英语修辞学Ss' handouts2

英语修辞法18种1. 明喻 (Simile)明喻是指为了鲜明地刻画某一事，将具有某种共同特征的两种事物加以对比。

它由本体、喻体和比喻词组成。

常用的比喻词有as、like、as if、as though、as... as、similar to、to bear a resemblance to等等。

明喻能使深奥的哲理变得浅显易懂。

1.A man without religion is like a horse without a bridle. 人无信仰，犹如马无缰绳。

e a book as a bee does flowers.读书如蜜蜂采蜜。

3.Beauty without virtue is like a rose without scent.美而无德犹如花无香味。

2. 暗喻 (Metaphor)暗喻亦称为“隐喻”，它同明喻一样，也是在两个不同类对象之间进行比喻，区别在于：明喻把本体和喻体说成是相似的，而暗喻则把两者说成是一致的；明喻中有比喻词，而暗喻中不用比喻词。

1.A good book is the best of friends, the same today and forever. 好书如相伴终生的挚友。

2.A dwarf on a giant’s shoulders sees the farther of the two.侏儒站在巨人的肩上，会看得更远。

3.A teacher for a day is a father for a lifetime.一日为师，终身为父。

3.类比 (Analogy)类比是一种阐述事理的修辞格，即用人们熟悉的事例说明较深的道理，或通过具体形象阐明抽象的概念。

它主要是把两种本质上不同的事物之间的共同点加以比较。

1.Judicious praise is to children what the sun is to flowers. 明智的赞扬对于孩子的作用，就像阳光对于花朵的作用一样。

Figures of SpeechSimile (明喻):Wrong ideas may harm man just like diseases.Her face is as white as a paper.Metaphor (暗喻):He is the soul of the team.My desk is flooded with paper.There are a few lordly poplars before the house.The charcoal fire glowed and dimmed rhythmically to the stroke of the bellows. Personification (拟人):The leaves are trembling in the cold wind.Metonymy (转喻,借代):His unfriendly tongue surprised her.The grey hair should be respect.Synecdoche (提喻，部分整体):The farms were short of hands during the harvest season.They share the same roof.England won the football.Euphemism (委婉):He unfortunately passed away last year.He is out visiting the necessary.Irony (反语):You are a fine goalkeeper, allowing the other side to score six goals. Overstatement/hyperbole (夸大的叙述):Thanks a million.She wept oceans of tears.His anger nearly burst his belly.His friends praised his daughter’s performance to the skies.She eats like a bird.Understatement (保守的陈述):“What do you think of the roast duck?” “Not bad.”He has got heart trouble, but it is nothing serious.Transferred epithet (转移修饰语):The old man put a reassuring hand on my shoulder.He crashed down on a protesting chair.Oxymoron (矛盾修饰法):She read the long-awaited letter with a tearful smile.Parting is such a sweet sorrow.Alliteration (头韵):Time and tide wait for no man.Pun (双关):They pray for you today and prey on you tomorrow.Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but little sense of right and left.Customer: Waiter, will the pancakes be long? -Waiter: No, sir, round.In the window of a hearing-aid shop: “Trust us, over 5000 ears (years) of experience.”-Why can you never expect a fisherman to be so generous?-Because his business makes him sell fish (selfish).Analogy (类比):Knowledge is to the mind what nutrition is to the body.Antonomasia (换称, 专有名词代普通名词,人名、地名):He spent the whole winter in the Windy City. (Chicago)Shanghai is the New York of China.Allusion (暗示):Grammar may be his heel of Achilles.语法是他的大弱点。

Names of Stylistic Devices English Examples ChineseExamplesExplain1 Alliteration How and why he had cometo Princeton, New Jersey isa story of struggle, success,and sadness. 丑闻、丑陋和筹划使1987成为动荡的一年。

Use the samepronounce“chou”2 Assonance I feel the need, the need forspeed. “法律可能不改变的心,但它可以抑制无情。

”It means that thelaw may notchange the heart,but it can restrainthe heartless.3 Onomatopoeia The rumbling of the truck 咔咔The ticking ofthe clock4 Paronomasia You can. Canon 超越画质风采超值打印生活“da yin”in English means”print”, but in Chinese it also means a way to live.5 Graphon6 Epithet His dry humor does notseem intentional. 他坚持说我们的假定错了。

Use wet stand foridea.7 Hyperbole When I told our father aboutthis,his heart burst. 从电话里一听到我女儿的声音，我的心几乎停止跳动。

My heart almoststopped beatingwhen I heard mydaughter’s voiceon the phone.8 Meiosis"The unspeakable in fullpursuit of the uneatable." “啄木鸟检查器”,泌尿科医生"pecker checker"for urologist9 Litotes War is not healthy forchildren and other livingthings. 坟墓是一个很好的一个私人的地方,但没有,我想,会在那里拥抱。

4.3 The Tropes / Figures of Speech4.3.1 IntroductionBy figures of speech we refer here to those rhetorical devices termed tropes in classical rhetoric. Tropes have to do with the way words are made to mean other than what they would normally imply, and therefore involve deviation from the ordinary and literal meaning of words. They are ways of making our language figurative.•We are said to be speaking or writing figuratively when we use words in non-literal senses to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, or to create atmosphere. For example, it is more vivid and colorful to say that stars "twinkle like diamonds" in the sky, than to say simply that they "shine brightly" in the sky. Similarly, "Imperialism is a paper tiger" is an expression more suggestive of outward ferocity and inner weakness than the literal statement "Imperialism appears to be strong but inwardly it is weak."•Like a diamond is a simile, and paper tiger is a metaphor, and with metonymy, hyperbole, personification, paradox they make up a score or more of figures of speech most commonly used today. Each figure has its own form and characteristics, and its own way of achieving effect. Sometimes two or more figures can be used together for greater impact.A knowledge of these figures, and of how they are best used will, therefore, be of help to us not only in deepening our understanding of what we read, but also in appreciating more fully the finer points of a writer's style. In the process, we might even learn to write better ourselves.It is difficult to be precise about how many figures existed in classical times. The numbers range from 65 to 200 or more. Many of these figures, however, were over-subtle distinctions of one type or another , and such hair-splitting refinement is not essential in our age of fast high-tech communication. In this chapter only those that are of most universal appeal, and of the greatest practical value have been chosen for discussion.4.3.2 Common Tropes / Figures of Speech1. SimileA simile makes a comparison, but is different from an ordinary, literal comparison. When we say "Jim looks like his brother Billy", we are making an ordinary literal comparison, fora) we are comparing two like elements -- Jim and Billy are both human beings; andb) we mean Jim is literally like his brother in appearance.But when we say ―Jim and Billy are as like as two peas’’ we are using a simile, fora) We are comparing two unlike elements -- human beings and peas; andb) we don't mean Jim and Billy are literally like peas, but only that they have one thing in common with peas: great similarity in appearance.• A simile, then, is a figure of speech, which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic in common.The comparison is purely imaginative, that is, the resemblance between the two unlike things in that one particular aspect exists only in our minds, in our "inward eye" and not in the nature of the things themselves. To make the comparison, words like as,as … so, and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other.•Sometimes the association is between unfamiliar and familiar things, or between abstract and concrete images. The stronger the association that is felt, the greater the force of the comparison, the stronger the power of suggestion and the sharper the image produced.simile (明喻) 用like等喻词联结两类不同的事物(主体和喻体)，以表明相似关系的比喻.主体和喻体: See 李鑫华，pp8-9。

