英语语言学2 Morphology形态学word讲义.

Lecture 5
授课题目 : morphology.
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教学目标及基本要求：Teaching target and object
(1) Let students know what morphology is, and how the morphemes are combined into larger units for human communication.
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Unbearable Watchful Soft-hearted
uneducated inspiring horsemanship
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See the exercises 1 and 2 on page 82
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1) un- + bear + -able 2) watch + -ful 3) person+ -ify (i) + -cation 4) un- + exception + -al + -ly 5) un- +educate +-(e)d 6) inspir(e) + -ing 7) soft + heart + -ed 8) horse + man + -ship
A word is “a minimum free form”, that is , the smallest form that can occur by itself.
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The four characteristics of a word
A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment.e.g. “we” [wi:]

closed
3.1 What is morphology?
simple
adj. just adj. quality n. identity n. beauty n.
—— —— —— —— ——
simplify v. justify v. qualify v. identify v. beautify v.
为自由词素是因为它们可以作为单词 独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自 由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单 词来使用。
能单独出现独立成词的是自由词素。
所有的单词素词都是自由词素，如 dog, nation, close等。
除了可以作为独立的单词使用以外，
它们也可以和其它词素相结合构成单 词。
组成部分都是自由语素的多词素词叫
复合词，如 babysit, godfather, sunflower, blackbird等。
helper — help-er timetable — time-table quicken — quick-en roommate --- room-mate disabled — dis-able-ed assistant — assist-ant carelessly — care-less-ly frightening — fright-en-ing
open class and Байду номын сангаасlosed class
Open

class words: 开放类词 new words can be regularly added indefinite in number content words nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs

Yes:
Free morpheme 自由词素
dog, kick, berry
Root & Affix 词根&词缀
In a complex word (two or more morphemes): teacher
teach
-er
root
affix
Root (stem, base): the basic or core morpheme. 词干 词基
- no new word added - not change syntactic class - to indicate the grammatical function
E.g.: Only 8 kinds in English: N.: -’s, -s (plural nouns), V.: -ing, -ed/-en, -s (S-V agreement) Adj./Adv.: -est, -er.
Morpheme: ‘minimal unit of sound and meaning’
A further division: whether they can occur on their own or not:
No:
Bound morpheme 黏着词素
-s in dog-s; -ed in kick-ed; cran- in cran-berry
Classification of Morphemes
free Morphemes
bound
lexical
(open classes)
functional
(closed classes)
derivational inflectional

语言学Morphology形态学
3) A grammatical unit:
sentence clause phrase word morpheme
语言学Morphology形态学
1.2 Identification of words
1) Stability: the constituent parts of a complex word cannot be rearranged
语言学Morphology形态学
3) A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, e.g.
• --Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly.
sentence together (function words).
语言学Morphology形态学
3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New
chairman﹡manchair
The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. 2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. disappointment dis + appoint + ment Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.

