语言学论文Linguistic and Language Learning

语言学导论一What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the briefest definition, language is a means of verbal communication. Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.二Design Features of Language一）ArbitrarinessThe widely accepted meaning of this feature, which was first discussed by Saussure, refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called /buk/.二）DualityIt means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.三）CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. One of the reasons why language is actually a far more complicated entity is that we can use it to create new meanings.四）DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. For example, we can refer to Confucious or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for 2,500 years and the second is situated far away.练习：1、Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?A. Animals also have languages.B. Language is a system.C. Language is arbitraryD. Language is symbolic.正确答案:Animals also have languages.2、Productivity is one of the _____ features of languages.A. DesignB. DistinctiveC. PragmaticD. Superasegmental正确答案:designFunctions of Language一）InformativeIt is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.It is also ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.二）Interpersonal FunctionIt is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.三）PerformativeThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language presented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backbone of pragmatics.The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons as in marriage ceremonies, the blessing of children and the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.四）Emotive FunctionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, My, Damn it ......五）Phatic CommunionThe term originates from Malinowski's study of the function of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language.We all use small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day to maintain a comfortable relationship between people. 六）Recreational FunctionNo one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it such as baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.七）Metalingual FunctionOur language can be used to talk about itself. For example, we can use the word "book" to talk about a book.What is Linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science, which takes language as its object of investigation.Main Branches of Linguistics一）PhoneticsPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and the classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.二）PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound systems of a language by treating phonemes as the point of departure.三）MorphologyMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.四）SyntaxSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.五）SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.六）PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. In other words, it is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.练习：1、Which branch of study cannot be included in the scope of Lingustics？A. AnthropologyB. PhoneticsC. PragmaticsD. Syntax正确答案:Anthropology2、______ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreter.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Syntax正确答案:Pragmatics3、____ is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Synchronic linguistics正确答案:Pragmatics4、Once the notion of _____ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. ContentB. ContextC. FormD. Meaning正确答案:context5、_____ is the major concern of semantics.A. MeaningB. Phrase structure rulesC. Sentence structuresD. Words正确答案:MeaningMacrolinguistics一）PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. The psychological constraints on the form of grammar are studied. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of language and the relationship between language and cognition.二）SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their function and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.三）Anthropological LinguisticsAnthropological linguistics deals with the emergence of language and also with the divergence of languages over thousands of years.四）Computational LinguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.Important Distinctions in Linguistics一）Prescriptive & Descriptive（规定性研究与描述性研究）Do/Don't say X.People do/don't say X.The first are prescriptive commands and the second are descriptive statements. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. （规定性的语言学研究着重观察、总结语言中的“标准”，其目的通常是为了规定人们应该如何说话、写作，因而称为规定性研究；现代语言学诞生之前的大部分语法研究都属于此类。

语言能力和语言运用的区别摘要:：在语言学习过程中 ,人们常常谈起“语言能力”和“语言运用”。

“语言能力”和“语言运用”是语言学习的两项技能 ,它们互为依托 ,相互促进。

正确理解两者的含义以及区别 ,对我们的外语学习有着积极的意义。

语言能力与语言运用的区别语言是一种社会能力 ,是社会制度的综合 ,是人类用以互相交际的结构规则系统和因文化而异的社会行为规范系统。

语言是交际的工具。

一个人的语言能力与语言运用是在不断变化的。

人们掌握语言的根本目的是交际。

要想理解语言能力与语言运用这两个概念 ,我们必须提及语言学界乔姆斯基和海姆斯两人关于语言能力与语言运用的定义。

关键词：语言能力，语言运用The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performanceAbstract: In the language learning process, people often talk about the linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance." linguistic compe tence”and “linguistic performance" is language learning two skills, they rely on each other and promote each other. Correct understanding of both the meaning and difference between our foreign language learning has a positive meaning. A distinction between language, “linguistic competence” and “linguistic performance “is a social capacity, is a comprehensive social system is the structural rules for the mutual communication and culture of human social behavior specification system. The language is a tool of communication. A person's linguistic competence and linguistic performance is constantly changing. People grasp the fundamental purpose of language is communication. To understand these two concepts, linguistic competence and linguistic performance, we must refer to the definition of the field of linguistics, Chomsky and Hymes both “linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance”.Key Words: linguistic competence language performance一乔姆斯基的观点对于“语言能力”这个问题，国内外许多学者做过不同的研究和界定。

