communication competence

Communicative Competence ScaleWiemann (1977) created the Communicative Competence Scale (CCS) to measure communicative competence, an ability "to choose among available communicative behaviors" to accomplish one's own "interpersonal goals during an encounter while maintaining the face and line" of "fellow interactants within the constraints of the situation" (p. 198). Originally, 57 Likert-type items were created to assess five dimensions of interpersonal competence (General Competence, Empathy Affiliation/Support, Behavioral Flexibility, and Social Relaxation) and a dependent measure- (interaction Management). Some 239 college students used the scale to rate videotaped confederates enacting one of four role-play interaction management conditions (high, medium, low, rude). The 36 items that discriminated the best between conditions were used in the final instrument. Factor analysis resulted in two main factors-general and relaxation-indicating that the subjects did not differentiate among the dimensions as the model originally predicted.Subjects use the CCS to assess another person's communicative competence by responding to 36 items using Likert scales that range from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The scale takes less than 5 minutes to complete. Some researchers have adapted the other-report format to self-report and partner-report. These formats are available from the author.RELIABILITYThe CCS appears to be internally consistent. Wiemann (1977) reported a .96 coefficient alpha (and .74 magnitude of experimental effect) for the 36item revised instrument. McLaughlin and Cody (1982) used a 30-item version for college students to rate their partners after 30 minutes of conversation and reported an alpha of .91. Jones and Brunner (1984) had college students rate audio-taped interactions and reported an overall alpha of .94 to .95; subscale scores had alphas ranging from .68 to .82. Street, Mulac, and Wiemann (1988) had college students rate each other on communicative competence and reported an alpha of .84. The 36-item self-report format version is also reliable: Cupach and Spitz berg (1983) reported an alpha of .90, Hazleton and Cupach (1986) reported an alpha of .91, Cegala, Savage, Brunner, and Conrad (1982) reported an alpha of .85, and Query, Parry, and Flint (1992) reported an alpha of .86,Profile by Rebecca R. Rubin.VALIDITYTwo studies found evidence of construct validity. First, McLaughlin and Cody (1982) found that interactants in conversations in which there were multiple lapses of time rated each other lower on communicative competence. Second, Street et al. (1988) found that conversants' speech rate, vocal back channeling, duration of speech, and rate of interruption were related to their communicative competence scores; they also found that conversants rated their partners significantly more favorably than did observers.Various studies have provided evidence of concurrent validity. Cupach and Spitzberg (1983) used the dispositional self-report format and found that the CCS was strongly correlated with two other dispositions: communication adaptability and trait self-rated competence. The CCS was also modestly related to situational, conversation-specific measures of feeling good and self-rated competence. Hazleton and Cupach (1986) found a moderate relationship between communicative competence and both ontological knowledge about interpersonal communication and interpersonal communication apprehension. Backlund (1978) found communicative competence was related to social insight and open-mindedness. Douglas (1991) reported inverse relationships between communication competence and uncertainty and apprehension during initial meetings, And Query et al. (1992) found that nontraditional students, those high in communication competence, had more social supports and were more satisfied with these supports.In addition, Cegala et al. (1982) compared 326 college students' CCS and Interaction Involvement Scalescores. All three dimensions of interaction involvement were positively correlated with the CCS, but onlyperceptiveness correlated significantly with all five dimensions for both men and women. Responsiveness was related to behavioral flexibility, affiliation/support, and social relaxation, and attentiveness was related toimpression management.COMMENTSAlthough this scale has existed for a number of years and the original article has been cited numerous times,relatively few research studies have actually used the CCS. As reported by Perotti and De Wine (1987), problems with the factor structure and the Likert-type format may be reasons why. They suggested that theinstrument be used as a composite measure of communicative competence rather than breaking the scale into subscales, and this appears to be good advice. Spitzberg (1988, 