胡壮麟语言学第一章复习

胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。

语言学概论复习要点一．定义1 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 define featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.3 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history and focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.4 Langue & paroleLangue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole is particular realizations of langue5 Competence and performanceAn ideal language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules in his language is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.6 descriptive and prescriptive7 phonetic transcriptionA phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.8 phonemePhoneme is a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.9 allophones[p, ph] are two different phones (音子) and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. (Phonetic similarity, complementary distribution)10 assimilationassimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundassimilation refers to the phonological process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts11 distinctive featuresdistinctive features are those phonologically relevant properties, that is, the features which can distinguish meaning, for example, voicing, place and manner of articulation are all principal distinctive features of consonants.12 morphemesthe smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.(Free vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.; Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Root vs. affix morphemes: a root morpheme can be a bound one or a free one. An affix morpheme can be a inflectional one or a derivational one.Inflectional vs. Derivative morphemes:Inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item. Derivative morpheme provides lexical information to the existing lexical item）Root: A “root”is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Affix: “affix”is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are naturally bound and they are limited in number in a language.Stem(词干): A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in a word.Base(词基）: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; any root or stem can be termed a base13 positional relationPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. syntagmatic, horizontal or chain relations.14 Relation of SubstitutabilityThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.15Construction and ConstituentConstruction：the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between them.(Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group)A constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.IC analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups or phrases, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.16 categoryThe term category refers to the defining properties of the general units of different word classes as well as their syntactic functions17 agreementAgreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship should agree with one another in terms of some categories二．简答1 Design Features of Language:Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement2 Functions of language❖referential (to convey message and information),❖poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),❖emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),❖conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),❖phatic (to establish communion with others)❖metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).-----JocobsonMetafunctions of Language❖ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.4 Functional Grammar⏹Theoretical approach to the description and explanation of linguistic phenomena based ontheir various functions.⏹basic assumption: linguistic phenomena cannot be explained without examining theirfunctionIt offers an alternative to (post) structuralism attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally(i.e. assuming the autonomy of syntax)5 5.1 The Prague School⏹Prague Linguistic Circle:⏹Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson(1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).⏹The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics andsemiotics in the 1930's.⏹Three important points:⏹Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.⏹L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated inisolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with thecoexisting elements in the same language system.⏹L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions ortasks for the community using it.5.1.1 Prague School Phonology⏹N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).⏹Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & langue.⏹Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.⏹Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.⏹Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of thephoneme.Trubetzkoy’s contributions⏹Defined the sphere of phonological studies.⏹Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.⏹Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.5.1.2 Functional Sentence Perspective⏹FSP is a theory about analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.⏹Principle: the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to thewhole.5.1.3 Communicative dynamism⏹J. Firbas⏹Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.⏹CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD isthe effect contributed by a linguistic element. For example,5.2 The London School⏹ B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).⏹J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).⏹M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.⏹All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of L.5.2.1 Malinowski’s theories⏹Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”.⏹The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which itoccurs.⏹Three types of situational context:⏹situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;⏹narrative situations;⏹situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communion.5.2.2 Firth’s theoriesa.语言观Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life.⏹L is a means of participation in social activities.⏹L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting andliving.⏹L is both inborn and acquired.⏹The object of linguistic study is L in use.⏹The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establishcorresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.⏹The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, explain theirrelations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between theseelements and human activities in the environment of language use.b. 意义观Meaning is use. five parts of its analysis:⏹the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;⏹the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;⏹the morphological relations of each word;⏹the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;⏹the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.In sum, he emphasizes three kinds of meaning: collocational meaning, referential meaning, and contextual meaningc. 