Linguistics英师123 胡聪12号Abstract: Linguistics studies not only particular language about English and Chinese, Arabic, Latin, but also it studies languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematics investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. Linguistics content of so many parts , and have an important influence to English study. Linguistics is the scientific study of language , language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Key words: Linguistics, language, contents, influence.1.Introduction.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions. And it probes into various problems related to language. Linguistics also can have some important distinctions: prescriptive vs descriptive, synchronic vs diachronic, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance, traditional grammar and modern linguistics. When we study linguistics ,we can explore the nature of human languages, and we can get close to the human nature. It is harmless to study linguistics.Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be .applied to many fields.2.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistic to research of other areas. Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. Theyhave to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time. This has given rise to a number relatively independent branches within the area of linguistics. Linguistics content of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.It studies how speech sounds are articulated, transmitted, and received. It is a pure science and examines speech sounds in general.Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized. And it can be seen functional phonetics of particular language.Morphology is the study of the formation of words. It is a branch of linguistics which breaks words into morphemesSyntax deals with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences. It is the grammar of sentence construction.Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meani ng in abstraction.Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. It deals with how spe akers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone,and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.In a broad sense pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when they communi cate with one another.Sociolinguistics is the studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology .It aims to answer such questions as how human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother tongue, how we memorize ,and how we process the information we receive in the course of communication.Applied linguistics is the study of such applications. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refer to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3.The change of linguisticsWith time goes by, the linguistics can change a lot. Phonological changes can contents of two major types: sequential change and segmental change.Morphological and syntactic can also have change. It can have the addition of affixes, loss of affixes, the change of word order and the change in negation rule.Lexical and semantic change can be seen in the addition of new words like coinage, clipped words, blending acronyms ,back-formation, functional shift and borrowing, then loss of words semantic changes. All the change can have influence of moving towards greater informality ,and American English, then science and technology. The cause of those change are “the theory of least effort”and “economy of memory”.4.ConclusionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. Language is not only express facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s attitude, beliefs, points of views and ways of life. In a word ,language express cultural reality. Linguistic can have close relationship with English study and society. It can bring the way to study a language. It is also related with lexicology. So it is important to learn linguistics well. We should pay more attention to the study of linguistics.。

1linguistics：is generally defined as the sentific study of language2Language： A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3phonetic：is a branch of linguistics which comprise the study of the sounds of human speech ,it is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds and their physiological production, auditory perception and neurophysiological states4pjonology：is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of language.5morpheme：is the smallest unit of language is regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning , a unit that can nnot be divided into further smallest units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.6syntax：is the study of rules governing the ways different constituent are combined to form sentences in a language ,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.7semantics：the study of meaning in language is called semantics8pragmantics：is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of a language 9morphology:the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology.10competence：Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’sknowledge of the rules of his language.11perfomance：is the actual relational of the knowledge of the rule in linguistics communication.12psycholinguistics：the study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics13sociolinguuistics：the study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.14interlanguage:refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language.municative competence :refers to the competence incorporating the knowledge of grammarand the pragmatic ability of language use.16componential analysis: is the approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its semantic features ,it shows the semantic features of a word.17compositionality: the idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually knows as the principle of compositionality.18argument:is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made.19free variation: if two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, the two sounds can be see as free variation.大题What makes language unique to human beings?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication, it is the design features that make in unique to human beings. Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the differences between human language and any system of animal communication, they are:①Arbitrariness: refer to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning .For example ,a dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of person had used it for a pig②Duality :the structural organization of language into two abstract levels :meaningful units and meaningless segments. For example , we have dictionaries of words ,but no dictionary of sentences③creativity :Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In another sense ,that is its potential to create endless sentences.④Displacement :Language can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. For example, we can ask a friend, “where did you go last night?” “Did you meet Tom yesterday afternoon”and so on.⑤Cultural transmission :It means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning ,rather than by instinct.。

Chapter I IntroductionIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.DIV. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are combined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same object in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by convention . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1) ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no necessary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages, and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically transmitted.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventionsand the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.Chapter 2：PhonologyIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; itis concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speakinga language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.Chapter 3：MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivationalaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by the mselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。

