社会语言学--校园称谓语

The Study of Address Forms on Campus摘要:称谓语作为重要的社会语言学现象一直都是语言学家研究的重要课题。

称谓语是人类言语交际中最为显著、最为实用的一部分。

它不仅在很大程度上反映出交际双方的社会地位、亲疏关系，而且还反映一个语言群体的文化习俗。

社会称谓系统是人际称谓系统的一个重要组成部分。

它主要用来称呼家庭成员以外的社会成员。

与亲属称谓相比,社会称谓具有不稳定性,易受到多种因素的影响而发生变化。

本文选取大学生在校园里常用的社会称谓作为社会语言学研究的一个方面,重点分析了对大学生在校园里选择不同社会称谓形式产生影响的种种因素。

Abstract:As other important linguistic phenomenons, address forms, have always been the subject of sociolinguistic researchers. Address forms can be used to show the relationship between the addresser and addressee. Address forms have always been regarded as an important indicator of interpersonal relationship which can reflect customs and conventions of a speech community. Social appellation is one subfield of appellation system, which is used to address other people rather than own family members. This paper takes an interesting topic, which is address forms employed by college students in campus for sociolinguistic study. The aim of the author is to provide the analysis of sociolinguistic features of address forms employed among university students and reveals the cultural information conveyed through the use of them.Key words: college students, address forms, sociolinguistic analysis1. IntroductionLanguage and culture are intertwined with each other. On one hand, language is part of culture and therefore influenced by culture; on the other, it can reflect some of the characteristics of culture, and thus any phenomenon in relation to language, might represent some of the cultural features of a speech community. So we have been able to make a study of varieties of language, used by groups defined according to class, education, age, sex, and a number of other social parameters.The researches about the address forms can be dated back to the Greek time. At that time, address forms are a very important, because they are part of deixis for they indicate the relationship between the participants in interpersonal communication, show the relative social status of the addresser and addressee. To sum up, address form concerns “that aspect of sentences which reflect or establish or are determined by certain realities of the social situation in which the speech act occurs”.(Fillmore, 1975:76) Linguistic study of address forms is mainly concerned with the findings of Brown & Gilman, Brown & Ford and Ervin-Tripp. Brown & Gilman published their study on address forms called The Pronoun of Power and Solidarity by investigatingsecond-person pronoun usage in major European languages in. Though Chinese scholars‟working on address forms can be traced back to ancient times, linguistic study in this field is only a matter of recent years.2. Literature Review2.1 Studies by Brown and GilmanAmong all of the articles about addressing terms, the articles written by Roger Brown and his colleague, Albert Gilman, have probably been given the most attention to. To some extent, Brown and Gilman can be viewed as the pioneers of modern sociolinguistic investigation of addressing terms. In their study they propose that pronoun usage is governed by power and solidarity. Fasold (2000:4) points out that the power semantic, like the power relationship, is nonreciprocal. The power semantic governs the nonreciprocal use of the two pronouns. The less powerful person says “V” to the more powerful …one and receives “T”. Power can be understood in different ways, for example, older generation, parents, employers, nobles and military officer arc thought to be more powerful than younger people, children, employees, peasants and enlisted men respectively. They believe that the power semantic would be effective only in a society where stratifications are distinctly made because each person has an asymmetrical relationship with every other one. The society mentioned above is, as a matter of fact, an ideal one. To make up for the weakness of the power semantic in addressing terms, they propose the solidarity semantic. They hold that” solidarity implies a sharing between people, a degree of closeness and intimacy” (ibid: 4).2.2 Studies by Brown and FordAmong those who have made substantial contribution to the studies of address forms in American English, Brown and Ford have done pioneering and ingenious research, using a variety of data, literary sources, and questionnaire data on the reported usage by thirty-four business executives and records of more than two hundred interactions involving about eighty people. They make a contrast between the use of” first name” (“FN”) and that of” title +last name” ("TEN”).They base their study of”FN” VS. ”TLN” on the interview of American plays, the observation of address behavior in a Boston firm, the interview of informants and tape recordings. They make a statement that there are three pattern switch the two forms: the mutual exchange of ”FN”, the mutual exchange of ”TEN” and the nonreciprocal pattern in which one gives” FN” and receives ”TLN” (Fasold,2000:8).They find out that ”FN” is reciprocated while ”TLN” is used only at the outset of acquaintances. Hence, intimacy and distance are the factors determining this lection in symmetrical relationships. They believe that in the third pattern mentioned above, age and occupational status play all important part. The person with the higher occupational status is privileged to be addressed with”TLN” while addressing the other