Chapter 3 Morphology形态学Nothing is more important to language than words.Words can carry meaning.Words are the fundamental building blocks of a language.So, is word the most basic or the minimal unit of meaning?If not, then what is?How words are formed?---morphology3.1 what is morphology?Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.3.2 Open class and closed class (开放词类和封闭词类)Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.New words can be added to open class words regularly with the development of human civilization.However, the number of closed class words is small and stable since few new words are added.3.3Morphemes--the minimal units of meaning（词素，最小的意义单位）Word is the smallest free from found in language.Word can be further divided into smaller meaningful units---morphemes.So, morpheme is---the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire2-morpheme boyish, desirable3-morpheme boyishness, desirability4-morpheme gentlemanliness,undesir(e)abl(e)ity5-morpheme ungentlemanliness6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismFree morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as ―-s‖ in ―dogs‖, ―al‖ in ―national‖, ―dis-‖ in ―disclose‖, ―ed‖ in ―recorded‖, AllomorphSome morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as ―dog, bark, cat‖,etc.In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme.the plural morpheme may be represented by:map----maps [s]dog----dogs [z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen [n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.3.4 Analyzing word structuresIdentify each of the major component morphemes.Classify these morphemes in terms of their contribution to the meaning and function of the larger word.Generally speaking, a complex word often consists of a root and one or more affixes.Root: constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.Roots typically belong to lexical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions. Affix: is always a bound morpheme, and does not belong to a lexical category.Tree diagram (teach-er)NV Afteach er3.5 Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme 派生词素和屈折词素Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.when derivational morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes, a new word is derived or formed--- may change grammatical classeg. light –lighten; nasal –nasalize;eat—edible; grave--engrave--- may not change grammatical classeg. net---internet; happy—unhappy;national—multinational; terror-terroristMany prefixes and suffixes belong to derivational morphemeseg. tele-phone; music-ianConsider: is there any prefix or suffix which doesn’t fall into derivational morphemes? Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, person, mood, voice, case, number, aspect and degree;e.g.:1) number: tables apples cars2) tense: talk/talks/talking/talked3) case: John/John’s4) degree: large/larger/largestInflectional morphemes never change lexical category, never add any lexical meaning,Morphemefree morpheme bound morphemefree root affix bound root (-ceive)derivational morpheme inflectional morphemeprefix suffixproductive morphological rulesSome of the rules can be used quite freely to form new wordseg. un + derived words (adj.) = not ---adj. [un-Rule]unimaginable unthinkable; unmentionedunbrave (×)(un-rule more productive for adj. derived from verbs than for adj. of just one morpheme like sad---unsad??)eg. sincere---sincerity; scarce—scarcity [ity –Rule]fierce---fiercity (×)(ity-Rule becomes less productive than before)Word-formationDerivation派生: the most common word-formation process, by affixationeg. Derivational + free morphemesgirlish; reliableCompounding复合(stringing words together; juxtaposition of two or more than two words to form a new, composite one with distinct properties of its own)Adj. N. V. Prep. Adj. Bittersweet clearway whitewash blackoutN. Headstrong rainbow spoon-feed head-onV. Carryall pickpocket sleepwalk cutupPrep. Inborn off-licence undertake withoutSome points about compounds1) two words in the same grammatical category, compound in this category;eg. landlord; bedroom; icy-cold;2) two words in different categories, compound in the class of second or final word;eg. pickpocket; headstrong; blackboard; swearwordcompound with preposition, nonpreposition part decideseg. undertake; uplift; overtake; oversee; overdoseexceptions: blackout ( n.) ; head-on (adv.);3) compounds have different stress patterns from non-compounded word sequence;e.g. 'blackbird & black 'bird;'washing machine'greenhouse & green 'house;red 'coat &'redcoat4) meaning of a compound not necessarily the sum of the meaning of its partsmeaning of each compound includes at least to some extent the meaning of individual partseg. reading room; a falling star; a looking glass (窥镜)meanings of compounds do not relate to the meanings of the individual parts at alleg. bigwig(要人,大亨); greenhorns (生手,不懂世故的人)highbrow(知识分子,自命不凡的人)/lowbrow(教养浅薄的人);turncoat变节者Conversion 转类构词(a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it)Eg. a walk---to walk; a play---to playincrease (n.)--- increase (v.)conduct (n.) --- conduct (v.)I have no knowledge of the political dos and don’tsBackformation 反向构词(a reverse process of affixation. The word is not formed by adding a morpheme to a stem but by assuming a part of the stem as a suffix and removing it)Eg. editor --- edit; beggar --- begtelevision – televise; enthusiasm--- enthuseBorrowing外来语构词(adopting foreign words)--- loan-words借词(retaining their original phonetic or even written forms)eg. bungalow (Hindi); spaghetti (Italian);veranda (Portuguese 阳台)bok choy (Chinese baice); alcohol (Arabic)--- loan-translation or calques(直译,译借) 仿造词( a direct translation of the foreign word into English)eg. superman ---Ubermensch (German)Kongfu (Chinese)Clipping缩略构词( a reduction process in which a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often used in informal speech)Eg. ad--- advertisement; lab---laboratoryfan---fanatic; flu---influenza;math---mathematicsBlending混合构词(join the beginning of the first word to the end of the other words)Eg. smog (smoke + fog)brunch (breakfast + lunch)motel (motor + hotel)telecast (television + broadcast)Acronym首字构词(string together the initial letters of the words in a phrase, typically the names of technical apparatus and institutions, sometimes, the phrasal origin is lost )Eg. radar (radio detecting and ranging)AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation)UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)Coinage 创新构词(invention of totally new terms, least common, often brand names)eg. xerox; nylon; kleenex(面巾纸)ConclusionsMorphological rules provide means for forming new words, or coin new words (eg. hair spray, tea ceremony, space walk, etc.)Morphological rules may be productive or less productive (un-Rule) ;may become less productive with the passage of time (ity-Rule)。

• “desire” in “desired” is a ___?
• “enrich” in “enriches” is a ___?
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Basic ways/rules of forming words in English
1. Free morpheme forming a word 自由语素成词
Q3.语素的定义
• 语素是语言最小的意义单位。句子是由单词构成的， 词可以被分成更小的成分。我们把这些处于单词最 低一层的、有意义的成分称为”语素”。
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Q3: What is morpheme?
• Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit • How many morphemes does each of the following
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Q1. What is morphology?
1.什么是形态学？研究范围？
• 形态学是涉及语素系统的研究，它研究词的内部结构和构 造规则
• Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
• Open class words: content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
• E.g.
• hacker, email, internet, surf, spam, blogsphere, songlifting

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules。

形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches：inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学).前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素2.1Morpheme： the smallest meaningful unit of language词素:语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology。

正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样,词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词2.2Types of morphemes 词素的类型2.2.1Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes。