英语修辞手法总结Figures of speech (修辞)are ways of making our language figurative. When we use words in other than their ordinary or literal sense to lend force to an idea, to heighten effect, orto create suggestive imagery, we are said to be speaking or writing figuratively. Now we are going to talk about some common forms of figures of speech.1) Simile：(明喻）It is a figure of speech which makes a comparison between two unlike elements having at least one quality or characteristic (特性)in common. To make the comparison, words like as, as...as, as if and like are used to transfer the quality we associate with one to the other. For example, As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country.2) Metaphor：(暗喻）It is like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated. For example, the worldis a stage.3) Analogy: (类比）It is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance.4) Personification: (拟人）It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstractions(抽象). For example, the wind whistled through the trees.5) Hyperbole: (夸张） It is the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis. For instance, he almost died laughing.6) Understatement: (含蓄陈述） It is the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. Itachieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately(故意地) understating it,impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement. For instance, It is no laughing matter.7) Euphemism: (委婉） It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive(无冒犯) expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to "die" as " pass away".8) Metonymy (转喻）It is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the mane of one thing for that of another. For instance, the pen (words) is mightier than the sword (forces).9) Synecdoche (提喻） It is involves the substitution of the part for the whole, or thewhole for the part. For instance, they say there's bread and work for all. She was dressedin silks.10) Antonomasia (换喻）It has also to do with substitution. It is not often mentioned now, though it is still in frequent use. For example, Solomon for a wise man. Daniel for a wise and fair judge. Judas for a traitor.11) Pun: (双关语） It is a play on words, or rather a play on the form and meaning of words. For instance, a cannon-ball took off his legs, so he laid down his arms. (Here "arms" has two meanings: a person's body; weapons carried by a soldier.)12) Syllepsis: (一语双叙） It has two connotations.In the first case, it is a figure by which a word, or a particular form or inflection of a word, refers to two or more words in the same sentence, while properly applying to or agreeing with only on of them in grammar or syntax(句法). For example, He addressed you and me, and desired us to follow him. (Here us is used to refer to you and me.)In the second case, it a word may refer to two or more words in the same sentence. For example, while he was fighting , and losing limb and mind, and dying, others stayed behind to pursue education and career. (Here to losing one's limbs in literal; to lose one's mindis figurative, and means to go mad.)13) Zeugma: (轭式搭配） It is a single word which is made to modify or to govern two or more words in the same sentence, wither properly applying in sense to only one of them, orapplying to them in different senses. For example, The sun shall not burn you by day, nor the moon by night. (Here noon is not strong enough to burn)14) Irony: (反语） It is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. For instance, we are lucky, what you said makes me feel real good.15) Innuendo: (暗讽） It is a mild form of irony, hinting in a rather roundabout (曲折)way at something disparaging(不一致) or uncomplimentary(不赞美) to the person or subject mentioned. For example, the weatherman said it would be worm. He must take his readings in a bathroom.16) Sarcasm: (讽刺） It Sarcasm is a strong form of irony. It attacks in a taunting and bitter manner, and its aim is to disparage, ridicule and wound the feelings of the subject attacked. For example, laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps break through.17) Paradox: (似非而是的隽语） It is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point. For example more haste, less speed.18) Oxymoron: (矛盾修饰） It is a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining(结合) of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous(不协调) terms as in bitter-sweet memories, orderly chaos(混乱) and proud humility(侮辱).19) Antithesis: (对照） It is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words or ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve emphasis. For example, speech is silver; silence is golden.20) Epigram: (警句） It states a simple truth pithily(有利地) and pungently(强烈地). It is usually terse and arouses interest and surprise by its deep insight into certain aspects of human behavior or feeling. For instance, Few, save the poor, feel for the poor.21) Climax: (渐进） It is derived from the Greek word for "ladder" and implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or intensity,like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly. For example, I came, I saw, I conquered.22) Anti-climax or bathos: (突降）It is the opposite of Climax. It involves stating one's thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous. For instance, But thousands die, without or this or that, die, and endow(赋予) a college, or a cat.23) Apostrophe： (顿呼） In this figure of speech, a thing, place, idea or person (dead or absent) is addressed as if present, listening and understanding what is being said. For instance, England! awake! awake! awake!24) Transferred Epithet: (转类形容词） It is a figure of speech where an epithet (anadjective or descriptive phrase) is transferred from the noun it should rightly modify(修饰) to another to which it does not really apply or belong. For instance, I spent sleeplessnights on my project.25) Alliteration: (头韵） It has to do with the sound rather than the sense of words for effect. It is a device that repeats the same sound at frequent intervals(间隔) and since the sound repeated is usually the initial consonant sound, it is also called "front rhyme". For instance, the fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free.26) Onomatopoeia: (拟声） It is a device that uses words which imitate the sounds made by an object (animate or inanimate), or which are associated with or suggestive(提示的) of some action or movementExplanation version1一、什么是修辞格修辞格(figures of speech)是提高语言表达效果的语言艺术。