person with”FN”. When age and occupational status are in conflict, it is often the case that the latter takes precedence (Fasold, ibid: 9).2.3 Studies by FasoldFasoldFasoldFasold identifies two sources of variation in the use of addressing terms: group differences and individual differences (Fasold, 2000:16).Group differences refer to the disparities in the use of addressing terms between members of different groups. For example, the younger upper class might be less formal than the younger lower class according to the study of Brown and Gilman (ibid). Fasold (ibid) takes the view that those heterogeneous members of the same group might select dissimilar addressing terms on an individual basis, and individual people sometimes use addressing terms in a way totally different from their own usual usage. Fasold‟s finding of group differences and individual variations manifests that the use of addressing terms is not only a personal interest but also a social phenomenon. Members of different groups tend to use addressing terms in different ways. On the other hand, how people use addressing terms may reflect some of the characteristics of the group to which they belong.3. Address System3.1 Definitions of AddressAccording to Fasold (1990), …address forms are the words speakers use to designate the person they are talking to while they are talking to them.‟ Address forms are used when a speaker already has the listener‟s attention. Another definition by Braun (1988:7) is that‟ Forms of address are words or phrases used for addressing. They refer to the collocutor and thus contain a strong element of deixis. ‟Forms of address may serve as a means of initiating contact, but frequently other forms are used, e.g. …hey!‟ In Levin son‟s system (Levinson,1983), the basic term …address‟ is defined differently .His terminology delimits …address‟ as face-to-face address forms only, and the narrative address forms are called …reference‟ instead, referring to individuals in third person roles. The definition in Modem Chinese Dictionary is that‟ the address forms are the words used to address people and gender etc.‟The address forms to be studied in the dissertation are in a broad way. They are closely connected with society. The address forms people use often reveal the social class, age, gender and other social factors of the addressees and themselves. People from different social norms use address forms differently. In addition, there seem to be certain social norms as to which address form is to be used on a given occasion. Generally speaking, formal address forms ale used on formal occasions. A person who does not abide by these norms may be criticized for his or her in appropriate linguistic behavior.3.2 Factors in Choosing Proper Address Forms3.2.1 Context and formalityEach speech event is an integrated occurrence and all of its factors are interdependent and sometimes overlapping. However, in every specific speech event, one factor takes domination over other factors，depending on speaker‟s assessment of the entire situation and their judgment of likely outcomes. Context is the first factorthat we need to consider in addressing．A speech event c an‟t take place without a certain context. The setting or social context (e.g. office, party, home) is generally a relevant factor. Suitable choice of address forms partly, sometimes mainly, depends on the context.3.2.2 AgeAge has a strong impact on people's manner of speech. People with different ages may have different characteristics of speech. Age is one of the significant factors in the appropriate choice of address forms, and is related to power and status. In a society where seniority is emphasized, older age implies more power and higher social status. The relative age difference between the addresser and addressee has two sides. The younger one has to use the polite form, while the older one has two options: the polite form and the common form.3.2.3 Status and PowerBrown and Gilman suggested two semantics in governing the choice of T or V pronouns. One of the dimensions is power semantic, mostly indicated by people‟s status, including official status, occupational status, rank status, seniority status, etc. Logically in English the relative higher status person will be addressed with title, while the relatively lower status person will be addressed with first name or full name.3.2.4 Social Distance and SolidarityAnother important factor governing the choice of address forms is social distance. Social distance can range from stranger to acquaintance and to intimate. It indicates solidarity, proposed by Brown and Gilman, referring to the general personal relationship. Usually the two parties with intimate social distance exchange first name in America and in China. The two persons with distant social distance usually exchange title or title + last name in English, or family name in Chinese. How intimate the relationship is a significant factor in choosing address forms.3.2.5 GenderMany sociologists and sociolinguists have been studying language and gender, women‟s language, and sexist language. It has been proved that the language women use differs from that men use, so do the languages used to refer to women and men. American linguist Robin Lakoff, focused her study on gender difference. She suggested that women‟s subordinate social status