English for geology

English Reading Material for Geology, Hydrogeology, Engineering geology and Environmental GeologyDepartment of Resources, Environment and Engineering Shijiazhuang University of EconomicsContentUnit One: The Earth通用____________________________________________________1Unit Two: The Atmosphere环________________________________________________4 Unit Three: Oceans通用_____________________________________________________8 Unit Four: Groundwater通用_______________________________________________13 Unit Five: Minerals地_____________________________________________________17 Unit Six: Rocks通用_______________________________________________________21 Unit Seven: Weathering and Erosion通用______________________________________28 Unit Eight: Geological Structures通用________________________________________32 Unit Nine: Earth History通用_______________________________________________37 Unit Ten: Continental drift地_______________________________________________42 Unit Eleven: Plate Tectonics地______________________________________________46 Unit Twelve: Earthquakes and Seismic Waves地_______________________________50 Unit thirteen: Introduction of Igneous Geochemistry地__________________________54Unit Fourteen: Using trace element analysis to determine the tectonic setting of basic volcanic rocks地_________________________________________________________59Unit Fifteen: Geophysical Prospecting地、工___________________________________64 Unit Sixteen: Water水_____________________________________________________68 Unit Seventeen: Character of Groundwater水、环_______________________________71 Unit Eighteen: Parameters of Groundwater Flow水_____________________________76 Unit Nineteen: Hydrogeological Investigations水_______________________________81 Unit Twenty: Soils水、环____________________________________________________84 Unit Twenty-one: Mechanical behavior of rock and soil工________________________88 Unit Twenty-two: Reservoirs水、工___________________________________________92 Unit Twenty-three: Dams工________________________________________________96 Unit Twenty-four: Excavation and Support工_________________________________100 Unit Twenty-five: Slope S tability and Downslope Movement工、环__________________________105Unit One: The Earth通用IntroductionThe Earth is a very large spherical body. The science of geology is concerned with the Earth and the rocks of which it composed, the processes by which they were formed during geological time, and the modeling of the Earth’s surface in the past and at the present day. Earth is not a static body but is constantly subject to changes both at its surface and at deeper levels.Surface changes can be observed by engineers and geologists alike; among them erosion is a dominant process which in time destroys coastal cliffs, reduces the height of continents, and transports the material so removed either to the sea or to inland basins of deposition. Changes that originate below the surface are not so easily observed and their nature can only be postulated. Some are the cause of slow movements of continents across the surface of the globe; others cause the more rapid changes associated with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.The surface of the EarthDimensions and surface reliefThe radius of the Earth at the equator is 6370km and the polar radius is shorter by about 22km; thus the Earth is not quite a perfect sphere. The planet has a surface area of 510´106m2, of which some 29 per cent is land. If to this is added the shallow sea areas of the shelf which surrounds the continents, the total land area is nearly 35 per cent of the whole surface. In other words, nearly two-thirds of the surface is covered by deep ocean.Fig.1 A sketch profile of continental marginSurface relief is very varied (see fig.1); mountains rise to several kilometers above sea level, with a maximum of 8.848km at Everest (珠穆朗玛峰). The average height of land above sea level is 0.875km and the mean depth of the ocean floor is about 3.73km. In places the ocean floor descends to much greater depths in elongated areas or trenches; the Marianas Trench (马里亚纳海沟) in the N.W. Pacific reaches the greatest known depth, 11.034km. The extremes of height and depth are small in comparison with the Earth’s radius, and are found only in limited areas. The oceans, seas, lakes and rivers are collectively referred to as the hydrosphere; and the whole is surrounded by a gaseous envelope, the atmosphere.The interior of the EarthOur knowledge of the Earth’s interior is at