英语修辞学第二版课后答案1、Becky is having a great time ______ her aunt in Shanghai. （）[单选题] *A. to visitB. visitedC. visitsD. visiting(正确答案)2、5．Shanghais is known ________ “the Oriental Pearl”, so many foreigners come to visit Shanghai very year. [单选题] *A．forB．as (正确答案)C．withD．about3、27．My father is a professor and he works in__________ university. [单选题] *A．a (正确答案)B．anC．/D．the4、69．Online shopping is easy, but ________ in the supermarket usually ________ a lot of time. [单选题] *A．shop; takesB．shopping; takeC．shop; takeD．shopping; takes(正确答案)5、--All of you have passed the test!--_______ pleasant news you have told us! [单选题] *A. HowB. How aC. What(正确答案)D. What a6、It’s usually windy in spring, ______ you can see lots of people flying kites.（）[单选题] *A. so(正确答案)B. orC. butD. for7、I usually read English _______ six o’clock _______ six thirty in the morning. [单选题] *A. from;?atB. from; to(正确答案)C. at; atD. at; to8、On Mother’s Day, Cathy made a beautiful card as a ______ for her mother. [单选题] *A. taskB. secretC. gift(正确答案)D. work9、—Whose book is it? Is it yours?—No, ask John. Maybe it’s ______.（）[单选题] *A. hersB. his(正确答案)C. he’sD. her10、Will you be able to finish your homework _______? [单选题] *A. by the timeB. in time(正确答案)C. once upon a timeD. out of time11、—______? —Half a kilo.（）[单选题] *A. How much are theyB. How much is itC. How much would you like(正确答案)D. How many would you like12、( ) It tells what is going on ___the county and all____the world. [单选题] *A. across; over(正确答案)B. all; acrossC. in; inD.to; for13、The work will be finished _______ this month. [单选题] *A. at the endB. in the endC. by the endD. at the end of(正确答案)14、You wouldn' t have caught such ____ bad cold if you hadn' t been caught in ____?rain. [单选题] *A. a, /B. a, aC. a,the(正确答案)D. /, /15、—What can I do for you? —I ______ a pair of new shoes.（）[单选题] *A. likeB. would lookC. would like(正确答案)D. take16、73．The moonlight goes ____ the window and makes the room bright. [单选题] *A．acrossB．through(正确答案)C．overD．in17、The notice put _______ on the wall says “No Smoking”. [单选题] *A. up(正确答案)B. offC. awayD. out18、____ China is ____ old country with ____ long history. [单选题] *A. /, an, a(正确答案)B. The, an, aC. /, an, /D. /, the, a19、_______ win the competition, he practiced a lot. [单选题] *A. BecauseB. In order to(正确答案)C. Thanks toD. In addition to20、I used to take ____ long way to take the bus that went by ____ tunnel under the water. [单选题] *A. a, aB. a. theC. a, /(正确答案)D. the, a21、He often comes to work early and he is _______ late for work. [单选题] *A. usuallyB. never(正确答案)C. oftenD. sometimes22、--Don’t _______ too late, or you will feel tired in class.--I won’t, Mum. [单选题] *A. call upB. wake upC. stay up(正确答案)D. get up23、The early Americans wanted the King to respect their rights. [单选题] *A. 统治B. 满足C. 尊重(正确答案)D. 知道24、You should take the medicine after you read the _______. [单选题] *A. linesB. wordsC. instructions(正确答案)D. suggestions25、In winter, animals have a hard time_____anything to eat. [单选题] *A.to findB.finding(正确答案)C.foundD.to finding26、It was difficult to guess what her_____to the news would be. [单选题] *A.impressionmentC.reaction(正确答案)D.opinion27、--Is that the correct spelling?--I don’t know. You can _______ in a dictionary [单选题] *A. look up itB. look it forC. look it up(正确答案)D. look for it28、I usually do some ____ on Sundays. [单选题] *A. cleaningsB. cleaning(正确答案)C. cleansD. clean29、Nick has always been good _______ finding cheap flights. [单选题] *A. at(正确答案)B. forC. withD. to30、I don't know the man _____ you are talking about. [单选题] *A. who'sB. whose(正确答案)C. whomD. which。

高级英语2第十课修辞总结摘要：一、引言二、高级英语2 第十课修辞学概述1.比喻2.拟人3.夸张4.反问三、修辞手法在实际英语写作中的应用1.比喻1.明喻2.隐喻2.拟人3.夸张4.反问四、修辞手法在提高英语写作效果的作用五、结论正文：【引言】高级英语2 第十课主要介绍了修辞学中的几种重要手法，包括比喻、拟人、夸张和反问。

这些修辞手法在英语写作中有着广泛的应用，能够有效地提高文章的表达效果和吸引力。

【高级英语2 第十课修辞学概述】修辞学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究如何运用各种语言手段来增强语言表达的效果。

在第十课中，我们主要学习了以下四种修辞手法：1.比喻：通过将两种本质上不同的事物进行类比，以形象生动的方式表达抽象的概念。

比喻可以分为明喻和隐喻两种。

2.拟人：将无生命的事物赋予生命和人的特征，使其具有感情、动作等。

3.夸张：对某一事物的特点进行夸大描述，以突出表现其特性。

4.反问：提出一个问题，但实际上并不需要对方回答，其目的是为了加强语气，表达说话者的观点。

【修辞手法在实际英语写作中的应用】在英语写作中，我们可以灵活运用这些修辞手法来提高文章的表达效果。

以下是一些实例：1.比喻：例如，“时间是金钱”，通过将时间和金钱进行类比，形象地表达了时间的宝贵。

2.拟人：例如，“月亮羞涩地躲在云朵后面”，将月亮赋予了人的情感和动作。

3.夸张：例如，“他饿得能吃下一头牛”，夸张地描述了他的饥饿程度。

4.反问：例如，“这难道不是一件很明显的事情吗？”通过反问加强语气，表达说话者的观点。

【修辞手法在提高英语写作效果的作用】修辞手法的运用可以使文章更加生动、有趣，增强读者的阅读兴趣。

同时，修辞手法还能够有效地传达作者的情感和观点，使文章更具说服力。

因此，学习和掌握修辞手法对于提高英语写作水平具有重要意义。

【结论】总之，高级英语2 第十课为我们介绍了四种重要的修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张和反问。

在英语写作中，我们可以灵活运用这些修辞手法来提高文章的表达效果和吸引力。

20种英语修辞手法整理英语修辞手法是英语写作中常用的一种技巧，通过巧妙地运用修辞手法，可以增加文章的表现力和吸引力，使读者更加有兴趣阅读。

本文将整理介绍20种常见的英语修辞手法。

一、比喻（Metaphor）比喻是一种常见的修辞手法，用于通过将两个不相干的事物进行比较，以增强表达的效果。

例如：“他是一只勇敢的狮子。

”二、暗喻（Implicit Metaphor）暗喻是一种通过隐晦的方式进行比喻的修辞手法，不直接明示被比较的事物。

例如：“他是个夜猫子。

”三、拟人（Personification）拟人是将非人事物赋予人的特质或行为的修辞手法。

例如：“大地张开了它温暖的怀抱。

”四、夸张（Hyperbole）夸张是一种通过夸大事物的说法来产生强烈效果的修辞手法。

例如：“我等了一万年。

”五、对比（Contrast）对比是一种通过将两个不同或相反的事物进行相互对比，以突出差异或强调某一方面的修辞手法。

例如：“他的言行恰恰相反。

”六、排比（Parallelism）排比是一种通过对句子或短语进行平行结构的修辞手法，以强调重点或增加语句的节奏感。

例如：“奋斗，拼搏，追求，努力。

”七、倒装（Inversion）倒装是一种颠倒语序的修辞手法，常常用于疑问句或为了强调某一部分。

例如：“Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.”八、反问（Rhetorical Question）反问是一种用疑问句的形式表达肯定或否定的修辞手法，常用于强调某一观点或引起读者思考。