英语语言学毕业论文(精选多篇)第一篇：英语专业毕业论文：社会语言学the definition of sociolinguistics and its characteristic外语系06接本6班尹珊珊24号[abstract]sociolinguistics is a term including the aspects of linguistics applied toward the connections between language and society, and the way we use it in different social situations. it ranges from the study of the wide variety of dialects across a given region down to the analysis between the way men and women speak to one another. sociolinguistics often shows us the humorous realities of human speech and how a dialect of a given language can often describe the age, sex, and social class of the speaker; it codes the social function of a language.[key words] sociolinguisticssociolinguistics variationsocial function [content]sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used. it also studies how lects differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individual socio-economic classes. as the usage of a language varies from place to place, and language usage varies among social classes. it is socialists that sociolinguistics studies.the study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determine language in its contextual environment. code-switching is the term given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. sociolinguistic differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter’s focus is on the language’s effect on the society. while the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there are a few fundamental concepts on which most sociolinguistic inquiries depend. sociolinguistics is different from many of the other branches of linguistics in that it studies external as opposed to internal language. internal language applies to the study of language on the abstract level, or in the head, put simply. external language applies to language in social contexts, or outside the head. this distinction is important, because internal language analyses, such as syntax and semantics, operate1on the assumption that all native speakers of a language are quite homogeneous in how they process and perceive language. external language fields, such as sociolinguistics, attempt to explain why this is in fact not the case. these two approaches, while distinct, complement each other in practice.understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social networks in which language is embedded. this may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the inter-personal level ofneighborhoods or a single family.sociolinguistics as a field distinct from dialectology was pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. whereas dialectology studies the geographic distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class. class and occupation is one of the most important linguistic markers found in society.one of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related. as can be implied from the example below, the working class tends to speak less standard language. the lower, middle, and upper middle class will in turn speak closer to the standard. however, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak ‘less’ standard than the middle class. this is because not only class, but class aspirations, are important. men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. these differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. that is, to say that women make more minimal responses than men is akin to saying that men are taller than women. the initial identification of a women’s register was by robin lakoff in 1975, who argued that the style of language served to maintain women’s role in society. a later refinement of this argument was that gender differences in language reflected a power difference. however, both these perspective have the language style ofmen as normat ive, implying that women’s style is inferior. more recently, deborah tannen has compared gender differences in language as more similar to ‘cultural’ differences. comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style,aiming to communicate factual information, whereas women have a rapport style, more concerned with building and maintaining relationships. such differences are pervasive across mediums, including face-to-face conversation, written essays of primary school children, email, and even toilet graffiti. communication styles are always a product of context, and as such, gender differences tend to be most pronounced in single-gender groups. one explanation for this, is that people accommodate their language towards the style of the person they are interacting with. thus, in a mixed-gender group, gender differences tend to be less pronounced. a similarly important observation is that this accommodation is usually towards the language style, not the gender of the person. that is, a polite and empathic male will tend to be accommodated to on the basis of their being polite and empathic, rather than their being male. sociolinguistics has drawn more and more attention since it became an independent discipline in mid 1960s. but scholars from various disciplines look at sociolinguistics from different perspectives, and carry out sociolinguistic study in different ways. this paper tries to understand sociolinguistics in terms of its definitions and the scope of sociolinguisticstudy to point o ut the lack of comprehensiveness in fishman’’s view on the definition of sociolinguistics.参考文献：《社会语言学概论》戴庆厦主编商务印书馆《社会语言学概论》祝畹瑾编著湖南教育出版社.《语言学概论》杨信彰高等教育出版社第二篇：英语语言学论文题目英语语言学论文题目13论国际商务谈判中的语言交际技巧33成人世界的童话——从文体学角度解析现今童话再度流行的现象49论文化差异与英汉商标互译55浅谈英汉句子结构差异59诗意的美和喜剧性幽默62试论广告英语的语言特点65统觉团对英语初学者词汇学习的影响67外语学习中应该重视中介语的作用69新闻报道中的转述动词研究73英汉禁忌语、委婉语的对比研究74英汉数字习语的对比研究76英译汉中词序的变动78英语广告的语言特征80英语双关语汉译的可译性限度101词义演变的原因与方式137从汉语中英语借词的翻译看文化交流138从价值观转换看斯佳丽的角色特征142从礼貌准则看中英文化的异同146从习语看英汉民族的文化差异149从英语人名中看性别歧视157动词过程类型的选择和话语隐性态度的表达161对母语在英语写作中词汇负迁移现象的思考162对严复译作中“信”的质疑167法律英语用词特征分析168法律语言翻译与法律文体177副词ever的句法环境和语义特征180功能语法视角下的英语报纸新闻标题的功能183广告口号语的语言特点189国际商务文化之对比研究204汉语中双关语的翻译213基于概念隐喻的诗歌解读228论广告英语中的幽默265论广告英语的语言特点268论汉英谚语的语言特征280论清教理念与美国西进运动282论莎士比亚十四行诗中的时间300论英语广告中几种常用修辞格及其汉译310论尤金?