported by institutions.A. Ethnic dialectB. IdeolectC. Standard dialectD. CreoleD8. Which of the following country are those loanwords “garage, champion, beauty, parliament” borrowed from ____.A. LatinB. DutchC. GermanD.FrenchB9. In the sentence “The angry man went furiously through the rooms.” The first division into immediate constitute should be between ____.A. angry and manB. man and wentC. furiously and throughD. The and angryC10. ____ refers to the effect of the utterance.A. Illocutionary actB. Locutionary actC. Perlocutionary actD. Speech actA1. The consonant sound /p/ is described as ___.A. voiceless bilabial stopB. voiceless alveolar stopC. voiced bilabial stopD.voiced alveolar stopC2. A new word created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part is referred to as ____.A. acronymB. borrowingC. clippingD.blendingC3. According to the author our brain is divided into two hemispheres. Language functions are mainly located in ____.A. right hemispheresB. front hemispheresC. left hemispheresD.back hemispheresC4. “A language pattern which occurs in all known language” is called ____.A. a phonemic representationB. a phonetic representationC. a language universalD. language changeC5. In the sentence-------“The child found the puppy”, ____ is not a constituent.A. The childB. found the puppyC. found theD. the puppyA6. A ____ is a word or phrase which people use in place of terms which they consider to be more disagreeable or offensive to themselves and /or to their audience.A. EuphemismB. metaphorC. denotationD.jargonC7. ____ is the learner’s process of adapting to the culture and value system of the target language community.A. AcquisitionB. AssimilationC. AcculturationD. ArticulationC8. What is the relationship between the two words “flower / rose” ____A. HomonymyB. AntonymyC. hyponymyD. PolysemyD9. The function of the sentence “How are you” ____A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phaticC10. Homonyms ____.A. are words that share the same phonetic features and the same semantic featuresB. are words that share the same semantic features but have different sets of phonetic featuresC. are words that share the same phonetic features but have different sets of semantic featuresD. are two words that all but one of semantic features in commonB1. The distinction between language and parole is proposed by ____.A. HallidayB. SaussureC. ChomskyD. FirthC2. In the following dialogue, the maxim of ____ is not observed.A. What time is itB. It’s terribly cold in here.A. qualityB. quantityC. relevanceD. mannerB3. ____ are linguistic units larger than sentences.A. MovesB. DiscoursesC. TopicsD. TendenciesA4. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementarity __A. single/marriedB. big/smallC. hot / coldD. old /youngA5. Usually ____ refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, but linguistics is used in other areas, as well.A. applied linguisticsB. theoretical linguisticsC. contextual linguisticsD. general linguisticsD6. Two words that are differentiated by one phoneme, such as “cat” and “rat”, are known as a ____.A. distinctive featureB. argumentC. codeD. minimal pairD7. ____ is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics.A. SaussureB. HallidayC. ChomskyD. LabovC8. ____ is the academic discipline concerned with the study of the processes by which people learn languages in addition to their native tongue.A. IPAB. IC AnalysisC. SLAD. TGC9. The ____ is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents.A. bound morphemeB. affixC. rootD. prefixA10. In terms of S earle’s classification system of illocutionary acts, the sentence “Ten bucks say that The Yankee will win the game.” used to bet belongs to ____.A. representativeB. commissiveC. directiveD. declarationB1. Three factors involved in describing vowels are ____.A. place of articulation / part of the tongue raised / voicingB. tongue height / part of the tongue raised / lip roundingC. articulators / extreme vowel positions / tongue positionD. teeth position / alveolar ridge position / voicingC2. In ____ the structure of words is studied.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. morphologyD. syntaxD3. Which one is not a source of error ____A the native language B. the target languageC. learner’s style of thinkingD. noneC4. “Love” and “hate” are ____.A. binary antonymsB. complementary pairsC. gradable antonymsD. relational oppositesA5. ___ refers to sentences not only describe or report information, but also help speakers accomplish things.A. Speech actB. DiscourseC. ContextD. CommunicationB6. The feature th at distinguishes “hotdog” and “hot dog” is ____.A. toneB. stressC. intonationD. aspirationA7. ____ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. NeurolinguistcsD. Anthropological linguisticsD8. The study of language at some point of time is generally termed as ____ linguistics.A. appliedB. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronicA9. Of the following linguists, ____ should be grouped into London school.A. FirthB. BloomfieldC. BoasD. TrubetzkoyC10. ____ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard languageD1. The basic essentials of the first language are acquired in the short period from about age two to puberty, which is called the ____ period for the first language acquisition.A. initialB. one-word stageC. pubertyD. criticalA2. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called ____.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. syntaxD. language changeD3. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the ____ principle proposed by J. Grice.A. comprehensiveB. generativeC. discourseD. cooperativeC4. ___ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.A. referenceB. lexical meaningC. senseD. wordB5. “Autumn” and “fall” are used respectively in Britain and America, but refer to the same thing. The words are ___ synonyms.A. collocationalB. dialectalC. completeD. stylisticD6. ____ is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence, namely, the underlying level of structural organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.A. surface structureB. syntactic ambiguityC. syntactic componentD. deep structureC7. London speech that was illustrated by Shakespeare’s writing was generally termed ____.A. Old EnglishB. Middle EnglishC. Early Modern EnglishD. Late ModernA8. If we begin interpretation of a sentence spontaneously and automatically on the basis of whatever information is available to us, that is called ____.A. top-down processingB. bottom-up processingC. inductive analysisD. comparative analysisB9. ____ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. Ethnic dialectD. Linguistic repertoireA10. Of the following words, ____ is an initialism.A. UNB. NATOC. BASICD. UNESCO。
跨文化传播学概念什么是跨文化传播作为人类传播活动的重要组成部分，跨文化传播与各种文化信息在时间和空间中的流动、共享和互动过程相关联，涉及到不同文化背景的人们之间发生的信息传播与人际交往，以及人类各个文化要素的扩散、渗透和迁移。
人类的生活始终离不开跨文化传播，它总是和人类生活的各个方面交织在一起，是人与人之间、跨文化传播的意义正如英国哲学家罗素（Bertrand Russell）指出的，“不同文明之间的交流是人类文明发展的里程碑。
希腊学习埃及，阿拉伯参照罗马帝国。
中世纪的欧洲模仿阿拉伯，而文艺复兴时期的欧洲又仿效拜占庭帝国”。
人类社会由原始社会、奴隶社会、封建社会走到今天，正是跨文化传播把不同地区、不同种族、不同国籍的人群“连结”在一起，促进了整个人类文化的发展和社会变迁。
在交通和通讯工具日新月异，世界经济一体化趋势日益明显的今天，跨文化传播对于我们来说不再是稀罕的事情。
而因特网的快速发展以及普及，人们足不出户，便可以进行跨文化传播了。
在因特网上，人们完全可以通过文字、声音、跨文化传播的历史国的《汉谟拉比法典》中，就有了针对在国外购买奴婢的规定。
公元前1750年，古埃及就有了埃及人与亚洲人交往的记载。
距今2000多年前，古希腊悲剧家埃斯库罗斯表达了人类对异族产生恶意倾向的评价：“人们总是急于责怪异族。
”中国历史上的周穆王西征、徐福东渡、张骞通西域、甘英出使大秦等等，亦是跨文化传播活动的具体表现，繁盛一时的丝绸之路，川流不息的遣隋使、遣唐使，更堪称人类历史中跨文化传播的典型范例。
距今600年前，郑和船队7次跨越南中国海和印度洋，远达阿拉伯半岛和非洲东海岸。
接下来的一个世纪里，西方探险家迪亚士、达·伽马、哥伦布等人的足迹从欧洲延伸到世界各地，开启了地理随着跨文化传播活动的不断增多，不少跨文化传播的实践者便开始关注这一现象。
很早以前，佛教、基督教的宗教领袖，古希腊哲学家亚里士多德、苏格拉底，古希腊剧作家索福克勒斯以及英国剧作家莎士比亚便注意到“说对方的语言，根据听众来调整传播技巧”的重要性。
心理学专业英语作文Title: The Intersection of Psychology and Language: Exploring the Multifaceted Relationship。
As a field of study, psychology delves into theintricate workings of the human mind, encompassing various aspects of cognition, behavior, and emotion. Onefascinating dimension within this discipline is the intersection of psychology with language. Language, being a fundamental tool for communication and expression, holds profound significance in understanding human psychology. In this essay, we will explore the multifaceted relationship between psychology and language, delving into its implications across different domains.Firstly, language plays a pivotal role in shaping cognitive processes. From infancy, language acquisition influences how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them. Psycholinguistic studies have elucidated the mechanisms underlying language comprehension, production,and acquisition, shedding light on the cognitive processes involved. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language not only reflects but also shapes thought, influencing our perceptions and cognitive schemas. For instance, linguistic relativity posits that the structure of a language can influence the way its speakers conceptualize reality. This notion underscores the profound influence of language on cognition, highlighting its significance in psychological research.Moreover, language serves as a medium for self-expression and interpersonal communication, influencing social and emotional development. Through verbal and nonverbal communication, individuals convey thoughts, emotions, and intentions, fostering social connections and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists explore how language use influences social interactions, identity formation, and emotional expression. Research in psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics examines linguistic variations across different social contexts, demographic groups, and cultural settings. Understanding these nuances provides valuable insights into how language shapes socialdynamics and interpersonal relationships, contributing to the broader understanding of human behavior and social cognition.Furthermore, language plays a crucial role in mental health and psychotherapy. Linguistic analysis can offer valuable insights into individuals' mental states,cognitive processes, and emotional experiences. In psychotherapy, language serves as a primary tool for communication and introspection, enabling individuals to articulate their thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Therapeutic techniques such as narrative therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy utilize language to explore and reframe