例如：“难道你不想成功吗？”九、比较（Comparison）比较是通过将两个事物进行对比，以凸显共同点或差异的修辞手法。

例如：“学习就像是爬山，充满了艰辛和挑战。

”十、设问（Hypophora）设问是一种在文章中提出问题，并在下文中进行回答的修辞手法，常用于引起读者的关注和思考。

例如：“你知道成功的秘诀是什么吗？答案很简单——努力。

Brief Introduction1. Definition of RhetoricRhetoric is regarded as a science of heightening linguistic effective expressions, and the art of effective communication.2. Contents of Rhetoric1) Rhetoric is composed of theoretical rhetoric and practical rhetoric.Theoretical rhetoric deals with theoretical problems of rhetoric.Practical rhetoric helps us improve our ability to use the English language effectively.2) Rhetoric is classified, by some linguists, as communicative rhetoric and aesthetic rhetoric. Communicative rhetoric is also called passive rhetoric in China, which deals with the choice of words, the choice of sentences and the arrangement of paragraphs.Aesthetic rhetoric is termed as active rhetoric, dealing with figures of speech.Broadly speaking, rhetoric covers all the elements of oral and written things, including structure, diction, rhythm, tone, style, and anything related to the effective use of language.3. Dimensions of Rhetoric1) To improve our ability to polish writing.2) To improve our ability of analysis and appreciation.3) To improve our ability of comprehension and translation.4. Rhetorical Research Activities1) Go on studying the traditional and modern rhetorical schools and carry forward the fine traditions while assimilating new concepts, new ideas and new methodologies so as to improve the research and teaching of English rhetoric.2) Make a comparative study of English rhetoric and Chinese rhetoric, which will not only promote international exchanges but also further our studies of English rhetoric by specific attention being paid to our mother tongue.3) Combine the study of English rhetoric with a study of other aspects of English and even other branches of learning. This is a new approach, and it often results in multidisciplinary research topics, for example, rhetoric in discourse, psycho-rhetoric, rhetorical translation, pragmatic rhetoric, rhetoric in journalism, etc.5. The Rhetorical TriangleAccording to Patrick Hartwell, the rhetorical triangle has two functions: an explanatory model for readers and a generative model for writers.The explanatory model can explain our reading. As an explanatory model, the rhetorical triangle clarifies what goes on as we communicate. We adapt our message to our readers or audience, and we present ourselves differently for different readers and listeners.The rhetorical triangle also serves as a generative model for writers and speakers. By the term "generative model", we mean that the rhetorical triangle helps writers or speakers to produce arguments, strategies, and appeals.6. Types of Errors in LanguageIn this course, we divide all the errors occurring in the English language into three types: grammatical errors, logical errors, and rhetorical errors.1) grammatical errorsAs regard to grammar, it is a branch of linguistics science, dealing with systematic rules of a language. The aim of studying grammar is to know whether an expression is correct or not according to grammatical rules and usage, not caring much about any particular situation. Therefore when an expression is not in agreement with these rules or usage, a grammatical error will occur.2) logical errorsAs for logic, it is the science of reasoning, dealing with the laws of thinking, the sequences of thought, the natural and necessary chains of cause and effect, and so on. Either a good expression in rhetoric or a correct expression in grammar is usually based on correct reasoning; otherwise there will be logical errors.3) rhetoric errorsRhetoric is the art of effectively using language in speech or writing; and the aim of studying it is to make our readers and listeners obtain a desired effect. In this sense, any statement, unclear in meaning, inappropriate in style, loose in structure, or disunities or incoherent or redundant in expression, naturally falls under rhetorical fault.Evidently, three types of errors are all associated with the relationship between grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Rhetoric is considered to consist of the combination of grammar and logic. Generally, a good expression in rhetoric is not only correct in grammar, but also consistent in logic.Rhetorical Functions of Words2.1 Words for appropriateness1. dialect：a variety of language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a particular social class (social dialect),which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.2. slang：casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. Slang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny.3. formal, common, and colloquial wordsFormal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, such as scholarly or theoretical works, political and legal documents, and formal lectures and addresses.Common words are those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing. Colloquial words are those that people use in informal situations when the speaker is not paying particular attention to pronunciation, choice of words, or sentence structure.There are three levels of words, with the formal or learned at the top, the colloquial at the bottom, and the common in the middle. Common words are good for all kinds of writing; formal words are as a rule seldom used in informal writing, while colloquial words are seldom used in formal writing, unless for some special purpose or effect.4. Archaic words are old forms that survive in our understanding and are used generations ago, but are very seldom used today. Perhaps the best known archaic word in English is thou, the oldsingular form of you.5. A neologism is a newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language.6. When writing technical (scientific, medical, legal, etc.) articles, it is usually the case that a number of technical terms specific to the subject matter will be presented.7. euphemism：the use of a word which is thought to be less offensive or unpleasant than another word.8. sexist languagesexist language is considered to be any language that is supposed to include all people, but, unintentionally (or not) excludes a gender—this can be either males or females.2.2 Words for accuracy1. denotative meaning & connotative meaningThe meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A word's denotative is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it. Denotative words are used for clearness; connotative words can be employed to create rich connotation.2. general words & specific wordsGeneral and specific are terms which are both opposite and relative.Nouns are general when they refer to groups or classes of persons, things, events; they are specific when they refer to individual persons, things or events. For instance, professionals are more general than scientists, doctors, teacher, etc.Adjectives and adverbs are general when they describe features or qualities common to many; they are specific when these features or qualities are particularized.Verbs are general when they indicate the broad nature of an activity; they are specific when they state the actual nature of that activity.3. concrete words & abstract wordsConcrete words are really a special kind of specific diction: they describe the identifiable qualities of particular things, feelings, events, such as church, book, chair, etc. They have clear referents in the real world, and can be used for specifying something and for clearness.Abstract words refer to characteristics that many things have in common, such as beauty, power, intelligence, etc.2.3 Words for clearnessRhetoric of ParagraphsⅠ. What is a Paragraph?It is usually a group of related sentences used for developing a thought.It is a structure that has a continuous current of thought, well connected and properly adjusted.It is paragraphs that compose a text.In general, the length of a paragraph is indefinite.