All Knowledge All the Time a Cognitive Science Challenge for Machine Language Comprehension

认知法一、Brief introduction认知教学法，又称认知-符号法，或认知-符号学习理论，是按照认知规律，调动学习者智力潜能，努力去发现和掌握语言规则，创造性地活用语言的一种外语教学法体系。

二、Basic theoryLike the Audiolingual Method, the Cognitive Approach looks for a rationale in linguistics and psychology.he Cognitive Approach seeks in transformational grammar and cognitive psychology a basis for second language teaching.1Transformational Grammar ：Chomsky maintained that language is an intricate rule-based system；Every normal human being is born with a LAD （language acquisition device）.It is competence that a child gradually acquires, and it is this language competence that allows the child to be creative as a language user.2Cognitive psychology: Cognitive psychology emphasis on the various mental processes used in thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, classifying, etc.The Cognitive Psychologist hold that learning must involve organization of material and learning should be structured.Structure has given meaning to parts previously incomprehensible.三、characteristics1）认知法明确指出，外语教学应以学生的认知活动为主，而不应让教师主宰课堂。

名词解释1. Mutual exclusivity bias相互排斥倾向A cognitive constraint in which children assume that an object is ordinarily not given two different names.2. Motherese 母式语言A form of adult-to-child speech characterized by relatively simple utterances,concrete referents指示物, exaggerated intonation patterns夸张的语调模式, and a high proportion of directive utterances指示话语.3. Critical period hypothesis临界期假设The view that there is a period early in life in which we are especially prepared to acquire a language.4. Language bioprogram hypothesis语言生物程序假设The hypothesis that children whose environmental exposure to language is limited use a backup linguistic system.5. Pidgin混杂语An auxiliary辅助的language that is created when speakers of mutually unintelligible 无法理解的languages are in close contact.6. Language transfer 语言迁移In second-language acquisition, the process in which the first language influences the acquisition of a subsequent后来的language.7. Overregularization规则泛化When a child a pplies a linguisitic rule to cases that ar e exceptions to the rule--for example, saying goed instead of went.8. Holophrase 表句词单词句A one-word utterance used by a child to express more than the meaning attributed to the word by adults.9. Idiomorph ？A sound or sound sequence音序used consistently by a child to refer to someone or something even though it is not the sound sequence conventionally used in the language for that purpose.10. Coalescence合并A phonological音位学的，音韵学的process in which phonemes音位，音素（the smallest unit of significant sound in a language）from different syllables音节are combined into a single syllable.11. Reduction减少cluster reduction音群删略A phonological process in child language in which one or more phonemes are deleted. Also called cluster reduction音群删略because consonant clusters辅音群，两个或两个以上的辅音连在一起are often reduced, such as saying take for steak.12. Assimilation 同化A phonological process in which one speech sound replaced by another that is similar sounds elsewhere in the utterance.13. Common ground共识The shared understanding of those involved in the conversation.14.Semantic bootstrapping语义引导She spent years bootstrapping herself through university.她靠自己多年奋斗念完大学The process of using semantics to acquire syntax.15. Accommodation顺应A phonological process in which elements that are shifted or deleted are adapted to their error-induced environments.20. Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.21. Aphasia失语症A language or speech disorder caused by brain damage.A mental condition in which people are unable to remember simple words or communicate.22. Behaviorism行为主义The doctrine that states that the proper concern of psychology should be the objective study of behavior rather than the study of the mind.23. Distinctive features显著特征The specification详述of the differences between speech sounds in terms of individual contrasts.24. Observational adequacy观察充分性The extent to which a grammar can distinguish betw een acceptable and unacceptable strings of words.The grammar must specify what is and what is not acceptable sequence in the language.语法能对原始的语言材料做出正确的选择25.Descriptive adequacy描写充分性The grammar must specify the relationships between various sequences in the language. The extent to which a grammar can provide a structural description of a sentence.语法不仅应该能解释原始的语言材料，而且要正确解释说话人和听话人内在的语言能力。