clients' narratives, facilitating personal growth and emotional healing. Additionally, language use can reveal underlying psychological processes and symptoms in clinical populations, aiding in diagnostic assessment and treatment planning. By examining language patterns and discourse styles, psychologists can glean valuable information about individuals' psychological well-being and mental health status.Moreover, the study of language disorders provides unique insights into the neural and cognitive underpinnings of language processing. Conditions such as aphasia, dyslexia, and specific language impairment offer valuable windows into the organization and functioning of thebrain's language networks. Psychologists andneuroscientists employ diverse methodologies, including neuroimaging techniques and behavioral assessments, to investigate the neural correlates of language processing and language-related deficits. Understanding how language disorders manifest and are remediated informs theories of language processing and neuroplasticity, with implications for clinical intervention and rehabilitation.In conclusion, the relationship between psychology and language is multifaceted and dynamic, encompassing cognitive, social, emotional, and clinical dimensions. Language influences and reflects various aspects of human psychology, shaping cognition, communication, social interactions, and emotional expression. By exploring this intersection, psychologists gain deeper insights into the complexities of human behavior and the mechanismsunderlying psychological phenomena. Moreover, understanding the interplay between psychology and language holds practical implications for fields such as education, communication disorders, and psychotherapy, contributing to advancements in both theory and practice. As we continue to unravel the intricacies of this relationship, we gain a richer understanding of what it means to be human.。
Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03).6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, a nd are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.1. historical linguistics:A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose. (03)3. blending:A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.5. borrowing:When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.Chapter 8: Language And Society2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect :A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C)18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist ina speech community, each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms andself-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly awareof their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ co nscious goal-oriented andproblem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.。
语言学流派一、术语解释1.经验主义（empiricism）it is an approach to psychology which states that the development oftheory must be related to observable facts and experiments, or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism contrasts with the view that many forms human knowledge are in-born or innate.2.理性主义3.行为主义（Behaviorism）it is a theory of psychology which states that human and animalbehavior can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) causeda change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement. Itwas used by some psychologists like Skinner to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others.4.词素（Morpheme）it is a form that has no phonological commonness with other forms. Forexample, “poor John ran away” has 5 morphemes (4 words) “poor”“John”“run”“a ”“way”, which are the ultimate constituents. It is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme can’t be divided without altering or desovying its meaning. But it can have grammatical functions. For example, in English the-s in she talks is a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is the third person singular present-tense form.5.归纳和演绎（Deduction and induction）Deduction: an idea that you reach about the truth of sth by using information that you already know is true, or the process of reaching that idea.Induction: a way of reasoning in which you arrive at general ideas by considering particular examples.In composition, two ways of presenting an argument are sometimes contrasted: reasoning by deduction and by induction. Reasoning by deduction proceeds from a generation to particular facts which support it, where as reasoning by induction involves moving from particular facts to generations about them.6.语言相对论（linguistic relativity）It is that the categories and distinctions encoded in onelanguage system are unique to that system and incommensurable with these of others. And linguistic relativity was strongly put forward by the American linguists Sapir and Whorf that the way people view the world is determined partially by the structure of their native language as Whorf said that the linguistic system is part of the background knowledge of mankind.7.