Ⅱ.Types of Paragraphs1. Opening paragraphsAn opening paragraph begins an essay and guides both writer and reader through the rest of the essay. In the opening paragraph the topic sentence is usually the thesis statement that controls all the remaining paragraphs of the essay. The other sentences in the opening paragraph all support the topic sentence.Very often a writer begins with a specific example or illustration, a quotation, an interesting statistic --- whatever he believes will encourage the reader to reader further.2. Concluding paragraphsA concluding paragraph, the one that ends an essay, is the writer’s final opportunity to restate the main idea of the essay. It often repeats in other words what was stated in the opening paragraph.The topic sentence of a concluding paragraph is usually a restatement of the main idea of the essay, and its supporting sentences are often reworded versions of the topic sentences of earlier paragraphs.3. Body paragraphsBody paragraphs, also termed as amplifying paragraphs, refer to the paragraphs between the opening paragraph and the concluding paragraph, making up the vast majority of a text. They aim at accomplishing the thesis statement presented in the opening paragraph.4. Transitional paragraphsA transitional paragraph serving as a bridge between two paragraphs is a transition from one side to another. Such a paragraph is usually short. It aims to sum up what went before and show where the thought will now lead.Ⅲ.Rhetorical Principles of Paragraphs1. UnityParagraph unity refers to that sentences comprising the paragraph should be intimately connected with one another in thought as well as in purpose. In other words, an effective paragraph usually shows one central idea, and every sentence in that paragraph develops or clarifies that central idea.Paragraph unity can be secured through the topic sentence which shows the central theme and summarizes the main idea in the paragraph no matter where the topic sentence appears.Topic sentences may be presented in different ways.1) Topic sentence firstThe topic sentence comes first in a paragraph, which is good for the writer and the reader to have an immediate direction.2) Topic sentence lastThe topic sentence lies at the end of a paragraph, serving as a conclusion of that paragraph and promoting suspense for the reader.3) Topic sentence interiorA topic sentence may lie in the middle of a paragraph, which usually functions as a transition of the two parts of that paragraph.4) Topic sentences first and lastIn a paragraph there may be two topic sentences. One leads the paragraph as a theme; the other is at the end of it, functioning as a conclusion.5) Topic impliedSometimes there is not any topic sentence in a paragraph, and it is unnecessary to have one, because the subject dealt with in that paragraph is clear. In this case the topic sentence is implied.2. CoherenceParagraph coherence refers to that the sentences in a paragraph should be put in the best order so as to bring out the unified thought and to show the clear relationship among the sentences in that paragraph.To secure paragraph coherence each sentence a writer uses in that paragraph should be so arranged that it follows on naturally from the previous sentence, and the sentences expressing less important ideas should be subordinated to those that contain more important ones.1) Using transitional words;2) Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;3) Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.3. EmphasisParagraph emphasis refers that an important idea or something a writer or a speaker wants to emphasize in a paragraph, which makes the paragraph more vivid and effective.There are four principles of emphasis in a paragraph.1. Placing the most important ideas in emphatic positionAs a rule, the most emphatic position is at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph, while the middle of the paragraph is usually the least emphatic position.2. Repeating the idea a be emphasizedThe repetition of key words or ideas can serve to provide emphasis in a paragraph.3. Using parallel structure4. Ending a paragraph (esp. the last paragraph) with a short sentenceⅣ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a paragraphThe first thing a writer should do is to plan a paragraph.1) First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence).2) Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the earliest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps must occur one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important.4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.5. Development by Examples or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, an instance. Vivid illustrations light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing. Illustrations may bea single example or a series of examples.1) General-to-specific patternThis pattern begins with a topic sentence. Then details are given to back up the opening statement.2) The specific-to-general patternThis pattern usually begins with details. Then the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastA comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons or things of the same class, while a contrast, the differences between them. In practice, comparison and contrast often appear together. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clear picture of things.1) To examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other.In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast.2) To examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point.This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.7. Development by Cause and EffectThere are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect.1) To state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes.For example, the topic sentence is:"In the past few years, higher education has become less important to young people than it was previously." This is an effect. It should be followed by a discussion of the causes of this effect, such as the pressure of fierce competition, better opportunities in the job market, much of the knowledge taught in universities and colleges being out-dated, and so forth.2) To state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.Suppose the topic sentence is:"More and more fertile land in China is taken up by new buildings". In the rest of the paragraph the effects of this development should be mentioned, such as the reduction of the grain output, increasing environmental problems, too many peasants moving into the cities, etc.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. We group things according to their similarities and differences.9. Development by DefinitionSometimes, to avoid confusion or misunderstanding, we have to define a word, term, or concept which is unfamiliar to most readers or open to various interpretations.There are three basic ways to define a word or term:1) to give a synonym2) to use a sentence(often with an attributive clause)3) to write a paragraph or even an essay10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Types of WritingⅠ.DescriptionDescription is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene. A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impression of one's senses --- sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.PS. Not all details are useful.The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and should leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.1. Description of a personNot merely give details of his appearance;Reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings --- shown in what the person does and says, or in how he behaves to others;Grasp the characteristic features that distinguished him from all other people;Omit those features that he shares with others.2. Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, as in essays on visits to famous scenic places, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. In describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.3. Description of an objectMention the object's size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell;Tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person's life if it is in some way related to him;Place emphasis on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.4. Description of a sceneA scene usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions. It is also possible to describe the scene of some natural phenomenon. The writer should create a dominant impression when describing a scene.Ⅱ.NarrationNarrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, new items, and narrative poems. Narration often goes hand in hand with description. A narrative should contain five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.Ⅲ.ExpositionAn exposition paper explains or explores something, such as the process of making a machine, the causes of a natural or social phenomenon, the planning of a project, or the solution of a problem.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this, the writer should:1. Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay;2. Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation; the ordinary reader often finds abstract discussions hard to follow if they are not illustrated by concrete examples;3. Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4. Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;5. Make his exposition, if possible, interesting or moving ---- an experienced writer can often instruct and move or entertain his reader at the same time.1. IllustrationIllustration is the use of examples to illustrate a point. A successful illustration paper depends on:1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant --- the examples may be either personal experiences or second-hand information from reliable sources;2) An expert arrangement of these examples ---- similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.2. Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division stresses the distinction between things, while classification emphasizes the similarities.Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. For example, a pair of glasses can be divided into the frame and the lens, and a composition, into introduction, body, and conclusion.Classification, on the other hand, is to group these things systematically. For example, courses in college can be classified into “elective” and “required/obligatory”, or into those taught in the native language and those offered in foreign languages. The same group of things may be classified according to different principles.When using division or classification in your writing, keep in mind the following guidelines: A. Choose an appropriate principle of division/classification suited to your purpose. Be sure that the principle is interesting and significant.B. Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.3. Comparison and ContrastA comparison explains how things are similar, and a contrast, how they are different.When you write a comparison/ contrast paper, keep in mind the following principles of selection and development:1) Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared/ contrasted.A good comparison/contrast essay tells the reader not the obvious but the significant similarities and differences which people may neglect or overlook.2) A comparison/contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns: the subject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.In the subject-by-subject pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on to the other. (in short essays)In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared/contrasted. (in long essays.)3) The comparison/contrast should be balanced; the two items being compared/ contrasted are to be given equal treatment.4) The comparison/contrast should be supported by concrete and relevant facts.5) A comparison/contrast shows similarities and differences in order to make a particular point.4. Cause and EffectA cause-effect essay is a piece of expository writing showing or explaining the cause and/or effect of something.A cause paper begins with an introduction which briefly describes the effect, and then the entire body of the paper analyses the causes.An effect paper begins with an introduction describing the cause, and the rest of the paper discusses the effects.When writing the paper, try to remember the following logical requirements:1) Do not over-simplify causes.2) Beware especially of not making a mistake in logic.3) Distinguish between direct and indirect causes and effects and between major and minor causes and effects.Your paper should not treat all causes and effects equally but give more space to major ones.4) Do not omit links in a chain of causes and effects.5) Be objective and support the analysis with solid, factual evidence.5. DefinitionThere are two main types of definitions --- logical or formal, and extended or informal.1) The logical or formal definition is the dictionary definition which is rigid in form.2) Definition papers consist mostly of extended or informal definitions. When you write a definition paper, keep in mind the following points:A. A definition paper discusses abstract such as liberty, equality, etc., the denotative and especially connotative meanings of which are often different to different people.B. A definition paper presents the essential nature and the qualities of the discussed subject and shows how it is different from others like it and often explains why we need to know about it.C. Definition papers follow no set pattern.D. A definition paper may be either deductive or inductive.The deductive essay begins with a definition which is followed by other expository patterns; the inductive essay reaches the definition after employing any of the other methods of development.Ⅳ.ArgumentationAn argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to approve a policy or a course of action that it proposes.Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration and exposition.1. A good argumentative essay should contain following points:2. A debatable point;3. Sufficient evidence;4. Good logic;5. Clear logic;6. Good use of the other three types of writing --- description, narration, and exposition;7. An honest and friendly attitude.Figures of Speech1. SimileSimile is an explicit comparison between two different things which are similar in one respect, though quite unlike in actuality.A simile is usually made up of three parts:1) A tenor, the thing described;2) A vehicle, the thing compared to;3) A connective word, which is used to connect the tenor and the vehicle and show the relationship of comparison.Modern English uses many short comparisons in order to make expressions clear and vivid. Most of them are used with adjectives, and follow the pattern “as + adjective+as+noun”.2. MetaphorMetaphor is another figure of speech in which a word or expression normally used of one kind of object, action, etc, is extended to another. It also makes a comparison between two things that are essentially different from each other yet are similar in a certain respect. Unlike simile, this comparison is only implied rather than explicitly expressed.Rhetorical Function of Simile and MetaphorThey can draw attention to the similarity between two unlike things, so that the reader can get an immediate image of straightness, thinness, length, sharpness, etc. and give the force of concretereality to abstract things. This expression can certainly help the reader to create a vivid picture in his mind, and make the description more effective.3. PersonificationPersonification is a figure of speech that attributes human qualities to animals, or gives life or personality to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.Personification, according to its rhetorical functions, can be divided into two things:1) Inanimate objects or abstractions are described, either in verb, or a noun, or an adjective, as humans by giving them personal attributes. Its purpose is to add beauty and vividness to the description.2) Inanimate objects or abstractions are addressed directly as human beings, the purpose of which is to express one’s strong feelings and emotion s.4. AnalogyAnalogy is a special form of comparison which draws parallel similarities between two unlike things. Unlike simile or metaphor, this comparison goes beyond simile and metaphor, for it points up a large number of similarities between the two unlikes. The more points of similarities, the stronger the analogy.Analogy is usually constructed in the following patterns:1) A is to B as C is to D2) A is to B what C is to D3) (Just) as a...B, (so) C...D5. MetonymyMetonymy is a figure of speech that doesn't express a similarity of one thing to another in some respect but expresses an association between the thing spoken of and the thing meant.6. SynecdocheSynecdoche is a figure of speech in which an expression denoting a part is used to refer to a whole; also, in the traditional definition, vice versa.7. ParallelismParallelism is a structure in which ideas of equal value are parallel, or expressed in the same grammatical form, so that the reader or audience can regard two or more things as related and equal in importance.8. AntithesisAntithesis is the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words, ideas, or the balancing of one thing against another opposing or contrasting thing.What are contrasted may be words, phrases, clauses, sentences--- even paragraphs or whole sections of a literary work, but antithesis most often consists in the contrast between two parts of a sentence.9. AnastropheAnastrophe is a change in the normal order of words and it is used to emphasize a particular。