语境观contextual analysis: situational context and linguistic context⏹Internal relations of the text:⏹syntagmatic relations in structure⏹paradigmatic relations in system⏹Internal relations of the context of situation:⏹relations between text and non-linguistic elements⏹analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the situationd. Prosodic analysis (韵律分析): prosodic phonology⏹Since any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptionsare insufficient.⏹It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, thefeatures of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.⏹prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, andaspiration.⏹prosodic analysis is advantageous in categorising data and revealing the relations betweenthem compared with phonemic analysis一．论述1 TG grammarA brief introduction to generative grammar⏹Generative grammar: a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assignsstructural descriptions to sentences. It aims to reveal the unity of particular grammars anduniversal grammars as well as human cognitive systems. To achieve this goal, a grammarshould achieve observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy.⏹Different from Bloomfield’s data-oriented discovery procedure, he insists on theHypothesis-deduction method.Five stages of development⏹The Classical Theory⏹The Standard Theory⏹The Extended Standard Theory⏹The Revised Extended Standard Theory⏹The Minimalist Program4.1 Early theories (1957)4.1.1 Innateness hypothesis: the starting point of TG grammarLanguage is somewhat innate, and children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.Children are endowed with a universal knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories and study of language can shed light on the nature of the human mind.LAD consists of three parts: hypothesis maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure.⏹Evidences: children learn mother tongue very fast and with little effort; similar stagesexperienced by them (babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-wordutterance, developing grammar, near-adult grammar, and full competence); learn the totalgrammar during limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.⏹target: to reveal linguistic universals4.2 The classical theorySyntactic Structures (1957)⏹Three features: emphasis on generative ability of language, introduction of transformationalrules and grammatical description regardless of meaning.⏹finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar.4.2.1 Phrase structure grammar⏹ A system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules are:generative, simple (represented by symbols and formulae), explicit (to state everythingprecisely), exhaustive (to cover all linguistic fact) and recursive (can be repeatedly applied to generate an infinite number of sentences)⏹more generative, stronger powerPhrase structural rules are also called rewritten rules, and the generative process of a sentence is that of rewriting one symbol into another.(NP(Det(the)N(man)) VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))4.2.2 Transformational grammar⏹Linguistic competence : phrase structure grammar that consists rules governing idealizedsentence formation, and transformational grammar that enables us to manipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types.⏹Every sentence has a surface structure (a post-transformational stage) and a deep structure (apre-transformational stage)Deep structure and surface structure⏹Deep structure: the abstract structure and the propositional core. The underlying structure thatspecifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements as well as themeaning of constituents.⏹Surface structure: the actually produced structure and the directly observable actual form. Anabstract sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. Transformation⏹the relationship between deep structure and surface structure.⏹responsible for the generation of many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrasestructure rules, and thus contribute to the open-endedness and creativity of languages.⏹structural analysis (SA) and structural change (SC)⏹SA shows which relevant structural properties phrase markers must have for thetransformations to apply and specifies the input. (structural description SD)⏹SC describes the effect of the transformation and specifies what the output structure will be.⏹Transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Substitution andpermutation are derived from them.4.3 The standard theory (1965)⏹Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)⏹three components: syntactic (base component including categories and lexicon, andtransformational components), semantic (makes semantic interpretations on the deepstructure), phonological (phonological interpretation on the surface structure).⏹Category component is somewhat similar to the re-writing rules, but with featurespecifications for the words.⏹N ◊ [+N, ±Common]⏹[+Common] ◊ [±Count]⏹[+Count] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[-Common] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[+Animate] ◊ [±Human]⏹[-Count] ◊ [±Abstract]⏹verbs are subcategoriezed according to the context they occur in. eat [+V,+--NP, +--#]⏹words with the same feature specifications are in a paradigmatic relation and can occur in thesame specific context. Sincerity may frighten the boy.⏹transformations can’t alter the meaning⏹selection restriction⏹restrictions on transformations⏹the symbol S is introduced, which means that a sentence can be embedded⏹order of the rules4.4 The Extended Standard Theory⏹the first revision of the Standard Theory (the EST): the principle that the transformation rulecan’t change meaning cannot be held with the passive transformation. E.g. I have been taught physics by Einstein. Surface structure also has some bearing on semantic interpretation.⏹The second revision (the REST): all the necessary information for semantic interpretation canbe captured by the surface structure with the help of the notion trace.Beavers built damsDams are built t by beavers4.5 the Theory of Government and Binding⏹In 1981, Lectures on Government and Binding⏹ A Rule system with four components: lexicon, syntax (categorical component andtransformational component), phonetic form and logical form. The transformationalcomponent has one rule: move α: any element may be moved to another place, or moregenerally changed in some way, as long as the relevant conditions are satisfied.⏹ A principle system which specifies these conditions: bound theory, θtheory, bindingtheory, government theory, case theory and control theory, among which we only focus ongovernment and binding theory here.The minimalist program:⏹ a universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states and particular grammars studythe states of acquisition.Particular language exposureUniversal Grammar Particular Grammar4.5 Main features of TG Grammar⏹The development of TG reflects a process of constantly minimalising theories and controllingthe generative powers.