present based on those direct investigations that can be made to depths of a few kilometers from the surface, together with extrapolations to lower levels. Studies of heat-flow, geostatic pressure, earthquakes, and estimations of isostatic balance reveal much about the interior of the Earth.It is well known from deep miningoperations that temperature increasesdownwards at an average rate of 30°C perkm. This rate is higher near a source of heatsuch as an active volcanic center, and is alsoaffected by the thermal conductivity of therocks at a particular locality. Assuming forthe moment that the temperature gradientcontinues at the average rate, calculationshows that at a depth of some 30km the temperature would be such that most knownrocks would begin to melt. The high pressure prevailing at that depth and the ability of crustal rocks to conduct heat away to the surface of the Earth result in the rock-material there remaining in a relatively solid condition; but there will be a depth at which it becomes essentially a viscous fluid and this defines the base of the lithosphere(see fig.2).The mean density of the Earth, which is found from its estimated mass and volume, is5.527g/cm 3. This is greater than the density of most rocks found at the surface, which rarely exceeds 3; sedimentary rocks average 2.3, and the abundant igneous rock granite about 2.7. In order to bring the mean density to 5.5 there must therefore be denser material at lower levels within the Earth. Our knowledge of the interior of the Earth has come largely from the study of the elastic waves generated by earthquakes, in particular from research into the way in which earthquake waves are bent (by diffraction at certain boundaries) as they pass through the Earth. This has shown that our planet has a core of heavy material with a density of 8. Two metals, iron and nickel, have densities a little below and above 8 respectively, and the core is believed to be composed mainly of iron. Surrounding this heavy core is the region known as the mantle; and overlying that is the crust, which is itself composite. In continental areas the average thickness of the crust is about 30km; in the oceans it is 10km. The mantle has a range of density intermediate between that of the crust and the core.V ocabularies and Phrases:modeling n 造型postulate vt, vi 假定，推测 erosion n 侵蚀eruption n 喷发，爆发Fig.2 Interior structure of the Earthinland basin 内陆盆地abyssal plain 深海平原continental rise 大陆基lithosphere n 岩石圈continental shelf 大陆架asthenophere n 软流圈relief n 地貌，地形起伏thermal conductivity 热传导率descend vi 下降temperature gradient 温度剃度trench n 海沟prevailing a 占优势的extrapolation n 外推法，推断viscous a 粘性的geostatic pressure 地压力elastic wave 弹性波isostatic balance 地壳均衡diffraction n 衍射Reading materialThe earth and other members of the Solar system are believed to have been formed about 4600 million years ago by condensation from a flattened rotating cloud of gas and dust. This contracted slowly, giving rise to the primitive Sun at its center – a new star – surrounded by a mass of cosmic gases in which local condensations generated the planets. They, and other bodies such as the asteroids and meteorites, all revolve in the same direction in orbits around the Sun. the cold primitive Earth became gradually heated as its interior was compressed by the increasing weight of accumulated matter and by the decay of natural radioactive materials. Heat was produced more quickly than it could escape from the compressed mass, resulting in the melting of some constituents and heavier matter being drawn by gravity towards the Earth’s center. The planet thus gradually acquired a core, surrounded by a mantle of less dense material, and an outer crust.Supplementary ExercisesPart one: Answer following questions in English1.What is the difference between the earth’s crust and its lithosphere?2.The earth’s radius is 6.4´108 cm and its mass is 6.0´1027g. calculate the averagedensity of the earth as a whole and compare it with the average density of crustal rocks,2.7g/cm3. What does this comparison indicate about the composition of the earth’sinterior?Part two: Translations between English and Chinese:1.The Earth consists of a two-part core, a mantle of solid rock, and an outermost thin,rocky crust. The crust and the outer part of the mantle compose the lithosphere, which includes all the rocky material of the Earth’s outer shell, extending from the surface to a depth of about 100 kilometers.2.对于人类来说，地球是我们的大家园，地球给我们提供了生活所必需的丰富的物质资源和优美的生活环境，我们应该注意合理地使用这些矿产资源和保护生活环境。

