linguistics

1 Linguistics and Applied Linguistics1.1Linguistics 语言学What is linguistics?(1)What is language?(2)What does a native speaker know about his language?(3)What are the essential defining characteristics of natural languages?(4)Do languages all share certain universal properties?What do linguists study?(1) Theory of language structure(2) Theory of language acquisition(3) Theory of language useHow do linguists study language？(1)collect a set of data relevant to a particular phenomenon,(2)formulate a hypothesis, test the hypothesis against further data,(3)modify the hypothesis and test it against yet more data，(4)build up a set of principles concerning language structure, language acquisition,and language use.Subfields of LinguisticsPhonetics语音学（发音学）Phonology音系学（语音体系）Syntax句法学Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学, Functions of Language语言功能diachronic linguistics历时语言学synchronic linguistics共时语言学Descriptive linguistics描写语言学prescriptive linguistics规定语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Philosophical Linguistics哲学语言学General linguistics普通语言学Cognitive linguistics认知语言学Beginnings of Modern LinguisticsSaussure’s distinction: langue and parole语言与言语（Swiss linguist）Chomsky’s distinction: linguistic competence and linguistic performance 言语能力与言语行为Hierarchical structure 层次结构structuralism and transformationalism 结构主义与转换论Cognitive linguistics and transformational linguistics认知语言学与转换语言学Cognition and linguistic competence认知与言语能力Cognitive linguistics认知语言学the experiential view 语言经验观the prominence view 语言突显观the attentional view 语言注意观(1) The bus crashed into the house.(2) The house was hit by the bus.1.2Applied Linguistics应用语言学The problem of the definitionCorder (1973):The application of linguistic knowledge to some object – or applied linguistics, as its name implies –is an activity. It is not a theoretical study. The applied linguist is a consumer, or user, not a producer of theories.(Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems such as lexicography词典编纂, translation, speech pathology言语病理学. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology社会学, psychology心理学, anthropology人类学and information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design大纲设计, speech therapy语言障碍矫正, language planning, stylistics文体学.Applied Linguistics as Problem-solvingApplied linguists try to offer solutions to “real-world problems in which language is a central issue” (Brumfit 1991).The responsibility of linguistics, as an academic discipline, is to study language as a system of human communication, build theories of language and offer models, descriptions and explanations of language. The responsibility of applied linguistics is not simply to apply linguistics but to work towards “relevant models” of language description (Widdowson 1980).Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language TeachingThe problem of finding solutions to the problems of language teaching and learningResearchqualitative and quantitative定性研究与定量研究1.3Corpora in Applied Linguistics数据库与应用语言学Corpus(1)For language teaching, corpora can provide information about how a languageworks.(2)Learners can explore corpora for themselves to observe shades of meaning and tomake comparisons between languages.(3)Translators can use comparable corpora to compare translation equivalents in twolanguages.(4)General corpora can be used to establish norms of frequency and usage againstwhich to measure individual texts.(5)Corpora can also be used to investigate cultural attitudes reflected in texts andliterary works as a resource for discourse studies.Types of CorporaSpecialised corpus 特殊数据库General corpus 普通数据库Comparable corpora 比较数据库Parallel corpora 平行数据库Learner corpus 学习者数据库Pedagogic corpus 教学数据库Historical or diachronic corpus 历时数据库Monitor corpus 监察数据库Technical TerminologyType类型Token记号Hapax只用过一次的字句Lemma词目word-form字语形成tag标记符parse解析annotate注释Design and PurposeSizeContentRepresentativenessPermanenceMethods in Processing Corpus InformationProducing concordance linesApplications of Corpora in Applied Linguistics(1)Corpora can be used in writing dictionaries and grammar books for languagelearners.(2)There is a growing concern in Applied Linguistics for the relation betweenlanguage and culture. Language transmits beliefs, attitudes, customs, behaviour, social habits, etc. of the members of a particular society.(3)Translation is an important application of corpora.Corpora and Language TeachingBy studying corpus data, he can answer questions about language himself and discover facts about the language he is learning from authentic examples.Corpus and Syllabus DesignThe syllabus designer collects pieces of authentic language that contain instances of the most frequent patterns of the most frequent words, then the materials writer devises ways of getting the learner involved in exploring the patterning of language in the corpus.Corpora and Learner LanguageA corpus can provide a rich resource for investigating learner language. Corporacomposed of the speech or writing of learners can give information about the difference between learners and between learners and native speakers.。