⏹rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization,emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers, emphasis on linguisticuniversals.Systemic-functional grammar⏹Two components and inseparable parts:⏹systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a system network, meaning potential.⏹functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of languageform.5.2.3.1Systemic grammar⏹System: a set of mutually exclusive options that can appear in a linguistic structure.⏹characteristics (entry conditions): options have a common area of meaning and grammaticalenvironment; mutually exclusive; finite; interdependent relationships between terms ofdifferent systems.⏹Delicacy is a scale on which we can arrange systems according to the fineness of thedistinction.⏹ A system is simultaneous with another if they are independent of each other but have the sameentry conditions. Their terms can combine freely to enable us to make more delicatedistinctions in meaning.⏹SG: a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specificationof the relationships between choices.⏹realization relationships between various levels: semantics (meaning)lexicogrammar (form)phonology(substance)⏹features of SG:a. emphasizes the sociological aspectsb. L is a form of doing rather than knowingc. distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behaviord. emphasizes particular languagee. explains L in terms of clines (continuum)f. empirical: observation from texts and by means of statistical techniquesg. The category of the system is the core.5.2.3.2 Functional grammar⏹Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a contentunknown to the hearer⏹Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations⏹Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent andunified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Ideational functionExperiential function: six processes of transitivity⏹ A process, in principle, mainly consists of three components:(1)the process itself(2)participants in the process;(3)circumstances associated with the process.⏹L can express experiential function by building a mental picture of reality to interpret or makesense of what goes on around us or inside us..a Material process: process of doing⏹Actor—the one who does something⏹Goal—the one who receives the action⏹Dispositive type: the lion caught the tourist.⏹Creative type: they wrote a letter.Transitivity analysis of John built a house.Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new houseb.Mental process: process of sensing⏹The human conscious participant is called the Senser and the other one called Phenomenon.The three sub-processes of the mental process: feeling, perceiving and thinking are labeled in more general terms: 1. PERCEPTION (seeing, hearing, smelling), 2. AFFECTION (liking,fearing, etc. ) and 3. COGNITION (thinking, knowing, understanding).⏹John likes the house.Senser :JohnProcess: mental: affection: likesPhenomenon: the housec. Relational process: process of being⏹two parts are related in a certain way, indicated by verbs like be, become, turn, etc.d. Behavioral Processes⏹processes of physiological and psychological behaviors, like smiling, breathing, coughing, etc.⏹The participant: one participant called Behaver, typically a conscious beinge. Verbal process: a process of saying⏹Apart from the Sayer, there are other three participants in a verbal process: (1) RECEIVER,(2)VERBIAGE, (3) TARGET. The first two are oblique participants, that is, they are in theoblique case (间接格).⏹The RECEIVER is the participant to which the saying is directed.He didn’t tell me the truth.f. Existential Process⏹It represents that something exists or happens. The thing that exists is labeled Existent Interpersonal function⏹embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.⏹realized by mood and modality.Mood⏹the role selected by the speaker in the speech situation an that he assigns to the addressee. Two speech roles: giving and demanding.Contents of giving/demanding: goods-services/information⏹In sum, we have four moods: offer, command, statement and question P.314⏹Mood includes two parts: subject and finite.⏹Subject : N, NP or clause⏹Finite elements: Aux and M to express tense or modality, one part of VP.⏹ResidueTextual function⏹to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text rather thana random list of sentences.⏹related to the theme-rheme structure⏹two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguisticstheory.⏹SG aims to explain the internal relations in L as a system of meaning potential. FG functionsto reveal that L is a means of interaction. SG has a functional component, and the theorybehind his FG is systemic.⏹innovation: relate his FG to its structure. The three metafunctions are related respectively tothree systems: transitivity, mood and theme.A brief summary: formalism vs. functionalism⏹Formalism: Structural grammar & TG grammar which pays more attention to structures.⏹Functionalism: functional grammar which emphasizes systems and relates them to functionsplayed by L.Semantics1 The conceptualist (referential) theory●The conceptualist theory treats meaning as concept or reference to cope with problems of thenaming theory.●any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.2 Types of meaningLeech’s seven types of meaningGeoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning.●Conceptual meaning●Associative●Connotative meaning●Social meaning●Affective meaning●Reflected and meaning●Collocative meaning●Thematic meaning3 marked and unmarkedUnmarked forms: more usual, easy to learn, broader in meaning, non-metaphoricalMarked forms: less frequently used.4 Antonymya: gradable antonymy (semantic polarity and semantic relativity; continuum; markedness)good ----------------------- bad●Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can beasked with how.●graded against different norms●one member of a pair, usually the one for the higher degree, serves as the cover term orunmarked term. E.g. How long…, lengthb: Complementary antonymy. These antonyms divide a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and there is no intermediate ground between the two. A yes or no question, not a choice between more or less.●alive : dead male : femaleFeatures: no comparative or superlative degrees. absolute norm, no cover termc: converse antonymy （关系反义词）: the two members of the pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities in reciprocal social roles. X presuppose Y.buy : sell lend : borrow husband : wife smaller: bigger反义词有不稳定性，针对具体语义特征而言。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解目录第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记1.2考研真题与典型题详解第2章语音2.1复习笔记2.2考研真题与典型题详解第3章词和形态学3.1复习笔记3.2考研真题与典型题详解第4章句法：从语词到篇章4.1复习笔记4.2考研真题与典型题详解第5章意义5.1复习笔记5.2考研真题与典型题详解第6章语言与认知6.1复习笔记6.2考研真题与典型题详解第7章语言文化社会7.1复习笔记7.2考研真题与典型题详解第8章语言的使用8.1复习笔记8.2考研真题与典型题详解第9章语言与文学9.1复习笔记9.2考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言和计算机10.1复习笔记10.2考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言和外语教学11.1复习笔记11.2考研真题与典型题详解第12章现代语言学理论与流派12.1复习笔记12.2考研真题与典型题详解内容简介作为《语言学教程》（第5版）（胡壮麟主编，北京大学出版社）的学习辅导书，全书完全遵循该教材的章目编排，共分12章，每章由两部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记（中英文对照），总结本章的重点难点；第二部分是考研真题与典型题详解，精选名校经典考研真题及相关习题，并提供了详细的参考答案。