Derivational
more productive—form new wor ds
Changes meaning or part of speec h of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep Indicates syntactic relations betw —asleep) een different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning) Indicates semantic relations with Occurs with all members of som e large class of morphemes Occurs at margins of words , in most cases suffixes. (radio—radi os) in the word. (specific lexical meaning，e.g., u n-) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes Occurs before any inflectional su ffixes added, prefixes/suffixes
Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes
which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John’s

has, had, etc.
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C. Pro-form(替代形式): refers to the closed sets of items which can be used to substitute for a nominal group (名词 词组)or a single noun.
*their all trouble
all their trouble
*five the all boys all the five boys
*all this boy
all these boys
*all both girls
But ordinal numerals and general ordinals may occur before cardinal numerals.
Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine. Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too. Pro-locative(代处所词): Jame’s hiding there, behind the door.
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3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words: Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited.
New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions: regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, be means of ; Auxiliary verbs

Chapter Two Phonology
1. The phonic medium of language
Speech and writing
Speech is more basic than writing. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is always invented to record
Consonants
In the production of a consonant, the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.
The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Articulatory phonetics (The production of speech sounds)
Auditory phonetics (The perception of speech sounds) Acoustic phonetics (The physical properties of speech

These sounds are limited in number.
This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistics studies are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.
The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2019)
2.4 Classification of English speech sounds
Vowels
In the production of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs meet with no obstruction
they may narrow the space considerably; or
they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.
• Stop (or Plosive)
– Oral & Nasal
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.

• desk, book, chair, look, long, happy, them, he 实词 所谓实词就是能够传递一定的信息内容， 在句中充当一定的成分，具有一定的功能， 比如名词做主语，宾语；动词做谓语；形 容词做表语；副词做状语。
功能语素 functional morphemes
• and/but/if/when, in, a, do/have 虚词/功能词 所谓功能词就是具有语法功能，将信息词连 接起来，形成符合语法的句子。
语素完整定义:
• 语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步划分 为更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变其词汇意 义或语法意义。
Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
自由语素 vs黏着语素
• 像tour, chair这种能够独立构词的语素，我 们称之为自由语素。 Those which may make up words by themselves are free morphemes. Free morphemes can stand by themselves as words.
代词：实词？虚词？ 代词是封闭类词，代词的数目有限

tour, chair, book, desk, close, happy这些能够 独立构词且不能进一步划分的自由语素称为 单语素词。 Such words are called mono-morphemic words. All mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. 所有的单语素词都是自由语素。 两个单语素词相互结合就构成了多语素词 poly-morphemic words. moonwalk, sunflower, blueprint 这些由两个自由 语素构成的多语素词又称复合词。

3.8Compounding(
复合词）
Words are formed by putting two words together. Compounds have strict patterns ： the first element in the compound receives the main stress ,but it is generally the second element that determines the compound’s new word class.
Adjective Compounds
n+adj:world-famous,snow-white, lifelong v+adj:stir-crazy adj+adj：red-hot，bitter-sweet, dark-blue adv+adj:ever-green，over-sensitive adj+n:part-time, second-hand, bare-foot num+n:five-year num+n+adj:five-year-old,sic-inch-tall num+ned:four-legged, six-storied , two-faced
能产性规则不能任意派生新词， 构词的形态规则处于变化之中， 可能变弱，消失，也可能变成能 产性规则。
Derivation（派生词）
• Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its bases.

root or stem)e.g.-ment,-ly,-less 后缀
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Derivational morphemes :they are used to make words grammatical category from
bound morphemes
the stem.(-ness, -ment, Im-)派生语素 Inflectional morphemes: they are to show
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aspects of the grammatical function of a
word. all has only 8 Inflectional morpheme
s. 屈折语素
1n+’s(possessive) 2n+s(plural) 3v+s(3rd person present singular) 4v+ing(present participle)
•
( word-like elements)
morphology: the study of the internal structure ,for ms and classes of words.
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3.2 morphemes(语素)
• A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or gramm atical function. (It is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible and analyzable into sm aller forms.) e. g: blackboard (two morphemes :black and board) friendly (two morphemes :friend and -ly) likes (two morphemes: like and -s)

go, goes, going, gone
discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability
lovely, lovelier, loveliest
inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’ democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize
Derivation 派生法 Compounding 合成法 Blending 拼缀法 Clipping 截短法 Acronyms 首字母缩略法 Onomatopoeia 拟声 Back formation 逆成法 Borrowing 借用 Coining 新造 ……
Opiemnpocslsaibslesto add)
Closed class
开放e.性g.词: P类ro, Prep, Conj, Art.封(fu闭nc性tio词n类words)
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Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
Definition: must be attached to another morpheme
Many words can be divided into smaller parts,
E.g.: dogs walking blackens player dog-s walk-ing black-en-s play-er
the parts also occur in other words:
A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function
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