I. INTRODUCTION1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but it studies languages in general.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Core branches of linguistics:phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics （各分支名称要记住，但各分支定义无需在此处记忆，可以放置到各具体章节记。

）Interdisciplinary branch of linguistic study:psycholinguistics sociolinguistics applied linguistics(applied linguistics的定义可在此处记忆，其余两个放置到第八和第十二章记忆)1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1) Prescriptive and descriptiveThey are two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) Synchronic and diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.3) Speech and writingThey are the two major media of linguistic communication. Speech is prior to writing for the following reasons:From the point of view of linguistic evolution, writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4) Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.5) Competence and performanceThe distinction between competence and performance was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Despite the perfect knowledge of his language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use due to stess, anxiety or other social and psychological factors.Chomsky thinks that linguistis should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance.** Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of veiw and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century.a) Linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.A linguistist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of "correctness".b) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammar tended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c) Modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. However, for a long time traditional grammar assumed that Latin provides a universal framework into which all languages fit.1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definition of language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.2.2 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The framework was proposed by an American linguist, Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary because there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is the way they can produce and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in our native languages, including sentences that we have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.4) DisplacementHuman language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmissionThe details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Though the capacity for language in human beings has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one.1.2.3 Functions of language1. Language is used for communication2. Three main functionsA) Descriptive function (cognitive, referential, or propositional function)--- it is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.B) Expressive function (emotive or attitudinal function) --- supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.C) Social function, also referred to as interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relation between people.3. Function models by structural linguist Roman JakobsonHe identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser--- EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.Addressee--- ConativeThe addresser aims to influence the addressee's course of action or ways of thinking.Context --- ReferentialThe addresser conveys a message or information.Message --- PoeticThe addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself. Contact --- Phatic communicationThe addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationship with the addressee. Code --- MetalinguisticThe addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.4. Three macrofunctions by M. A. K. HallidayIn the early 1970s the British linguist Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions and there is close correspondence language between form and function. But as a child grew into an adult the seven functions are gradually replaced by a more abstract, but also simpler system of functions. This system contains three macrofunctions.Ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function discussed above, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evalution, his feelings and emotions.The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker's role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.PS：关于Jakobson和Halliday在功能研究方面的详细阐述，建议大家到我校图书馆网页上，找中国期刊网，下载一篇文章：岳颍，“Halliday与Jacoboson的语言功能观比较分析”，《外语艺术教育研究》，2011.6.第2期。

Linguistics语言学教程Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It explores how language works, how it evolves, and how it is used in communication. This field of study encompasses various sub-disciplines, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. In this linguistics tutorial, we will delve into each of these areas and explore their significance in understanding language.Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech. It focuses on the articulatory and acoustic properties of sounds, and how they are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonetics helps us understand the different ways in which sounds are made, such as the movements of the vocal cords, tongue, and lips. This knowledge is crucial in understanding the nuances of pronunciation in different languages.Phonology, on the other hand, deals with the abstract organization of sounds in a language. It studies the patterns and rules that govern how sounds combine to form words. Phonology helps us identify the distinctive features of different languages and allows us to analyze the sound systems of individual languages.Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It focuses on the processes of word formation, such as affixation, compounding, and inflection. Morphology helps us understand how words are created, how they change in different grammatical contexts, and how they convey meaning.Syntax is the study of how words combine to form grammatically correct sentences. It examines the rules and principles that govern sentence structure and word order. Syntax enables us to understand the grammatical structure of sentences and analyze the relationships between words within a sentence.Semantics focuses on the study of meaning in language. It explores how words and sentences convey meaning and how meaning is interpreted by speakers. Semantics helps us understand the nuances of word meanings, the relationships between words, and the various levels of meaning in language.Lastly, pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language. It examines how meaning is shaped by the speaker, the listener, and the specific situation in which communication takes place. Pragmatics helps us understand how meaning is inferred from implicit cues, such as tone of voice, gestures, and shared knowledge.Understanding the different sub-disciplines of linguistics is essential in unraveling the complex nature of language. It provides insights into how language is organized, how it is used, and how it evolves over time. Linguistics also has practical applications in fields such as education, translation, and language acquisition.In conclusion, linguistics is a multifaceted field that encompasses the study of various aspects of language. From the physical sounds of speech to the intricate nuances of meaning, linguistics allows us to unravel the mysteries of human communication. By understanding how language works, we gain a deeper appreciation for its complexity and the role it plays in our everyday lives.注意：以上文本仅供参考，不要将其作为最终版本，因为它是通过训练模型生成的，无法保证绝对的准确性和戏剧性。