1.The ultimate goal of ELT: the ultimate of foreign language teaching is to enable students to usethe foreign language in work or life when necessary. Thus we should teach that part of the language that will be used (rather than all part of the language).Definition of task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan 1989:8)A lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decision about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. In other words, teachers need to think about the aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques and resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. As the goal of classroom management is to create an atmosphere conductive to interacting in English in meaningful ways.Deductive method: The Deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. First, the T writes an example on board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. Second, the T explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. The explanations are often done in the S’s native language and use grammatical terms. Sometimes, comparisons are made between the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. Finally, the Ss practice applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.Inductive method: the T provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any forms of explicit explanation.1. Language:” Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” It can be understood in the following six aspects:Language as system;Language as symbolic;Language as arbitrary;Language as vocal;Language as human;Language as communicationBottom-up modelSome teachers teach reading by introducing new vocabulary and new structures first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. This way of teaching reading reflects the belief thatreading comprehension is based on the understanding and mastery熟练of all the new words, new phrases, and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice. Also, this reading follows a linear process from the recognition of letters, to words, to phrases, to sentences, to paragraphs, and then to the meaning of the whole text. This way of teaching reading is said to follow a bottom-up model.2). Top-down modelIt is believed that in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. This process of reading is said to follow the top-down model of teaching reading just as Goodman(1970) once said that reading was “a psycholinguistic guessing game”2. Structural view:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences.3. The functional view:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: greetings; offering,suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc.The communicative view of languageThe communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.4. The interactional view:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.1) The behaviorist theory( Skinne r)-- a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that "you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus,response, and reinforcement"2) Cognitive theory( Noam Chomsky):The term cognitive is to describe loosely methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat.The goal of CLTThe goal of CLT is to develop students' communicative competenceLesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.Teaching stages and procedures:Teaching stages are the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom.Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.31. Three P's model: presentation, practice and production.SkimmingSkimming means reading quickly to get the gist,i.e. the main idea of the text. ScanningScanning means to read to locate/get specific information.1). DiscussionA discussion is often used for a) exchange of personal opinions. This sort of discussion canstart with a question like "What do you think of?"b) stating of personal opinions ongeneral issues. c) problem-solving.d) the ranking(分类；顺序)of alternatives e) deciding upon priorities(先;前)etc.2). Role-playRole-play is a very common language learning activity where students play differentroles and interact from the point of view of the roles they play.What’s called A process approach to writing1). DefinitionWhat really matters or makes a difference is the help that the teacher provides toguide the students through the process that they undergo when they are writing. What’s the assessmentAssessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of the learning process.a. Grammar Translation:The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)b. Direct Method:The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Viëtor in the early 1800's.Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized--grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.c. The Silent Way:The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most of the talkingand interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as a normal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and student initiative.d. Community Language Learning:Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and accepting students' fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of language learning--ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at language learning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus is learner-generated.e. Natural Approach:Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrase and the use of manipulatives. Terrell (1977) focused on the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is applied in the Naturale. Reading Method:The reading method was prominent in the U.S. following the Committee of Twelve in 1900 and following the Modern Foreign Language Study in 1928. The earlier method was similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized the transference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading method focuses more on silent reading for comprehension purposes.f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method:This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrases in the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously.ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach to language instruction used in during the 1940's. In the postwar years, the civilian version of ASTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues, pattern drills, and emphasis on pronunciation.g. Cognitive Methods:Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition of grammar structures followed by meaningful practice.h. Communicative Methods:The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials (authentic realia) in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.i. Total Physical Response Method:This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listening comprehension should be fully developed before any active oralparticipation from students is expected (just as it is with children when theyare learning their native language) .What is the Grammar-Translation Method?The Grammar-Translation Method is designed around grammatical structures.The Functional-Notional ApproachUnlike the Grammar-Translation Method, which is based on the grammar structures, it thinks thata general learner should take part in the language activities, the functions of language involved inthe real and normal life are most important. For example, the learners have to learn how to give directions, buy goods, ask a price, claim ownership of something and so on. It tells that is not just important to know the forms of the language, it is also important to know the functions and situations, so that the learner could practice real-life communication.Communicative CompetenceBoth knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language in communicative situation appropriately.Critical Period Hypothesis关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.1.Process-oriented theories:强调过程are concerned with how the mind organizes newinformation such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulus, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.There are a fin ite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that learning is a proces in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/he r already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and engagement with the tar get language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.。

2022下半年教师资格证考试《英语学科知识与教学能力》(高级中学)真题及答案1. 【单项选择题】The final of the word “s”is not pronounced.A. debrisB. waresC. ****D. appropriates正确答案：A参考解析：debris发音[ˈdebriː]，s不发音，故选A2. 【单项选择题】What is the difference between English vowels and consonants?A. Psits of the****B. Obstruction of the air.C. ****D. Movement of **lips.正确答案：B参考解析：元音和辅音的区别是在于发元音时气流在通道不受阻碍, 而发辅音时气流在通道上受阻。

故选B。

3. 【单项选择题】We have invited ****people to attend my daughter's weddingA. ***sogetherB. altogetherC. togetherD. together al!正确答案：B4. 【单项选择题】you can*****see the of longitude and latitude in a mapA. linesB. bordersC. boundariesD. frontiers正确答案：A5. 【单项选择题】That **** performance by Larry last night enthusiastic applause of the audience.A. ** inEACHHTEB. drew forthC. won overD. won up正确答案：B6. 【单项选择题】The interview success rate by language*** did not differ notably,was ***much difference ** the success rate by job typeA. norB. ***C. neitherD. or正确答案：A7. 【单项选择题】He wasn't appointed chairman of thecommittee, not very****popular with all its members.A. to consideredB. being consideredC. beny consideredD. having considered正确答案：B参考解析：句子翻译为：他没有被任命为这个委员会的主席，因为在所有的成员中并不是那么受欢迎。