英语22种修辞手法以及例句归纳总结常见英语修辞手法总共有22种，分别为明喻、转喻、提喻、隐喻、拟人、拟声、夸张、双关、讽刺、联觉、头韵、委婉、修辞反问、隽语、对照、渐进法、渐降法、引用、叠言、仿拟、排比、寓言。

一、明喻（Simile）是以两种具有相同特征的事物和现象进行对比，表明本体和喻体之间的相似关系，两者都在对比中出现。

常用比喻词like, as, as if, as though,seem,similar to, such as等，Eg：1. This elephant is like a snake as anybody can see.这头象和任何人见到的一样像一条蛇。

2. He looked as if he had just stepped out of my book of fairytales and had passed me like a spirit.他看起来好像刚从我的童话书中走出来，像一个幽灵一样从我身边走过。

3. It has long leaves that sway in the wind like slim fingers reaching to touch something.它那长长的叶子在风中摆动，好像伸出纤细的手指去触摸什么东西似的。

二、隐喻（Metaphor）这种比喻不通过比喻词进行，而是直接将用事物当作乙事物来描写，甲乙两事物之间的联系和相似之处是暗含的。

Eg：1、The diamond department was the heart and center of the store.钻石部是商店的心脏和核心。

2. He is a pig.他简直是头猪。

（比喻：他是一个像猪一般的人，指肮脏，贪吃的人。

）3. She is a woman with a stony heart.她是一个铁石心肠的女人。

（比喻：这个女人冷酷无情。

）4.Mark Twain is a mirror of America.马克•吐温是美国的一面镜子。

英语修辞学Sshandouts1English Rhetoric Chapter 1The definition of Rhetoric:n.1. a. The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively.b. A treatise or book discussing this art.2. Skill in using language effectively and persuasively.3. a. A style of speaking or writing, especially the language ofa particularsubject: fiery political rhetoric.b. Language that is elaborate, pretentious, insincere, or intellectually vacuous:His offers of compromise were mere rhetoric.4. Verbal communication; discourse.-- The free online dictionarySome more Definitions of RhetoricPlato: Rhetoric is "the art of winning the soul by discourse."Aristotle:Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion.Cicero: "Rhetoric is one great art comprised of five lesser arts: inventio, dispositio, elocutio, memoria, and pronunciatio." Rhetoric is "speech designed to persuade."Quintillian: "Rhetoric is the art of speaking well."Francis Bacon: Rhetoric is the application of reason to imagination "for the better moving of the will."George Campbell: [Rhetoric] is that art or talent by which discourse is adapted to its end. The four ends of discourse are to enlighten the understanding, please the imagination, move thepassion, and influence the will.A. Richards: Rhetoric is the study of misunderstandings and their remedies. Kenneth Burke: "Rhetoric is rooted in an essential function of language itself, a function that is wholly realistic and continually born anew: the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols.""Wherever there is persuasion, there is rhetoric, and wherever there is rhetoric, there is meaning."Richard Weaver: Rhetoric is that "which creates an informed appetition for the good."Erika Lindemann: "Rhetoric is a form of reasoning about probabilities, based on Assumptions people share as members of a community."Andrea Lunsford: "Rhetoric is the art, practice, and study of human communication."Francis Christensen: "Grammar maps out the possible; rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable or effective." "The key question for rhetoric is how to know what is desirable."Sonja and Karen Foss: "Rhetoric is an action human beings perform when they use symbols for the purpose of communicating with one another . . , [and it] is a perspective humans take that involves focusing on symbolic processes."Reading 1The following is an excerpt from Erich Segal’s novel Man, Woman and Child, which tells about how Shiela (the wife) was shocked when Robert (her husband) confessed that he once had an affair with another woman. Can you find any figures of speech in this piece? Does it reach the goal of communication? If so, what makes it effective and expressive?(H – husband; W – wife. And for the convenience of analysisthe conversation is numbered.)1)H: Honey, I gotta talk to you.2)W: Sure. Is something wrong?3)H: Well, sort of. Yes.4)W: Bob, something in your voice scares me. Have I doneanything?5)H: No. It’s me. I’ve done it. Shiela, remember when you werepregnant with Paula?6)W: Yes?7)H: I had to fly to Europe – Montpellier – to give thatpaper…8)W: And?9)H: I had an affair.10)W: No. This is some terrible joke. Isn’t it?11)H: No. It’s true. I –I’m sorry.12)W: Who?13)H: Nobody. Nobody special.14)W: Who, Robert?15)H: Her – her name was Nicole Guirin. She was a doctor.16)W: And how long did it last?17)H: Two, three days.18)W: Two days or three days? I want to know.19)H: Three days. Does all this matter?20)W: Everything matters. I thought our marriage was based ontotal honesty. Why didn’t you ever tell me?21)H: I was waiting for the right moment.22)W: And ten years later was the right moment? No doubt youthought it would be easier. On whom?23)H: I didn’t want to hurt you, Shiela. If it’s anyconsol ation, that’s the only time.24)W: No, it isn’t any consolation. Once is more than never.25)H: Shiela, that was so long ago. I had to tell you now because–I mean… She’s dead.26)W: For God’s sake. Bob, why are you telling me all this?27)H: Shiela, I am telling you because she had a child.28)W: And we have two – so what?29)H: He’s mine. The boy is mine.30)W: Oh, no, it can’t be true.31)H: Yes, it is true. I didn’t know about him. Shiela. Pleasebelieve me.32)W: Why? Why should I believe anything you tell me now?33)H: Shiela, listen –34)W: No. I’ve heard enough. Bob, why’d you have to tell me?Why?35)H: Because I don’t know what to do. And because I somehowthought you’d help.36)W: You can’t know how it hurts. I trusted you. I trusted.–37)H: Please, honey. I’ll do anything to make it right.38)W: You can’t.39)H: You don’t mean that you want to split…?40)W: Robert, I don’t have any strength right now. For anything.You could do me a big favor.41)H: Anything?W: Sleep in your study, please.Reading 2:Rhetorical principles for arranging one’s data in writing:The first principle is “obvious before remarkable, i.e., to put one’s basic points before the more innovative or novel material. This is like “bridge building”: creating a stable progress ion from what is more solidly established to what is new.The second is “presentation before refutation.”In using this scheme, the writer should present or review the argument he or she intends to discount before proceeding to the actual refutation.A prin ciple somewhat related to the second is “explanation before complication”–supplying the reader with necessary basic information on a topic or issue before offering more complicated discussion of the topic or issue.“Solvable before unsolvable”is the fourt h principle under our discussion. When one has to describe in a paper a series of problems, some of which have apparent solutions while others do not, they should not be listed in random order; instead, they should be presented according to their degree of apparent solvability. Such an arrangement would best fit the notion of bridge building, allowing the writer to establish more solvable problems as relatively more stable bases from which to proceed to the discussion of less solvable problems.The fifth principle, similar to the second, is called “appreciation before criticism.” This principle, not to be confused with the standard rhetorical advice to establish common ground with one’s opposition, applies to the arrangement of placing positive aspects of his or her critiquebefore negative aspects.The sixth arrangement scheme is “literal before symbolic,” which a writer can employ when writing analytic or interpretive essays. According to this strategy, when a paper includes both literal and symbolic interpretations, as of a line or image from a poem, for example, literal observations generally proceeds the symbolic counterparts of those observations, for the symbolic interpretation in some respect arises from literal one.Principle 7 is “rule before exceptions,” which is to advise a writer to place ideas or examples that constitute or support what is generally or typically the case before looking at those that deviate. Stating exceptions before rules is obviously possible, but doing so requires a better skill of arrangement and presentation so as to put the cart beforethe horse. This point applies to the previous principles as well.(Adapted from “Identifying and Teaching Rhetorical Plans for Arrangement” by Joanne M. Podis and Leonard A. Podis) Exercise OneI. Fill in each blank with a suitable word.1.Rhetoric involves practicing the most ____ means or strategies forinforming ____ persuading an audience. All writing, ____ technical or business writing, is “____.”Deciding what to write, ____ to write it, ho w best to ____ your reader’s attention, and how to ____ or persuade your reader requires creativity ____ imagination. Every field of study requires the skills ____ writing courses teach: exploring new ideas, ____ concepts and processes, communication with others, ____ finding fresh or creative solutions to ____.2.Grammar is the law of ____ language, considered aslanguage;rhetoric ____ the art of language, considered ____ thought.Grammar tells what is ____; rhetoric tells what is effective ____ pleasing.II. Compare the following pairs of sentences, and determine which sentence is more effective.1.A) They wander into the church and aimlessly look around.B) They wander into the church and look around aimlessly.2.A) They, at last, know what they are seeing.B) They know what they are seeing at last.3.A) The curtain comes down as soon as the last boat has gone.B) As soon as the last boat has gone, down comes the curtain.4.A) The boy said that he was thirsty and could drink a big bottle ofwater.B) The boy said that he was dying of thirst and could drink up thewhole sea.。

大学英语教材中常见的英语修辞摘要：英语修辞在大学英语教材中是一项重要的内容。

因为有些修辞用法相似，所以很难区别。

现以大学英语教材中常见的四种修辞为例并介绍它们的特征以及如何区分。

关键词：英语修辞；明喻；暗喻；拟人；委婉语1 明喻（simile）明喻是表现一事物像另一事物的修辞格。

说得通俗点，也就是打比方，即把要描述的事物——本体（A）用比喻词与另一种具有鲜明的同一特征的事物——喻体（B）联系起来。

常用的比喻词有 as（如）， like（像）， seem（似乎）， as if（好像）， as though（好像）， such as（像……一样）等。

其基本格式是"A is like B"或"A is as…as B"。

例如：（1）Her eyes were blue as flowers，and in her pale green suit she was like springtime come alive.她的眼睛碧蓝，如花似玉。

她身穿浅绿色套装，犹如春天一般生机盎然。

（Unit 5 Text A，New College English 1）课文中作者把霍利思·梅奈尔小姐的青春活力和春天万物欣欣向荣联系起来。

（2）Records fell like ripe apples on a windy day.（E.B.White）被打破的记录犹如刮风天成熟的苹果——纷纷坠落。

（3）We feel as if we've been faxed.（Unit 7 Text A，New College English 4）太热了，我们觉得自己被传真过似的。