本书具有以下几个方面的特点：1．梳理章节脉络，浓缩内容精华。

每章的复习笔记以该教材为主并结合其他教材对本章的重难点知识进行了整理，并参考了国内名校名师讲授该教材的课堂笔记，因此，本书的内容几乎浓缩了经典教材的知识精华。

2．中英双语对照，凸显难点要点。

本书章节笔记采用了中英文对照的形式，强化对重要难点知识的理解和运用。

3．精选考研真题，补充难点习题。

本书精选名校考研真题及相关习题，并提供答案和详解。

所选真题和习题基本体现了各个章节的考点和难点，但又不完全局限于教材内容，是对教材内容极好的补充。

另外，在笔记部分，对于在《语言学教程》第三版或第四版提到而第五版删减的知识点我们也予以保留，并用“＊”标明，部分院校考研真题依旧会涉及这些知识点的考查。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

名词解释Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognitionMinimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each wordSemi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Chapter 1Design feature of languageArbitrariness1.bowwow 汪汪2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的Duality1.底层构建上层Creativity/productivity1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长Displacement1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的Functions of languageHalliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容◆Interpersonal function◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关门）◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）Important distinctions in linguistics◆Descriptive VS prescriptive尊重语言事实，客观描述约定俗成的现在更关注descriptive◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competenceChapter 2Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lipsVoiceless consonants-- air can pass through easilyvoiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each otherConsonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻P32, 33 图（⚠）例如：voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless alveolar fricativeVoiceless velar stopGlottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant例如：high front tense unrounded vowelHigh back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）Nasalization （cap-can）Dentalization （tent-tenth）Velarization （since-sink）Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）Rule ordering冠词规则：The elsewhere conditionThe more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）SyllableNucleus 一般为元音Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)Intonation and toneIntonation-- fall-rise tonesChinese is tone language.Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}Chapter3Morpheme◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在◆Bound Morpheme 不可以Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是catRoot：nature stem：naturalAffix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）Allomorphs同位异形体in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开Lexeme 词位Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word formContent words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰millCoordinative compound （teacher-student）并列Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compoundInflection 曲折构词曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。