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托福TPO6阅读文本Part2William SmithIn 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, "A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland," a map so meticulously researched that it canstill be used today.In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the "father of English geology," it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-there's no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history.Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossilsalways appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris.Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.Paragraph 1: In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He receivedrudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.托福TPO6阅读题目Part21. The word "rudimentary" in the passage is closest in meaning to○thorough○strict○basic○occasional2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about William Smith is NOT true?○Smith learned surveying by reading and by apprenticing for a local surveyor.○Smith's family lived in a small English town and possessed little wealth.○Smith learned about fossils from books he borrowed from his uncle.○Smith eventually left his village to work on the excavation of an English canal.Paragraph 2: This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, "A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland," a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about canal building?○ Canals were built primarily in the south of England ratherthan in other regions.○ Canal building decreased after the steam locomotive was invented.○ Canal building made it difficult to study rock strata which often became damaged in the process.○ Canal builders hired surveyors like Smith to examine exposed rock strata.4. According to paragraph2, which of the following is true of the map published by William Smith?○It indicates the locations of England's major canals.○It became most valuable when the steam locomotive made rail travel possible.○The data for the map were collected during Smith's work on canals.○It is no longer regarded as a geological masterpiece.5. The word "meticulously" in the passage is closest in meaning to○carefully○quickly○frequently○obviouslyParagraph 3: In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the "father of English geology," it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rocktype was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-there's no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers.○Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place.○Smith's catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different from place to place and from region to region.○Because people did no t catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks, it was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers.7. Why does the author use the phrase "Quartz is quartz"?○To describe how the differences between Pleistocene and Cambrian quartz reveal information about dating rocks ○To point out that the chemical composition of quartz makes it more difficult to date than other rocks○To provide an example of how regional differences in rock sequences can make a particular rock difficult to date○To explain that rocks are difficult to use for dating because their chemical compositions always remain the same over time Paragraph 4: As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history.8. According to paragraph 4, it was difficult for Smith to distinguish rock strata because○the rocks fr om different strata closely resembled each other ○he was often unable to find fossils in the younger rock strata ○their similarity to each other made it difficult for him to distinguish one rock type from another○the type of rock between two consistent st rata was always the same9. The word "endured" in the passage is closest in meaning to○vanished○developed○varied○survivedParagraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging:certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.10. The word "virtually" in the passage is closest in meaning to○possibly○absolutely○surprisingly○nearly11. Select the TWO answer choices that are true statements based upon the discussion of the principle of faunal succession in paragraph 5. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.○It was a principle that applied to fauna but not to flora.○It was discovered independently by two different geologists.○It describes how fo ssils are distributed in rock strata.○It explains why plants and animals undergo transformations through time.12. In mentioning "trilobite", the author is making which of the following points?○Fossils cannot be found in more than one rock stratum.○Faunal succession can help put rock layers in relative temporal sequence.○Faunal succession cannot be applied to different strata composed of the same kind of rock.○The presence of trilobite fossils makes it difficult to date a rock.Paragraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. █By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. █About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. █Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. █It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.13.Look at the four squares [█]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passageThe findings of these geologists inspired others to examine the rock and fossil records in different parts of the world.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.William Smith's contributions to geology have increased our knowledge of the Earth's history.●●●Answer Choices○Smith found success easily in his profession because he came from a family of geologists and surveyors.○Smith's work on canals allowed him to collect fossils and study rock layers all over England.○Smith found that fossils are much more reliable indicators of geological time than rock strata are.○Smith was named "the father o f English geology" for his maps rather than for his other contributions to the field.○Smith and Cuvier discovered that fossil patterns are easier to observe in ancient rock strata than in younger rock strata.○The discovery of the principle of faunal succ ession allowed geologists to establish the relative age of Earth's rock layers 托福TPO6阅读答案Part2参考答案：1. ○32. ○33. ○24. ○35. ○16. ○27. ○4.8. ○19. ○410. ○411. ○2, 312. ○213. ○314. Smith's work on canals allowedSmith found that fossils areThe discovery of the principle托福TPO6阅读翻译Part2参考翻译：威廉;史密斯1769年，在英国牛津郡的一个小镇上，一个小男孩儿出生在村里一户穷铁匠家，他的名字很普通，叫做威廉o史密斯。