请注意下面这句话：Jim looks like his brother Billy.吉姆和他的兄弟比利长得很像。

这句话就不是明喻：这里把两件相同的事物（两个人）做比较。

2 暗喻（metaphor）这种比喻不通过比喻词进行，而是直接将甲事物当作乙事物来描写，甲乙两事物之间的联系和相似之处是暗含的。

英语修辞手法英语中的修辞与汉语的修辞相比,分类细,种类多.下面将英语的修辞简单介绍如下:1.Simile 明喻明喻是将具有共性的不同事物作对比.这种共性存在于人们的心里,而不是事物的自然属性.标志词常用like, as, seem, as if, as though, similar to, such as等.例如:1>.He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear him crow.2>.I wandered lonely as a cloud.3>.Einstein only had a blanket on, as if he had just walked out of a fairy tale.2.Metaphor 隐喻,暗喻隐喻是简缩了的明喻,是将某一事物的名称用于另一事物,通过比较形成.例如:1>.Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper.2>.Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.3.Metonymy 借喻,转喻借喻不直接说出所要说的事物,而使用另一个与之相关的事物名称.I.以容器代替内容,例如:1>.The kettle boils. 水开了.2>.The room sat silent. 全屋人安静地坐着.II.以资料.工具代替事物的名称,例如:Lend me your ears, please. 请听我说.III.以作者代替作品,例如:a complete Shakespeare莎士比亚全集VI.以具体事物代替抽象概念,例如:I had the muscle, and they made money out of it. 我有力气,他们就用我的力气赚钱.4.Synecdoche 提喻提喻用部分代替全体,或用全体代替部分,或特殊代替一般.例如:1>.There are about 100 hands working in his factory.(部分代整体)他的厂里约有100名工人.2>.He is the Newton of this century.(特殊代一般)他是本世纪的牛顿.3>.The fox goes very well with your cap.（整体代部分）这狐皮围脖与你的帽子很相配.5.Synaesthesia 通感,联觉,移觉这种修辞法是以视.听.触.嗅.味等感觉直接描写事物.通感就是把不同感官的感觉沟通起来，借联想引起感觉转移，“以感觉写感觉”。

高级英语2修辞总结归纳Lessonl1 We can batten down and ride it out.--metaphor2 Everybody out the back door to the cars!--elliptical sentence3 Telephone poles and 20-inch-thick pines cracked like guns as the winds snapped them.-simile4 Several vacationers at the luxurious Richelie u Apartments there held a hurricaneparty to watch the storm from their spectacular vantage point--transferred epithet5 Strips of clothing festooned the standing trees, and blown down power lines coiledlike black spaghetti over the roads-metaphor, simileLesson21 The little crowd of mourners —all men and boys, no women——threaded their wayacross the market place between the piles of pomegranates and the taxis and the camels,wailing a short chant over and over again.——elliptical sentence2 A carpenter sitscross-legged at a prehistoric lathe, turning chair-legs at lightning speed.—— historical present , transferred epithet3 Still,a white skin is always fairly conspicuous.——syncdoche4 As the storks flew northward the Negroes were marching southward——a long, dusty column, infantry, screw-gun batteries, adnthen more infantry, four or five thousandmen in all, winding up the road with a clumping of boots and a clatter of iron wheels.——onomatopoetic words symbolism5 Not hostile, not contemptuous, not sullen, not even inquisitive.——ellipticalsentence6 And really it was like watching a flock of cattle to see the long column,a mile ortwo miles of armed men, flowing peacefully up the road, while the great white birdsdrifted over them in the opposite direction, glittering like scraps of paper.——simileLesson31 The fact that their marriages may be on the rocks, or that their love affairs havebeen broken or even that they got out of bed on the wrong side is simply not a concern.——metaphor2 They are like the musketeers of Dumas who, although they lived side by side witheach other, did not delve into, each other's lives or the recesses of their thoughtsand feelings.——simile3 It was on such an occasion te other evening, as the conversation moved desultorilyhere and there, from the most commonplace to thoughts of Jupiter, without and focusand with no need for one that suddenly the alchemy of conversation took place, andall at once the r was a focus.—— metaphor4 The Elizabethans blew on it as on a dandelion clock, and its seeds multiplied, andfloated to the ends of the earth.—simile5 Even with the most educated and the most literate, the King's English slips andslides in conversation.——metaphor, alliteration6 When E. M. Fo rster writes of“the sinister corridor of our age,”we sit up at the vividness of the phrase, the force and even terror in the image.——metaphorLesson41 Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that thetorch has been passed to a new generation of Americans, born in this century, temperedby war, disciplined by ahard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage, and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of these human rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world.——alliteration2 Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, suppor any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.——parataxis consonance5 Let us never negotiate out of fear, but let us never fear to negotiate.——regression6 All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days.——historical allusion, climax7 And so, my fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you;ask what you can do for your country.———contrast,windingLesson71 Here was the very heart of industrial America, the center of its most lucrative and characteristic activity, the boast and pride of the richest and grandest nation ever seen on earth —— and here was a scene so dreadfully hideous, so intolerably bleak and forlorn that it reduced the whole aspiration of man to a mac abre and depressing joke.——metaphor,hyperbole,antithetical contrast2 Here was wealth beyond computation, almost beyond imagination ——and here were human habitations so abominable that they would have disgraced a race of alley cats.—— hyperbole, antithetical contrast3 The country itself is not uncomely, despite the grime of the endless mills.—— litotes,understatement4 Obviously, if the r were architects of any professional sense or dignity in the region, they would have perfected a chalet to hug the hillsides ——a chalet with a highpitched roof, to throw off the heavy winter snows, but still essentially a low and clinging building, wider than it was tall.—— sarcasm5 And one and all they are streaked in grime, with dead and eczematous patches of paint peeping through the streaks.——metaphor6 When it has taken on the patina of the mills it is the color of an egg long pastall hope or caring.——ridicule , irony, metaphor7 I award this championship only after laborious research and incessant prayer.——irony10 They like it as it is:beside it, the Parthenon would no doubt offend them.——irony 11 It is that of a Presbyterian grinning.——metaphor 3 United, there is little we cannot do in a host of co-operative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not meet a power ful challenge at odds and split asunder.——antithesis 4 …in the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside.——metaphor8 Safe in a Pullman, Ihave whirled through the gloomy, God-forsaken villages of Iowa and Lansas, and the malarious tidewater hamlets of Georgia.——antonomasia9 It is as if some titanic and aberrant genius, uncompromisingly inimical to man, haddevoted all the ingenuity of Hell to the making of them.——hyperbole, ironyLesson 91. Their high calls rising like the swallows' crossing flights over the music and the singing (Para1). Simile2. The faces of small children are amiable sticky; in the benign grey beard of a man a coupltof crumbs of rich pastry are entangled. Para 4. Transferred epithet.3. The crowds along the racecourse are like a field of grass and flowers in the wind. Para 6.Simile4. In the streets between houses with red roofs and painted walls, between old mossgrowngardens and under avenues of trees, past great parks and public buildings, processions.——periodic sentence5. The air of morning was so clear that the snow stil crowning the Eighteen Peaks burned withwhite-gold fire across the miles of sunlit air, under the dark blue of the sky.——metaphor6. In the silence of the broad green meadows one could hear the music wind ing through thecity streets, farther and nearer and ever approaching,a cheerful faint sweetness of the airthat from time to time trembled and gathered together and broke out into the great joyousclanging of the bells.—— periodic sentence7. Some of them understand why, and some do not, but they all understand that their happiness,the beauty of their city, the tenderness of their friendships, the health of their children,the wisdom of their scholars, the skill of their makers, even the abundance of their harvestand the kindly weathers of their skies, depend wholly on this child’ s abominable misery.—parallelism/parallel structure8. Indeed, after so long it would probably be wretched without walls about it to protect it ,and darkness for its eyes, and its own excrement to sit in.——parallelism/parallel structure。