奥尼尔的表现主义手法324名词化的语篇功能330诺曼时期法语对英语词汇的影响339浅谈英语虚拟语气的语用功能340浅谈英语虚拟语气及其语用功能345浅析二十世纪计算机英语词汇的构成特点346浅析汉英动物谚语中的文化348浅析英汉语言中的性别歧视现象及其根源349浅析英语禁忌语及其发展352浅析英语无标志被动句356浅议译者能力359认知语言学角度下“within” 的空间隐喻意义365商标英语汉译的原则和方法384体育新闻英语文体研究375社会语言学视野中的网络语言418新闻英语中的语法特点研究423颜色词在英汉互译中的不对应性425移就的审美价值和生成基础426以认知为基础的颜色隐喻研究428隐喻认知功能研究的新视角429隐喻与一词多义的关系438英汉被动句对比研究439英汉宾语类型差异的认知原因440英汉动词非谓语用法之比较研究442英汉否定问句的答句对比研究443英汉汉英双关语及其翻译研究444英汉合成词构词对比研究446英汉名词短语修饰模式比较447英汉拟声词异同探讨448英汉人称代词运用对比研究449英汉人名的比较研究450英汉时间的空间隐喻对比研究451英汉习语的文化共性和个性的研究453英汉颜色词的引申义的文化差别454英汉颜色词跨域对比分析?—以red和红为例458英汉隐喻性词汇对比研究462英汉语中红绿色文化比较468英语道歉方式研究469英语动物词汇的文化内涵与汉译470英语复合词的语义分析及其类型471英语惯用句型的意义及汉译480英语情态助动词的主客观区别485英语委婉语的使用原则与策略487英语语言性别歧视现象研究488英语语言中的性别歧视491英语中的性别歧视508源语中的“异”与译语中的“达”522中美拒绝言语行为研究523中美礼貌用语跨文化对比分析524中美企业文化比较的启示533中西人名文化对比534中西饮食文化差异536中学生英语学习策略研究543中英非语言交际的文化差异及对比544中英恭维语对比研究545中英广告中语言使用对比研究546中英两种语言中的颜色词及其象征意义547中英亲属词的文化内涵分析548中英请求言语行为策略选择之比较552宗教对中美节假日的影响553介词in的语义向度：认知视角554近代英美关系及其文化基础559跨文化交际中非语言交际及其文化基础561快餐食品对中西方传统饮食文化的影响力570语境对词义的制约作用第三篇：06级毕业论文语言学06级毕业论文语言学：1. 浅谈非语言交际中的身势语body language on nonverbal communication2. 浅论英汉语被动句的异同a brief study on the meaning of similarities and differences betweenenglish and chinese passive3. 英式英语与美式英语的对比分析the distinctive analysis between british english and american english4. 隐喻理论在词汇教学中的应用the application of conceptual metaphor theory in vocabulary teaching5. 二语习得中的个人因素personal factors in second language acquisition6. 对比研究下的英汉新闻语篇中的语法隐喻grammatical metaphor in english and chinese news contrastive approach 7. 英语诗歌语言的修辞美the rhetorical beauty in the language of english poetry8. 英语口语交际能力形成的培养the formation of communicative competence in oral english training9. 美国黑人英语特色研究the phonological features of american black english10. 法律新词在英语中的应用the new legal words used in english11. 从词汇方面分析英语中的性别歧视语analysis on the glossaries of gender discrimination from the lexicological aspect12. 英语中的否定句on the english negative sentences13. 非言语交际中的面部表情的特征the signs of facial expression in non-verbal communication14. 词义演变的原因和方式on the causes and ways of evolution on word meaning15. 言语行为理论对语言教学的影响the influence of speech act theory on language teaching16. 从交际功能看英汉委婉语a comparative analysis of english and chinese euphemisms from the perspective of communication function17. 论文摘要的语类结构分析the analysis of generic structure in english thesis abstract18. 语言环境对二语习得的影响influence of language environment on second language acquisition19. 公共演讲的文体特征stylistic features of public speech20. 关于英语幽默的文化特点的研究a study of cultural features in english humor21. 浅谈科技文中动词名词化现象及其翻译the analysis on nominalization in est and its translation22. 语境在话语理解中的作用on the role of context in utterance interpretation23. 运用词块法记忆英语单词的实效研究on the effectiveness of chunks in the memorization of english words 24. 试论动词-ing形式在中学教学中的应用the study of v-ing form and its application to teaching in middle school 25. 英语写作目的与写作风格之间的联系the relation between english writing purpose and its style26. 青年流行语及其社会文化心理探微research on vogue words and the related social cultural psychology of the young27. 关于肢体语言的研究study on body language28. 从美国总统奥巴马就职演说辞看其演说的文体风格stylistic analysis of the inauguration speech of american president barack obama29. 论广告英语中的句法特征on syntactic characteristics of english for advertising30. 母语习得与二语习得的对比the comparison between native language acquisition and the second language learning31. 浅析英语句子的歧义性an analysis on ambiguity in english sentences32. 语用失误及其策略研究33. 会话含义初探analysis of conversational implicatures34. 交际中性别差异的研究study of gender differences in verbal communication35. 浅析母语对二语习得的影响on the influence of mother tongue on the second language acquisition 36. 论语境在话语理解中的作用the function of context in language interpretation37. 浅谈模糊语的语用功能及其应analysis of pragmatic functions of vague language and its application 38. 英语歧义现象初探the analysis of ambiguity in english39. 论英语中的性别歧视现象on sexism in english40. 动物词的中英文化内涵对比different connotation of animal words between english and chinese culture41. 沉默在英语会话中的运用及影响因素the use of silence in conversation and its implication42. 英语新闻的批判性分析a critical analysis of english news reports43. 英语词汇中的外来语词汇的演变the developments of english loan words44. 英语新闻标题的特点分析the characteristics of english newspaper45. 关于英语习语文化内涵的探讨a study of english idioms from the perspective of culture46. 浅析英语中的歧义现象a brief discussion on ambiguity in english47. 语境对词义的影响the effect of context on the meaning of the words48. 交际中的说谎探究a study of lying in the communication49. 形态学探究及在翻译中的应用exploration on morphology and its using in translation50. 浅析英语双关语在广告中的语用功能analysis on the pragmatic function of english puns in advertisement51. 试论反语的幽默属性和语用功能on the humor features and pragmatic function of verbal irony52. 浅谈外交语言a study on diplomatic language53. 母语和第二语言阅读的认知体系差异differences in cognitive system between mother tongue reading and the second language reading54. 论法国文化对英语词汇的影响the french influence on english vocabulary55. 浅析英语中存在的性别歧视现象a brief analysis of the sexism in english56. 政治委婉语及其修辞应用political euphemism and its application of rhetoric 57. 原版电影与英语学习original film and english learning58. 浅析系统功能语言学对语言学习的影响59. 东北方言对英汉语音习得产生的影响60. 现代英语词汇衍变动因探究61. 浅谈英语语调62. 关于美国俚语功能的研究63. 提高外语学习中词汇习得能力的研究64. 现代仿拟创新研究65. 文化因素对语言交际的影响66. 认知视角下的英语隐喻分类研究67. 英语委婉语的交际功能68. 肯尼迪总统就职演讲的文体分析69. 浅谈英语歧义现象70. 对情景喜剧《老友记》的文体学分析71. 流行语对社会的影响72. 认知语境对话与的解释和制约73. 英语中的汉语借词74. 语篇中的衔接75. 从社会语言学的角度分析网络语言76. 英语中语言的性别差异小议gender differences in the use of english77. 语言的社会变体及其社会意义78. 英语模糊限制语的人际功能探究79. 英语习语的修辞分析80. 英语中外来语的形成及运用81. 浅析英语演变的整体性及其演变原因82. 解析礼貌原则及其文化特征83. 浅析言语行为理论84. 浅析英语中主要介词的功能85. 论广告英语的语言特点86. 论合作原则在翻译中的应用87. 基于合作原则的英语言语幽默分析第四篇：语言学毕业论文参考题目语言学毕业论文参考题目一、现代汉语1．略论“了1”与“了2”的语法功能差异2．“还”、“又”、“也”的功能比较3.汉语副词“一直”、“一向”比较研究4．“从来”、“历来”、“向来”比较研究5.程度副词“十分”、“非常”句法语用研究6．简析“差点儿”和“差点没”的关系7．说“一点儿”与“有点儿”8．“名+名”语法小类试析9．试论汉语概数表示法的多样性10．现代汉语语气副词的功能分析11．汉语词类研究述评12.“相当”语法化过程及个人在语言约定论中作用辨析13．谈谈状语的非常规位置及其作用14．语法知识在作文批改中的运用（体会）15．语文教学中的语言分析（提示：中学语文教学存在重文学轻语言的倾向，语言分析往往孤立进行，如何综合内容及篇章进行语言分析，分析要领及原则是什么？试以具体的课文分析为例，展开具体论述。