语言决定论（linguistic determinism）The point of Sapir-Whorf’s linguistic determinism is thatone’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one can only perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. That is to say, the way people view the world is determined wholly by the structure of their native language.Human beings are greatly influenced by the particular language servicing as medium ofexpression their society.8.话语分析（discourse analysis ）it is the study of how sentence is in spoken and writtenlanguage from larger meaningful units such as paragraphs conversations interviews etc. for example, discourse analysis deals with: how the choice of article pronounce and tenses affects the structure of the discourse; the relationship between utterance in discourse; the moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or assert a higher Role Relationship to the other participants. It is sometimes called Conversational analysis.9.符号学（siminology）it is the theory of science the analysis of system using signs or signals forthe propose of communication(semiotic systems). The most important semiotic system is human language, but there are other systems, e.g, sign language, traffic signals.10.描写语言学（descriptive linguistics）it describes how a language is actually spoken and /orwritten, and doesn’t state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written. Saussure’s separation of descriptive linguistics and historical linguistic into two defined spheres of interest, earned him the reputation of one of the founders of the structural linguists.11.心智主义（mentalism）it is the theory that a human being processes a mind which hasconsciousness, ideas etc., and that the mind can influence the behavior of the body.12.现实主义（positivism）it is a philosophic movement that began in the early 19th century,characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method of the only source of knowledge and designs to rebuild society on the bases of “positive knowledge” as a variation of empiricism, among the basis ideas of positivism are the idea that the world is orderly that all nature phenomenon of nature causes and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of nature can be discovered through experimentation. Although few people nowadays subscribe to all of these beliefs, some depel of positivism characterizes most “scientific” approaches to understanding all phenomenon, including language learning, logical positivism as a scientific type of positivism that rejects as meaningless all statements that cannot be empirically verified.二简答1.刺激与反应理论It is a learning theory associated with B. F. Skinner, which describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change or reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which produced as a reaction to stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the proporbility of that response occurring or not occurring again. Reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response is known as positive reinforcement otherwise is called negative reinforcement. If no reinforcement is associated with a response the response may eventually disappear. This is known as extinction. If a response is produced to similar stimuli with which it was not original associated this is known as “stimulus generalization”.Bloomfield used an example to explicate the S-R theory. Suppose a boy and his girlfriend are taking a walk. The girl is hungry and sees apples on the tree, she makes some sounds and the boy jumps over the fence, climbs up the tree, picks an apple and gives it to the girl, the girl eats it. And the story can be divided into 3 parts: 1. The practical event prior to the act of speech; 2. Speech; 3. The practical event after the act of speech. In 1, the sight of apples on the tree, and her relationship with the boy constitute the speaker’s stimulus. In 3, the boy’spractical acts are called the nearer’s reaction. The result of the girl’s act of speech is that she got an apple without having to get it from the tree herself.2.天赋假说（The innateness Hypothesis）it is a theory held by some philosophers and linguistswhich says that language is somewhat innate and that children are born with what they calls a language acquisition device(LAD),which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. That is to say, human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas” which are in the mind at birth (i.e., innate), rather than from the environment, and that there are responsible for the basic structure of language and how it is learned. This hypothesis has been used to explain how children are able to learn language. The innate hypothesis approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology.According to this view, Chomsky believes children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. 1st, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort. 2nd, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. 3rd, the child learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.All these suggest that the ability to speak and understand spoken language seems to be a natural human activity.3.