Linguistics课后习题必背与答案Chapter One Introduction4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。

除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。

5.For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?Speech is prior to writing;The writing system is invented when needed;Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written;Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication; Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing; Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.9.what are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.The descriptive function.It is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied,and in some cases even verified,e.g.”The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.”The expressive function,supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences,prejudices.and values,e.g.”I will never go camping with the Simpsons again.”The social function,serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people,e.g.”How can I help you, sir?Chapter Two Phonology1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Speech and writing are two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards speech as the primary one for some reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system is to record speech. Even today, there are some tribes without writing system. From the view of children’s development, children acquire his mother tongue before they learn to write.5.what criteria are used to classify the English vowels?The criteria used to classify English vowels are:The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, and lowThe position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, and back The degree of lip rounding: rounded, un-rounded The degree of tenseness/the length of sound: tense (long) or lax (short) The change of sound quality: pure(monophthong), gliding(diphthong)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? . Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to the phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech soundswe hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme.。

一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。

The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims at laying down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

第一章Language figures centrally in our livesWe discover our identity as individuals and social beings when we acquire a language during childhoodLanguage serves as a means of cognition and communicationLanguage provides for present needs and future plans,and at the same time carries with it the impression of things past _WiddowsonFuctions of language recognized by ancient peopleTo achieve sth by giving order；To praise the almighty；To challenge the heavenLanguage is the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units.e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterancesLanguages are particular systems of human communication,e.g.the French language,the Hindi languageLinguistics---the scientific study of language or of particular languagesV arieties of language：Dialect,accent,sociolect,temporal dialect,register,idiolect,standard dialect2Attitudes:Prescriptive=there’s a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. PlatoDescriptive=knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language. AristotleLanguage as an entityNativism,Mentalism=there is a biological,physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak Behaviorism,Empiricism=our brain was blank when we were. Language is a social,empirical entity.3 adequacies: Observational,DescriptiveExplanatoryThe principal organs of articulation第三章Micro-Applied linguistics=the study of second and foreign language learning and teachingPhonetics is the science of speech sounds, which aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human语音学Phonetics is divided into 3 sub-fields:发音语音学Articulatory phonetics studies speech production by the speech organs;声学语音学Acoustic phonetics studies physical properties of speech sounds;听觉语音学Auditory phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system. Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish meaning (or two words).两类•Free morphemes: those which can occur on their own as separate words, e.g.luck•Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur on their own as separate w ords, e.g.-y ◊ lucky; -s ◊ books; re- ◊retellAllophones：allophones in complementary distribution;allophones in free variation.音位变体，互补，自由。