关于linguistics的英文作文The Intricacies of LinguisticsLinguistics, the scientific study of language, is a vast and fascinating field that delves into the core mechanisms of human communication. At its heart, linguistics explores the nature of languages, their origins, evolution, and the diverse ways they are used by people across the globe.The beauty of linguistics lies in its interdisciplinary nature, intersecting with fields like psychology, anthropology, sociology, and computer science. It studies not just the vocabulary and grammar of a language but also the social and cultural context in which it is used. This intersectionality makes linguistics a powerful tool for understanding human behavior, culture, and society.One of the most fascinating aspects of linguistics is the diversity of languages spoken around the world. From the intricate tonal systems of Chinese to the click consonants of Xhosa, each language is a unique repository of cultural knowledge and historical memory. The study of these languages not only reveals the rich tapestry of human culturesbut also sheds light on the cognitive abilities and limitations of the human brain.Moreover, linguistics is crucial in the modern era of globalization, where cross-cultural communication has become paramount. It helps us understand and overcome language barriers, promoting better understanding and cooperation among people of different cultures and backgrounds.In conclusion, linguistics is a crucial discipline that offers profound insights into the essence of human communication.。

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

Chapter 1 Linguistics and Language◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the scope of linguistics roughly✓To understand the definition, the design features and the functions of language in details✓To have some ideas about several important distinctions in linguistic study◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 2 periods.1.1 What is Linguistics?1.1.1 Definitions of Linguistics (p.1)◆Linguistics is the science of language.◆Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Linguistics is a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulatetheories as to how language works.◆In linguistics, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation. That is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without beingexplained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.◆The process of linguistic study: observing linguistic facts (displaying somesimilarities) & making generalizations → formulatinghypotheses based on the generalizations → testing thehypotheses repeatedly by further observations to fullyprove their validity → constructing a linguistic theory 1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics (p.2)1.1.2.1 Main branches of linguistics (phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic &pragmatic)Phonetics –the study of human speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received, thedescription and classification of speech sounds, words and connectedspeech, etc.Phonology -- he study of sound pattering, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllableMorphology – concerned with the internal organization of words.Syntax – the study of sentence structure, the arrangement of words.Semantics – the study of meaning.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context.1.1.2.2 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学(p.3)Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. Therefore, the study of language has established close links with other branches of sciences or social studies, resulting in some interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study.Sociolinguistics – the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristicsof their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers.Psycholinguistics – the study about how humans learn language and the relationship oflinguistic behavior and the psychological processes in producing andunderstanding language.Applied linguistics – 1) the study of the application of linguistic theories and methods toother fields2) the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to thestudy of language learning and teaching.Neurolinguistics – the study of the function of the brain in language development and usein human beings, examining the brain’s control over the processes ofspeech and understanding.Anthropological linguistics – the study of variation and use in relation to the culturalpatterns and beliefs of human race; the study of therelationship between language and culture in a community,e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure.Computational linguistics – the study of language using the techniques and concepts ofcomputer science, the basic goal of which is to “teach”computers to generate and comprehendgrammatically-acceptable sentences., including:Machine translation – (MT) the use of computer software to translate texts fromone natural language to another. At its basic level, MTperforms simple substitution of words in one naturallanguage for words in another.(Computer-aided) corpus linguistics – dealing with the principles and practice ofusing corpora in language study. Usually, a computercorpus is a large body of machine-readable texts.1.1.3 Some Distinctions in LinguisticsThese distinctions can help to understand the difference between modern linguistics and the linguistics before the 20th century and to gain a general understanding of the nature of linguistic inquiry and the aims and approaches in linguistics.The beginning of modern linguistics is marked by the publication of F.de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”in the early 20th century. Before that language had been studied for centuries in Europe by such scholars as philosophers and grammarians. The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar”.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive （p.3）---- purposes of prescriptive and descriptive linguistic studyPrescriptive: aim to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say; prefer absolute standard of correctness; rely heavily on rules ofgrammarDescriptive: aim to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not---- transfer of attention:Earlier study: prescriptive, based on “high”(religious. Literary) written language,setting models for language users to followModern linguistics: mostly descriptive, more scientific and objective ---- difference (divergence) of opinion1.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic (p.4)---- concept of synchronic and diachronicSynchronic study: the description of a particular state of a language at a single point oftimeDiachronic study: the description of the historical development of a language over aperiod of time---- transfer of attention:In the 19th century: primarily of the diachronic descriptionIn the 20th century: the priority of the synchronic description over the diachronic onebecause without the successful study on the various states of alanguage in different historical periods, it would be difficult todescribe the changes that have taken place in its historicaldevelopment1.1.3.3 Speech vs. Writing (p.4)---- transfer of emphasis:Traditional grammarians: overstress the importance of the written wordModern linguists: regard the spoken language as primary and maintain that writing isessentially a means of representing speech in another medium ---- blurred distinction between speech and writing with modern technology Public speeches written in advance and read out orally;Chatting on internet while typing on the computer screen;Reading in the form of moving text, line following line up the screen1.1.3.4 Langue vs. Parole (p.4)---- proposed by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century---- concept of langue and paroleLangue Parole1) the abstract linguistic system shared by the realization of langue in actual useall the members of a speech community2) the set of conventions and rules which the concrete use of the conventions andlanguage users all have to abide by the application of the rules3) abstract, not the language people actually concrete, the naturally occurringuse language events4) relatively stable, do not change frequently vary from person to person, and fromsituation to situation---- transfer of attention in the linguistic study :langue parole in the latter part of the 20th century (recognizing varieties within languages, social and regional dialects, registers, styles, and so on) ---- objection to the distinction:Skinner from a strictly behavioristic point of view1.1.3.5 Competence vs. Performance (p.5)---- proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky in the late 1950’s and similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole---- concept of competence and performanceCompetence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationAccording to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language,which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfectknowledge of his own langue, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g.,slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment.---- similar ideas possessed by Chomsky and SaussureBoth think that what linguists should study is the knowledge of language, langue orcompetence, the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by thespeaker-hearer. Although a speaker-hearer possesses the rules and applies them inactual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.---- difference between Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’sSaussure: taking a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is socially shared, common knowledge, a matter of social conventions.Chomsky: examining language from a psychological point of view and competence isa psychological phenomenon, a genetic endowment in each individual, aproperty of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar vs. Modern linguistics (p.5)◆modern linguistics ---descriptive;spoken language as primary ;not Latin-based framework◆traditional grammar ---prescriptive;written language as primary;Latin-based framework1.2 What is Language?1.2.1 Definitions of Languagep.7Some additional ones:Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of humancommunication we possess.语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系，是人类最重要的工具，是人类思维的工具，也是社会上传递信息的工具。