福斯的系统与结构（J. R. Firth’s System and structure）Firth inherited the tradition by takingup some of Saussure’s and Malinovski’s views, he carried forward their theories and put forth his own original points of view. Firth regarded language as a social process, as a means of social life, rather than simply as a set of agreed –upon semiotics and signals.Following Saussure, Firth held that language consists of two elements; system and structure. While structure is the syntagmatic ordering of elements, system is a set of paradigmatic units, each of which can be substituted by others in certain places. Thus, structure is horizontal and system is longitudinal.On the grammatical level, some sentences are the same, for example:John helped Mary; John met Mary. All these sentences have the “S+V+O” structure, where “helped”, “met”are elements of a system of verbs. Thus Firth pointed out that the system prescribes the position where linguistic elements can occur, i.e. the rules for collection. The structure is not simply a matter of ordering, for these are relations of mutual expectancy between elements.4.共时与历时（Synchrony and Diachrony）The distinction between the synchronic study oflanguage and diachronic study of language is one of the important contribution of Saussure.Synchronic approach which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, while diachronic approach which studies how a language changes over a period of time.For example, we can cut a tree trunk in two ways: the longitudinal cut can stand for the process of evolution for language, while a horizontal cut can symbolize the state of language at a certain time.Synchronic linguistic deals with the language system proper (itself), and it is more important than diachronic linguistic, which can be studied outside the language system.Without synchronic studies, there can be no diachronic studies. The only method for synchronic linguistic is to collect quantities of data from speakers of a language, and to analyzed the linguistic phenomena in order to determine their reality.However, Saussure’s distinction of diachronic linguistic from synchronic linguistics is not largely accepted, because it is not easy to draw a sharp line between these two aspects of language studies. 1. Languages are in a constant state of changing, 2. The language of any speech community is never uniform; 3. When a language changes, it is not the case that one set of features are suddenly replaced by another set of features.5.功能主义语境观（functionalist context of situation）Malinovski believed that utterance andsituation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. The meaning of spoken utterance could always be determined by the context of situation. (The meanings are simply the human activities of specific time and place, and meanings come from the activities in which language is used). He distinguished 3 types of context of situation: 1. Situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, it means that the meaning of a word is not given by the physical properties of its referent, but by its functions. 2. Narrative situation he believed that narration can change the hearer’s social attitudes and emotions; 3. Situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum-phatic communion, which refers to cases of language used in free, aimless social intercourse.In Firth’s view, meaning doesn’t simply cover lexical and grammatical meanings, but is a large concept covering the meaning in the context of language use. Firth’s study focus on the context of situation as Malinovski did. He defined the context of situation as including the entire culture setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment, Recognizing that sentences are infinitely various, he used the notion of typical context of situation, it means that social situations determine that social rules participants are obliged to play. By context of situation, Firth met a theory of context of situation, each smaller one being embedded into a larger one, to the extent that, all the context of situation play essential parts in the whole of the context of culture.According to Halidy, “context of situation consists of 3 parts: “field”, “tenor”, and “mode””,i.e. field determines the selection of experiential meanings, the tenor determines theselection of interpersonal meanings, and the mode determines the selection of texual meanings. So,6.T-G grammarTransformational generative grammar is also known as TG grammar. It is a theory of grammar which was proposed by the American linguist Chomsky in 1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists. Chomsky attempted to provide a model for the description of all languages. A TG grammar tries to show, with a system of rules, the knowledge which a native speaker of a language uses informing grammatical sentences.Chomsky has changed his theory over the years. The most well know version was publishedin his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often refered to as the aspects model or standard theory. This model consists of 4 main parts:1.The base component, which produces or generates basic syntactic structures calleddeep structures;2.The transformational component, which changes or transforms these basic structuresinto sentences called surface structures;3.The phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so thatthey can be pronounced;4.The semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.。