语言学第一讲Lecture One Brief Introduction to Ling and Lang1. Linguistics1.1 Definition of linguistics Page 1-2“scientific study of language”.ling is a discipline which describes lang in all its respects (e.g. its system, its internal structure, its social functions, its use and its historical development) and formulates theories as to how it works.1.2linguistics versus traditional grammarTraditional grammar, as a pre-20th century language description andpre-linguistic product of research, was based upon earlier grammars of Latin or Greek, and laid emphasis on correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, and the priority of written language----A gram which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. The three sources from which the rules of prescriptive gram come:1)Latin and Greek----unchanging form of these langs----high prestige in European education----brilliance of classical literature.e.g “It is I” and not “It is me”2) the written langespecially the works of great writers. People are told to speak as they would write.e.g Whom did you speak to?3) LogicGram should be judged insofar as it follows the principles of logic.e.g You shouldn’t say“I haven’t done nothing”I don’t know nothing about the matter. (一无所知)Nobody hardly took notice of him. (几乎没有一个人注意他)Features of Modern linguistics----priority is given to spoken language;----focus is on synchronic study of contemporary language than in the study of the evolution of languages;----modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature;----it is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.1.3. Use of studying linguistics Page 3-41.4 The scope of linguistics Page 4-8Linguistics can be classified from different angles1) general linguistics, particular linguistics,2) synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics3) comparative-historical linguistics and contrastive linguistics4) theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics (the structure/system)5) prescriptive ling, descriptive ling6) microlinguistics and macrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics:Phonetics ----Phonology---Morphology--Syntax---Semantics---PragmaticsMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics—Psycholinguistics—Neurolinguistics—Anthropological linguistics---Applied linguistics---Corpus linguistics----Discourse Analysis----Cognitive linguistics----Computational linguistics----. ExerciseComment on the differences between human language and animal communication, and provide examples if you can.第二讲differences between human language and animal communication：1) language has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space. Human frequently say things such as “My uncle went to Shanghai last week.”. In contrast, it may be impossible for an animal to convey similar information.2) humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite number of novel utterances, but no animal can communicate creatively with another animal.3) learning/acquiring is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.4) Human language structure and language use are vastly more complex than any known animal communication system.5) animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6) humans can perform acts with language.2. Language2.1 Definition of language (Page 8)Tool for human communicationMeans by which we express our feeling…..Comprehensive definitionIt is really just as difficult to define language as it is to define man.人：是一切社会关系的总和；是唯一能把动物养成宠物和煮成食物的动物；是一种会笑的动物；"Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication"Wardhaugh in his "Introduction to Linguistics" (1972).（语言是用于人类交际的、任意的、有声的符号系统）Short as it is, this definition has captured the main features of language.First of all, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary.Third, language is vocal.Fourth, language is symbolic.Fifth, language is used for human communication and language ishuman-specific.2.2 Origine of language (page3-4)In general, there are two contrasting viewpoints: the divinist and evolutionist The divinists---- ----language was God’s gift to mankindAccording to Christian beliefs, God gave Adam the power to name all things. Whatever Adam called everything God created. Language is the creation of God. Evolutionists----language is the product of human evolution. It was originated in the process of labor.According to the evolution theory proposed by Darwin, language is a product of evolutionary development of the human species. It is a human invention.The earliest human being is believed to live in Africa around 200,000 years ago, and modern language emerged perhaps around 100,000 years ago (Aitchison, 1996). In the beginning there was one language developed by Afican men. As these ancient ancestors walked out of Afica and spread around the world about 35, 000 to 12, 000 years ago, more and more languages were developed.2.3 Design Features of Language1) Arbitrariness---There is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between the sound/sign and meaning, between the word and its object, between the grammar and the meaning it carries;or the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.A building we live in with our family is called house in English, maison in French, dom in Russion, casa in Spanish, fangzi in ChineseHowever, language is not entirely arbitrary; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning, e.g.Onomatopoetic words: P10Motivated wordsSome compound words: tractor driver shoe-makerThe other side of the coin of arbitrariness is conventionality. The link between linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.A pair of trousers----一条裤子 A pair of shirts---两件衬衣Go shopping *go buying go hunting冬瓜(white gourd) （夏天吃的）北戴河is not a river 中南海is not a sea.食堂餐厅*餐堂*食厅英国的语言----英语英文中国的语言----中文（*中语）汉语昨天昨晚*昨早*昨月*昨年去年*去天*去晚*去月明天明年*明月*明周今天今年*今月两百二十元----*二百两十元二百五----傻里傻气的人生前好友（死前好友）已婚夫妇未婚妻（未婚怎么能称妻）三长两短、七上八下三下五除二2) DualityTwo levels:Lower level---- a limited set of sounds, meaninglessHigher level----units of meaning coming from the combination of the units of lower level Phoneme—morpheme—words—phrase—clause—sentence3) Productivity/creativity--The users of a language can utilize limited linguistic rules to produce or understand infinite meaningful linguistic forms, including those they have never heard before.This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.The man that the girl that my wife taught married published many poems.(和我妻子教的那个女孩结婚的那个男人发表了许多诗)他一边脱衣服，一边穿裤子。

linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。

它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。

它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。

它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。

4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。

它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。

它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。

它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。

7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。

它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。

8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。

它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。

9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。

它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。

这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。

不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。