语言能力和语言运用的区别摘要:：在语言学习过程中 ,人们常常谈起“语言能力”和“语言运用”。

“语言能力”和“语言运用”是语言学习的两项技能 ,它们互为依托 ,相互促进。

正确理解两者的含义以及区别 ,对我们的外语学习有着积极的意义。

语言能力与语言运用的区别语言是一种社会能力 ,是社会制度的综合 ,是人类用以互相交际的结构规则系统和因文化而异的社会行为规范系统。

语言是交际的工具。

一个人的语言能力与语言运用是在不断变化的。

人们掌握语言的根本目的是交际。

要想理解语言能力与语言运用这两个概念 ,我们必须提及语言学界乔姆斯基和海姆斯两人关于语言能力与语言运用的定义。

关键词：语言能力，语言运用The difference between linguistic competence and linguistic performanceAbstract: In the language learning process, people often talk about the linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance." linguistic compe tence”and “linguistic performance" is language learning two skills, they rely on each other and promote each other. Correct understanding of both the meaning and difference between our foreign language learning has a positive meaning. A distinction between language, “linguistic competence” and “linguistic performance “is a social capacity, is a comprehensive social system is the structural rules for the mutual communication and culture of human social behavior specification system. The language is a tool of communication. A person's linguistic competence and linguistic performance is constantly changing. People grasp the fundamental purpose of language is communication. To understand these two concepts, linguistic competence and linguistic performance, we must refer to the definition of the field of linguistics, Chomsky and Hymes both “linguistic competence”and “linguistic performance”.Key Words: linguistic competence language performance一乔姆斯基的观点对于“语言能力”这个问题，国内外许多学者做过不同的研究和界定。

Language and LinguisticsLanguage is something that we use almost every day,but we will feel at a loss when asked to define what language is. A most common definition of language might be:Language is a means of human communication. But it does not necessarily follow that it is an adequate definition. For example,it points out only the instrumental aspect of language and does not actually tell us what language is. Suppose someone has never seen a train and asks you what a train is. Do you think he will be satisfied with a simple answer like “a train is a means of transportation”?Modern linguists have proposed various definitions of language. These definitions of language can be continued,but we can detect from these definitions the common aspects of language that linguists generally agree upon : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system,which means that language must consist of finite rules observed by the language users to guarantee the success of communication.Language is vocal symbols,which suggests that spoken forms are more cardinal to a language than written forms. And the primary medium for all languages is sound.Language is arbitrary in the sense that the relation between speech sounds (form) and the ideas the sounds convey (meaning) is arbitrary.Communication is an important aspect of the function of language though language can also be said to perform other functions.The linguist C. F. Hockett(1958)proposed a set of key properties of human language,which are said to be the design features that distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. Hockett identified 13 features,but most linguists would recognize the following features as most important,that is,arbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement and cultural transmission.And what is linguistics?Language and linguistics is different. But at the same time,the two are closely related.Linguistics is often defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics probes into various problems related to language. It tries to answer the basic questions“what is language?”,“what rules there are that govern the structure of language?”,and many others.Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets,so they have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time. This has given rise to a number of relatively independent branches within the area of linguistics. There are phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,and pragmatics. The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.。