was reflected in the language they used, as well as in the language used about them. Women have been especially sensitive to gender differences in the usage of address form since it is an indicator of social status. There are differences of address forms by and to men and women. The present situation of gender differences in address forms is a manifestation of male dominance in society.4. Discussion about the Address Forms Employed by Students4.1 The Diversity of Addresses in the Student Community4.1.1 Tongxue as a General Address FormVarious address terms are employed by college students for their classmates, friends and students from departments who are strangers to them. These terms include general term tongxue (同学), full name, given name, family name, pseudo-kinship address forms, nickname, zero address term and so on.Tongxue is all appellation term often used in campus as universal address term for students who are strangers to the speaker. It originally referred to the students in the same class, but then it has extended to students of the same grade or even the same school. Now it can be defined a universal address term on school campus. We can often hear such a conversation in the dining hall of the school, “Tongxue, zhe er you ren ma?”(同学这儿有人吗?) In fact, the two students do not know each other and they are only school mates. When you are in a school for visiting somebody but do not know the way, you may ask, “Tongxue, qing wen tu shu guan zen mo zou?”(同学请问图书馆怎么走?). In this case the two speakers are not even the school mates.To address their classmates and friends college students prefer full name, given name & its variants, family names ＆its variants, and nick name or pet name. In Chinese, it is a very common phenomenon to use full names to address classmates, friends, colleagues and even spouses in public. In the Chinese culture, full names do not represent interpersonal distance or speakers‟ unwillingness to build friendship. If the addresser and addressee are of close relationship, they are more likely to employ ”first name only”and ”nickname”to greet each other, especially among girls. Generally speaking, people of the same status and with close relationship are liable to use first name and nickname. Gender plays important part in the choice of address forms in the society and students community is of no exception. In the Chinese culture, it is always safe to use full names between people of different sexes, and one has to be cautious to address the opposite sex. If given names are used, it means that the relationship between the Speaker and the Hearer is much closer than normal. The use of given names involving two people of the opposite sex, may give rise to gossip or misunderstandings.4.1.2 Employment of Pseudo-kinship Address FormsThe employment of kinship address forms to non-kin is called the ‟pseudo-kinship address forms‟, which is a striking feature of address form usage in Chinese culture. The main purpose of kin terms‟universalization is to bring non-kin into a kin relation system so as to show intimacy. College students especially those who live in the same dormitory room prefer to address each other with kinship terms such as surname or given name + ge / jie (哥/姐), and so on. Pseudo-kinship address forms used in college campus fall into the two specific varieties for seniors of the older generation or the same generation, and for people of the younger generation. For example, for address forms to seniors of the older generation, they raise the addressees straightly to a higher position in family hierarchy while lowering that of the speakers themselves and designate a prominent reverence for power. The address forms to people of younger generation are showing another form of power. Kinshipaddress forms of the same generation, on the other hand, treat addressees as people of the same family hierarchical rank rather than denote a hierarchical difference and deference for authority, they express an equality and solidarity among the communicator, and consequently, they fall on the solidarity part in the power and solidarity model. In general, pseudo-kinship address forms are further divided into two types: address forms for the older or younger generation, inclining to power; address forms for the same generation, prone to equality and solidarity.4.1.3 Employment of Zero Address FormsZero address forms are found in Chinese as well as other languages. In English according to Ervin—Tripp (1972), there are two situations under which a speaker might simply avoid using any name at a11.One case is when a condition at one or other juncture is ambiguous. The speaker may not know if the other person considers his friendship to be close enough for him to use the first name or maybe the other person is older than the speaker, but not a great deal older is not sure whether the addressee will be insulted if he uses the first name or hurt if he doesn‟t. The other case is when the addresser simply doesn‟t know the other person‟s name. Under these circumstances, there are no appellation forms available and people simply don‟t use any appellation forms. Sometimes people don‟t know how to address a stranger, e.g. students don‟t know the zero appellation forms, which include Hi, Hey, Excuse me etc. In China people also use zero address forms ”请问一下, 麻烦问一下, 不好意思” or just ”喂” to draw people‟s attention or open a conversation. People avoid using any appellation forms in China simply because (1) the speaker doesn‟t know how to address the interlocutor or is not sure which form to use; (2) the speaker uses the zero address form intentionally, which is very often an indication of unfriendliness or disrespect.4.1.4 Creativity and Fashionableness with the Influence of Internet Language and External CultureVariants of family name are not newly appeared terms. In the past, prefix xiao／da + family name was used among college students. However, they are considered out dated in the students community now and lao+ family name, a term of intimacy, which was only used among people over forty yeas old, is in the fashion on campus. According to the information collected in the interviews, college students turn to this term to show their sense of humor as well as their longing for maturity. The popularity of “Lao ”is resulted from the influence of Taiwan and Hongkong, where laojie (姐姐), laoba(爸爸), laoma(妈妈), and laodi(弟弟) are frequently used. English names have become popular among students as a result of the influence of western culture. New address terms such as xuezhang(学长) and xuejie(学姐) have become fashionable with the popularity of South Korean movies and TV series. In addition, with the booming development of internet, more and more internet language has come into spoken language. For instances, some male students call their female classmates ”MM” (美眉, 妹妹, 女性网友) or ”GG” (哥哥, 男性网友).4.2 Address Forms Employed by Students for the School Staff4.2.1 Official Rank Address Forms＆Technical Post Address FormsIn most occasions, especially in formal ones, Chinese students prefer to address their teachers with title + last name (TLN) because teachers have high social status which results in their power over students. For teachers with both official title and technical post, the former is always employed with preference as a result of the fact that Chinese people are very conscious of social status. Among all those technical post appellation terms in Chinese and English, only the title ”professor”can be used as forms of address. In China, UK and USA, the title of professor can appear alone or in combination with the addressee‟s surname. People‟s professions and working positions are often employed as address forms in China as well as in most other countries. When viewed more carefully, the occupation／position-based titles are found mostly based on respected careers or high ranks. Obviously, most address forms of this title type, if not all, show people‟s deference to the addressee, which implies a respect for power and are usually used in solemn tones with little intimate color. Generally speaking, on the speaker‟s part, utterance of occupation／position-based address forms manifests the speaker‟s full consciousness of and a high respect for the power concept and thus falls more to the power end and designates more deference or social distance.4.2.2. Lao shiIf a Chinese student is not sure of a t eacher‟s official title as well as technical post, he prefers addressing the teacher with laoshi or surname + laoshi, hardly considering the teacher‟S gender and marital status. Laoshi is a universal address form conveying the meaning of respectfulness in the Chinese student community, but not an address form in English. Some variant forms have appeared such as teaching subject + laoshi which show the distant relationship between the teacher and the student.4.2.3 Lao banLaoban (老板) is a new term used by some post-graduate students mostly as a narrative address form for their tutors. Many graduate students do some research for their supervisors or take part in the projects directed by their supervisors, and they get payment from their tutors in return. In their opinion this relationship resembles the relationship between employer and employee, and as a result they address their tutors by laoban. Some students employ laoban as face to face address for their supervisors who are comparatively young and have close relationship with the students.5. ConclusionAddress forms act as an inseparable part of human verbal communication. Address terms are kinds of linguistic routines of politeness which reflect customs and conventions of as speech community. In the study of address system much of the attention is devoted to social address system, which is a subsystem of address system.Compared with other subgroups, it is more complicated. A person might have various appellations in different situations. In addition, social address forms are subject to change. Once the social structure and cultural values of a community change, social address forms will alter accordingly. They can reflect political, economic and cultural development of the society and era. As a result, sometimes speakers find it difficult to figure out proper appellations under certain circumstances. As a dynamic system, it is likely to be misused.Through the study the author hopes to provide a comprehensive description of social address forms employed by Chinese college students in campus. Address forms act as an inseparable part of human verbal communication, and appropriate use of address form is the prelude to personal association.Bibliography1.Brown and Ford. 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