Chapter One Exercise 1 (1.1-1.4)I. Define the following terms:1. design feature2. arbitrariness3. duality4. displacement5. language6. linguisticsⅡ. Beneath each sentence there are 4 choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one which is the best answer.1. Which is the commonly accepted definition of “linguistics” ?A. The scientific social science of languageB. The scientific learning and teaching of languageC. The scientific study of languageD. The prescriptive study of language2. ______ is considered as “father of modern linguistics”.A. BloomfieldB. JackobsonC. AristotleD. Saussure3. “______” is a word in English which is onomatopoeic.A. WalkmanB. WaterlooC. TicktackD. Seesaw4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness5. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human ________.A contactB communicationC relationD community6. which of the following words is entirely arbitrary.A treeB crashC typewriterD bang7. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above8. Language is first and foremost a ______ . A. system of wordsB. system of grammarC. system of vocal symbolsD. system of meanings9. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality10. Unlike animal communication systems, human language isA. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest.Ⅲ. Fill in the blanks.1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __ ___.3. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performingheavy work has been called the _____ theory.4.The theory that language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive ofpain or joy has been called the _____ theory.5. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _____ overwriting.6. Language is p________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.7. P_____ means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.8. Language has two levels. They are _____ level and ___ level.9. Language is _______ because every language consists of a set of rules which underlie people’s actual speech or writing.10. By saying “language is arbitrary”, we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and ____ .Ⅳ. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].1.Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact thatlanguage has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication wayused by the deaf-mute is not language.3.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality oflanguage makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.4. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.5. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.nguage is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in agiven culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact.7.The relation between form and meaning in human language is natural.8.Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.9. Every language has two levels: grammatically —meaningless and sound —meaningful.9.10. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.Ⅴ. Answering the questions1.Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?2. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell，thewind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose，the night fell?” If not，why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?3. A discussion on Saussure as the father of modern linguistics.Direction: You can try to answer this question from the following points for answer:1) Saussure’s great achievements in different fields. 2)Saussure’s linguistic views 3) Saussure’s influence on modern linguistics.4.How do you understand arbitrariness in human languages?Answers for exercise 1-1I. Define the following terms:1. design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.2. arbitrariness: One design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.3. duality: One design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.4. displacement: One design feature of human language, which means human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5. language:“Language is a means of verbal communication.”It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is also social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.6. linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question–what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.Ⅱ. Beneath each sentence there are 4 choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one which is the best answer.1-5 C D C D B 6-10 A D C C AⅢ. Fill in the blanks.1. verbal2. creativity/productivity3. yo-he-ho4. pooh-pooh5. Speech6. potential7. Productivity8. Primary , secondary9. Conventional 10. formⅣ. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F].1. T2. F3. T4. T5. F6. F7. F8. F9. F 10. FⅤ. Answering the questions1.Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.2. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell，the windrose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose，the night fell?” If not，why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order?This sentence couldn’t be expressed as “As the wind rose，the night fell”, if so, the original intention of writer is distorted. That means the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. Based on systemic functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level ,because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. Therefore, to a certain extent, we can see a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order.3. A discussion on Saussure as the father of modern linguistics.1)T he three lines along which Saussure’s ideas were developed:linguistics, sociology, andpsychology.A. In linguistics, Saussure was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney,who insisted on the concept of ARBITRARINESS of the sign to emphasise that language is an institution.B. In sociology, following the French sociologist E. Durkheim, Saussure held thatlanguage is one of the “social facts”, which are ideas in the “collective mind” of a society and radically distinct from individual psychological acts.C. In psychology, Saussure was influenced by the Austrian psychiatrist S. Freud, whohypothesized the continuity of a collective psyche, called the unconscious.2) Saussure’s ideasA. Saussure saw human language as an extremely complex and heterogeneous phenomenon and believed that language is a SYSTEM OF SIGNS. The sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the SIGNIFIER and the SIGNIFIED. The signifier and the signified exist only as components of the sign, which is the central fact of language.B. For Saussure, langue is “absence” in the virtual world and parole is “presence” in the actual world. Absence/ virtual systems are considered stable and invariable, while presence/ actual systems are considered unstable and variable.3) Saussure’s influence on modern linguistics.A. He provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which had seldom been questioned.B. He influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concepts, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc.Alllinguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.4.How do you understand arbitrariness in human languages?When we are discussing arbitrariness in human languages, we have to put it on the different language levels.First of all, as one of the design features, arbitrariness exists in human language popularly, so we can find out so many supportive evidences of the relationship between sound and meaning. For example, an object is definitely arbitrarily named as “book” in English while “书” in Chinese. Secondly, language is not always arbitrary at the syntactic level based on systemic functionalists and American functionalists, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, Then t he writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. So there is a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order.At last, we shouldn’t be ignored of the relationship between arbitrariness and convention. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, while convention leads language to normal and grammatical. Both of arbitrariness and conventionality develop language in parallel.。

第二部分章节题库第1章语言学导论Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _____ communication.【答案】verbal【解析】语言是一种口头交流的手段。

2. The term _____ originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language. 【答案】phatic communion【解析】寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，最先由Malinowski提出。

3. Linguistics is the scientific study of _____.【答案】language【解析】语言学是对语言的科学研究。

4. The features that define our human languages can be called _____ features. 【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。

5. Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present（in time and space）at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as _____.【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。