英语语言学论文题目参考1. The Influence of English as a Global Language on Language Identity2. The Evolution of English Phonetics and Phonology: A Comparative Analysis of Varieties3. The Role of Socio-Pragmatics in English Language Teaching and Learning4. The Impact of English Language Proficiency on Academic Achievement5. A Cognitive Perspective on English Language Acquisition: A Study of Metacognitive Strategies6. Sociolinguistic Variation in World Englishes: An Analysis of Linguistic Features7. The Role of Technology in English Language Learning: A Case Study of Online Language Platforms8. The Sociolinguistic Significance of English Borrowings in Non-English Speaking Communities9. The Effect of Code-Switching in English Language Communication: A Comparative Study of Bilingual Speakers10. The Role of Gender in English Language Use and Perception: A Sociolinguistic Analysis11. The Impact of English Language Media on Cultural Identity: An Ethnographic Study12. English Language Teaching Methods for Young Learners: An Evaluation of Communicative Approaches13. Language Attitudes Towards English in Multilingual Societies: A Comparative Study14. Contrastive Rhetoric in English Language Writing: A Cross-Linguistic Analysis15. A Corpus-Based Study of Verb Phrase Ellipsis in English Language Discourse16. The Influence of English Language Standardization on Dialect Variation and Maintenance17. The Role of Motivation in Second Language Acquisition: A Study of English Language Learners' Perspectives18. The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Language Learning in English Language Education19. The Pragmatics of English Language Politeness: A Comparative Cross-Cultural Study20. The Sociopolitical Impact of English Language Expansion in Developing Countries以上是一些英语语言学论文的题目参考，涵盖了语言身份、语音学和音系学、教学与学习、语言变体与方言、社会语用、技术与语言学习、社会与文化影响等多个领域。

本科⾃考英语语⾔学概论精⼼整理ChapterOnelanguage English Linguistics:An Introduction 英语语⾔学概论(王永强⽀永碧)Chapter One language1 What is language2 What are the features of language3 What are the functions of languageThe definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语⾔是⽤于⼈类交际的任意性的发⾳的符号系统。

First ，language is a system: sound ,words, rules, meaningsElements of language are combined according to rules. Every language contains a set of rules. By system ，we mean the recurring patterns or arrangement or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. The sounds and the words which form sentences are used in fixed patterns that speakers of a language can understand each other. It is because every language has its system that it conveys the same meaning to its speakers. 语⾔的元素组合根据规则。

语言学英文文献Studying English literature and language has been a passion of mine since my youth. 从我年幼时起，研究英国文学和语言一直是我的热情所在。

From Shakespeare to contemporary authors, the beauty and intricacy of the English language never fail to captivate me. 从莎士比亚到当代作家，英语语言的美丽和复杂性总是能够迷住我。

Through the study of linguistics, I have gained a deeper understanding of how language shapes our thoughts and perceptions. 通过语言学的研究，我对语言如何塑造我们的思维和认知有了更深入的了解。

Understanding the nuances of syntax, semantics, and phonetics has given me a new appreciation for the complexity of communication. 理解句法、语义和语音学的微妙之处，让我对交流的复杂性有了新的认识。

One aspect of English language studies that fascinates me is sociolinguistics. 英语语言学研究中一个让我着迷的方面是社会语言学。

Exploring how language is used in different social contexts provides valuable insights into cultural norms and interactions. 探讨语言在不同社会背景下的使用方式，为了解文化规范和互动提供了宝贵的见解。