托福TPO6Part2阅读文本及答案解析托福TPO是我们托福阅读的重要参考资料，为了方便大家备考，下面小编给大家整理了托福TPO6Part2阅读文本及答案解析，希望大家喜欢。

托福TPO6阅读文本Part2William SmithIn 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncles farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England.This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coaldeposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland, a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the father of English geology, it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers.Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-theres no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earths history.Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of Englands earth into relative temporal sequence. About thesame time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris.Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.Paragraph 1: In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He receivedrudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncles farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset CoalCanal in the south of England.托福TPO6阅读题目Part21. The word rudimentary in the passage is closest in meaning to○thorough○strict○basic○occasional2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about William Smith is NOT true?○Smith learned surveying by reading and by apprenticing for a local surveyor.○Smiths family lived in a small English town and possessed little wealth.○Smith learned about fossils from books he borrowed from his uncle.○Smith eventually left his village to work on the excavation of an English canal.Paragraph 2: This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine thebest courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland, a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today.3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about canal building?○Canals were built primarily in the south of England rather than in other regions.○Canal building decreased after the steam locomotive was invented.○Canal building made it difficult to study rock strata which often became damaged in the process.○Canal builders hired surveyors like Smith to examine exposed rock strata.4. According to paragraph2, which of the following is true of the map published by William Smith?○It indicates the locations of Englands major canals.○It became most valuable when the steam locomotive made rail travel possible.○The data for the map were collected during Smiths work on canals.○It is no longer regarded as a geological masterpiece.5. The word meticulously in the passage is closest in meaning to○carefully○quickly○frequently○obviouslyParagraph 3: In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the father of English geology, it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time markerthroughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz-a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions-theres no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago.6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers.○Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place.○Smiths catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different from place to place and from region to region.○Because people did not catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks, it was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers.7. Why does the author use the phrase Quartz is quartz?○To describe how the differences between Pleistocene and Cambrian quartz reveal information about dating rocks ○To point out that the chemical composition of quartz makes it more difficult to date than other rocks○To provide an example of how regional differences in rock sequences can make a particular rock difficult to date ○To explain that rocks are difficult to use for dating because their chemical compositions always remain the same over timeParagraph 4: As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particularperiods in Earths history.8. According to paragraph 4, it was difficult for Smith to distinguish rock strata because○the rocks from different strata closely resembled each other○he was often unable to find fossils in the younger rock strata○their similarity to each other made it difficult for him to distinguish one rock type from another○the type of rock between two consistent strata was always the same9. The word endured in the passage is closest in meaning to○vanished○developed○varied○survivedParagraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put allthe strata of Englands earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.10. The word virtually in the passage is closest in meaning to○possibly○absolutely○surprisingly○nearly11. Select the TWO answer choices that are true statements based upon the discussion of the principle of faunal succession in paragraph 5. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.○It was a principle that applied to fauna but not to flora.○It was discovered independently by two different geologists.○It describes how fossils are distributed in rock strata.○It explains why plants and animals undergo transformations through time.12. In mentioning trilobite, the author is making which of the following points?○Fossils cannot be found in more than one rock stratum.○Faunal succession can help put rock layers in relative temporal sequence.○Faunal succession cannot be applied to different strata composed of the same kind of rock.○The presence of trilobite fossils makes it difficult to date a rock.Paragraph 5: Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. █By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of Englands earth into relative temporal sequence. █About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. █Soon it wasrealized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. █It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian.13.Look at the four squares [█]that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passageThe findings of these geologists inspired others to examine the rock and fossil records in different parts of the world.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.William Smiths contributions to geology have increasedour knowledge of the Earths history.●●●Answer Choices○Smith found success easily in his profession because he came from a family of geologists and surveyors.○Smiths work on canals allowed him to collect fossils and study rock layers all over England.○Smith found that fossils are much more reliable indicators of geological time than rock strata are.○Smith was named the father of English geology for his maps rather than for his other contributions to the field.○Smith and Cuvier discovered that fossil patterns are easier to observe in ancient rock strata than in younger rock strata.○The discovery of the principle of faunal succession allowed geologists to establish the relative age of Earths rock layers托福TPO6阅读答案Part2参考答案：1. ○32. ○33. ○24. ○35. ○16. ○27. ○4.8. ○19. ○410. ○411. ○2, 312. ○213. ○314. Smiths work on canals allowedSmith found that fossils areThe discovery of the principle托福TPO6阅读翻译Part2参考翻译：威廉;史密斯1769年，在英国牛津郡的一个小镇上，一个小男孩儿出生在村里一户穷铁匠家，他的名字很普通，叫做威廉o史密斯。

四必备TPMK standardization office [ TPMK5AB- TPMK08- TPMK2C- TPMK18]英文信件格式英语信件的种类比较多，有一般信件，邀请信，推荐信等。

但儿乎所有信件的格式都大同小异。

书写英语信件要注意下面儿点：（-）英语书信结构、书写款式及要求：1.书信结构英语书信结构一般有以下儿个部分组成：1）信封（envelope）。

英语的信封和中文的一样，有三部分组成，即发信人地址、收信人地址和邮票。

只不过英语信封的格式除了邮票所贴的位置（信封的右上角）和中文的一样外，英语信封上要写的发信人和收信人的地址和中文的大不一样。

发信人的地址应写在信封的左上角，收信人的地址应写在信封偏中右偏下处，如下：2）信头（heading）,即写发信人的地址和日期（右上角）。

3）信内姓名地址（inside address）,即写收信人的姓名和地址（左上角）。

4）称呼（salutation）,即写对收信人的尊称（一般用Dear Mr.…，；Dear Madam Helen, ; Dear Miss…，；Dear John, ; Dear Professor Smith,等）。

称呼直接写在收信人地址的正下方，中间空一至二行。

称呼后面的标点一般只能用逗号。

以上信头、信内姓名和地址三部分的结构如下：Liu Yaix-huaRoom 302丿No 48? Yanan Road (N)ShHigUi 200040F. R. ChinaJune 22, 2002Prof. John Hill 607North. 'A'iHington. AvenueWest Palm Beach, Tlorida 33404U. S. A.D-sar Frcfezsscr Kill,注：如果是相当熟悉和随便的朋友之间，因为彼此都知道对方的地址，故信头和信内的地址常常省略。

5）正文（body）,即信件内的主要内容。