language andlinguisticsdefinition of language初定义：language is a means of humancommunicationmerit brevity and popularity in language usersdisadvantagenot adequate ;only instrumental aspect;"human communication" needs moreexplanation ; periods or groups variesdefinitiona system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication and interactiondesign features of language（C.F.HOCKETT）purposedistinguish human language from otherspecies' systems of communication (inSaussure' s theory it's between soundimage and concept)contentarbitrariness : there's no intrinsic relationbetween sound and meaning例如：there is no reason that we attach themeaning of "animal with a grunt and acurly tail " to the sound of "pig"例如从另一角度：cross-linguistic evidenceshows that different sounds are used tosignify the same object in differentlanguagesduality/double articulation : having 2 levelsof structures or patterningat primary, higher level, language is analyzed in terms ofcombinations of meaningful units, such as morphemes andwords; secondary lower level, language is composed of asequence of segments, such as phonological units which donot have any intrinsic meaning but combine to form units ofmeaninge.g. in sentence "He goes to school"at the first higher level,the sentence consists of meaningfulunits:"he,go,-es (a morpheme indicating third person singular number),to,school" At the lowerlevel,these meaningful units are made of phonological units:"/h/,/i:/,/g/etc"或者说： from phonological segments to meaningful unitsDuality is a design feature that enables language to beproductive,because language users can use or produce alarge number of forms by combining a relatively smallnumber of lower level elements in a variety of differentways.productivity/creativity : capacity oflanguage users to produce andunderstand infinite sentencesdistinctive feature of human languagedisplacement : human can talk aboutobjects/events which do not belong to theimmediate setting in space and timecultural transmission: transmission oflanguage between generations is acultural fact rather than a genetic onethe origin of languagedivine-origin theory language is God's gift to mankind. according to the《Genesis》, Godcreated Adam and gave him power to name things.invention theorylanguage is human invention (Danishjepersen)the bow-wow theory: by imitations ofnatural sounds (e.g. onomatopoeic words)the Pooh-Pooh theory: language arosefrom instinctive cries of emotion( pain,anger,pleasure )( e.g. interjections 感叹词 inlanguage)the ding-dong theory : from people'sresponses to things around them bysoundssound symbolismthe phenomenon that vocal soundssuggest meaninge.g. the "-gl words " for shiny things ,suchas "glare, glass, glisten, gleam"the oral-gesture theory: language is an oralmirror of physical gestures through themovement of the tongue,lips and othervocal organs.e.g. One possible example is the oralgesture (movement of the tongue) ina“goodbye"message as a vocal mimicry ofthe physical gesture (waving of the hand orarm).the yo-he-ho theory: Language developedout of the rhythmical grunts of humansworking together.the prosodic features（韵律特征）,especially of rhythm in languagethe la-la theory: Language derived fromsounds associated with the romanticaspect of life,such as song,love,art andpoetry.evolution theory language developed in the course of the evolution of the human species.a few distinctionsmodern linguistics VS traditional grammarlinguistics is descriptive rather thanprescriptive（规定性的）.linguists try tomake statements which are testable,andtake language as it is rather than say howit should be.empirical（经验主义的） approach inlinguistics: data collection (usually in the formof a corpus),tentative ruleconstruction,tentative rule examination andrule finalizationno standard correctnesslinguistics regards spoken rather thanwritten language as primary.traditional grammar tends to emphasize theimportance of classical writer's writings whilemodern linguistics gives priority to spokenlanguagelinguistics differs from traditional grammar in that itdoes not force languages into a Latin-based framework.general linguistics VS descriptivelinguisticsGeneral linguistics deals with language,aiming at developing a theory thatdescribes the rules of human language ingeneral.Descriptive linguistics, is the study ofparticular languages,attempting toconstruct models that describe the rules ofindividual languagesalso have links: general linguistics provideframework for descriptive linguistics inwhich a particular language can bestudieddiachronic linguistics VS synchroniclinguisticsdiachronic linguistics is a study of language changethrough timesynchronic linguistics studies language existing ina “state" at one particular point in timetheoretical linguistics VS appliedlinguisticstheoretical linguistics studies language and languages with aview to construct a theory of their structure and functionswithout regard to any practical applicationsapplied linguistics concerns the application of the conceptsand findings of linguistics to a variety of practical tasks,including language-teaching.theoretical linguistics VS generallinguisticsgoal of theoretical linguistics is theformulation of a satisfactory theory of thestructure of language in generalGeneral linguistics attempts to establish aworkable theory of language at all levelsmacrolinguisticsLinguists have drawn on recent discoveriesor developments from other areas of studyand come up with enlightening views onlanguage.why linguistics is a science ?its goal of scientific enquiry is objectiveunderstanding. the primary goal is tounderstand the nature of languagelinguistics is scientific in methodologydefinition of linguisticsScience of language or scientific study oflanguage。

The importance of studying linguisticsLanguage is indispensable to human beings, and it is also an important feature of what makes people human.If we pause for a moment to consider some of the following statements about language, you may feel the need to rethink the nature of language and its role in our nguage is central to our lives, both as individuals and as social beings, and if we do not fully understand the structure and nature of language, we will remain ignorant of what makes us fundamentally human.The study of language should not be limited to linguists, for language is a vital resource shared by all nguage is a unique way of communication for human beings. It reflects the highly evolved mental ability of human beings on the biological or psychological level, and the progress of human civilization on the social and cultural level. Linguistics is the study of the core instinct of human language ability, through the analysis and research of spoken, written and even sign language, so as to understand the nature of human.In addition to understanding the nature of human language, linguistic research has many applications. In the aspect of language education, various dictionaries, grammar books and textbooks can be compiled for people to learn languages based on their understanding of the language itself, which also helps to improve their ability to cope with difficulties and mistakes encountered in the process of language learning. In the translation of different languages, linguistic theory has more specific guidance for translation and interpretation, and also helps to use technology to carry out machine translation.Linguistics is the study of human language, which aims to describe, explain and understand the structure, function and development of human language. The functions and meanings of linguistics are as follows:Explain the structure and function of language: Through the analysis of language, linguistics can understand the components of language, such as phonemes, words, sentences, etc., and reveal the relationships and rules among them. In addition, linguistics can also explain the functions of language, such as communicatinginformation and conveying feelings.Help people better understand and use language: The study of linguistics can help people better understand the structure and rules of language, improve people's language ability, so that they can use language more accurately and fluently.Provide a foundation for the study of other disciplines: The study of linguistics can provide a foundation for the study of other disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, education, computer science, etc.Enriching human culture: Language is an important part of human culture, and the study of linguistics helps people better understand and inherit human culture.Promoting human communication and understanding: Language is a tool for human communication, and the study of linguistics helps to improve communication and mutual understanding between human beings. Through the study of different languages, people can understand the way people think, express and communicate in different cultural backgrounds, so as to reduce misunderstanding and conflict.To sum up, linguistics is an important discipline whose functions and meanings cover describing, explaining and understanding the structure and function of language, helping people to better understand and use language, providing the basis for the research of other disciplines, enriching human culture, and promoting human communication and understanding.。