1989) viewed the instrument as well conceived, suitable for observant or conversant rating situations, and aimed at "normal" adolescent or adult populations, yet Backlund (1978) found little correlation between peer-perceived competence and expert-perceived competence when using the CCS. The scale has been used only with college student populations.LOCATIONWiemann; J. M. (1977). Explication and test of a model of communicative competence. Human Communication Research, 3, 195-213.REFERENCESBacklund, P. M. (1978). Speech communication correlates of perceived communication competence (Doctoral dissertation, University of Denver, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 3800A.Cegala, D. J, Savage, G. T., Brunner, C. c., & Conrad, A. B. (1982). An elaboration of the meaning of interaction involvement: Toward the development of a theoretical concept. Communication Monographs, 49,229-248. Cupach, W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (1983). Trait versus state: A comparison of dispositional and situational measures of interpersonal communication competence. Western Journal o/SPeech Communication, 47,364-379.Douglas, W. (1991). Expectations aboUt initial interaction: An examination of rheeffects of global uncertainty. Human Communication Research, 17,355-384.Hazleton, V., Jr., & Cupach, W. R. (1986). An exploration of ontological knowledge: Communication competence as a function of the ability to describe,predict, and explain. Western Journal o/Speech Communication, 50,119-132.Jones, T. S., & Brunner, C. C. (1984). The effects of self-disclosure and sex on perceptions of interpersonal communication competence. Women's Studies in Communication, 7, 23-37.McLaughlin, M. 1., & Cody, M. J. (1982). Awkward silences: Behavioral antecedents and consequences of the conversational lapse. Human Communication Research, 8,299-316.Perotti, V. S., & DeWine, S. (1987). Competence in communication: An examination of three instruments.Management Communication Quarterly, 1,272-287.Query, J. 1., Parry, D., & Flint, 1. J. (1992). The relationship among social support, communication competence, and cognitive depression for nontraditional students. Journal 0/ Applied Communication Research, 20, 78-94.Spitzberg, B. H. (1988). Communication competence: Measures of perceived effectiveness. In C. H. Tardy (Ed.),A handbook for the study of human communication: Methods and instruments for observing, measuring, andassessing communication processes (pp. 67-105). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Spitzberg, B. H. (1989). Handbook of interpersonal competence research. New York: Springer-Verlag.Street, R. 1., Jr., Mulac, A., & Wiemann, J. M. (1988). Speech evaluation differences as a function of perspective (participant versus observer) and presentational medium. Human Communication Research, 14,333-363.Communicative Competence Scale*Instructions: Complete the following questionnaire/scale with the subject (S) in mind. Write in one of the sets of letters before each numbered question based upon whether you:strongly agree (SA), agree (A), are undecided or neutral (?),disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD).Always keep the subject in mind as you answer.______ 1. S finds it easy to get along with others.______ 2. S can adapt to changing situations.______ 3. S treats people as individuals.______ 4. S interrupts others too much.______ 5. S is "rewarding" to talk to.______ 6. S can deal with others effectively.______ 7. S is a good listener.______ 8. S's personal relations are cold and distant.______ 9. S is easy to talk to.______ 10. S won't argue with someone just to prove he/she is right.______ 11. S's conversation behavior is not "smooth.”______ 12. S ignores other people's feelings.______ 13. S generally knows how others feel.______ 14. S lets others know he/she understands them.______ 15. S understands other people.______ 16. S is relaxed and comfortable when speaking.______ 17. S listens to what people say to him/her.______ 18. S likes to be close and personal with people.______ 19. S generally knows what type of behavior is appropriate in any given situation.______ 20. S usually does not make unusual demands on his/her friends.______ 21. S is an effective conversationalist.______ 22. S is supportive of others.______ 23. S does not mind meeting strangers.______ 24. S can easily put himself/herself in another person's shoes.______ 25. S pays attention to the conversation.______ 26. S is generally relaxed when conversing with a new acquaintance. 27. S is interested in what others have to say.______ 27. S doesn't follow the conversation very well.______ 28. S enjoys social gatherings where he/she can meet new people.______ 29. S is a likeable person.______ 30. S is flexible.______ 31. S is not afraid to speak with people in authority.______ 32. People can go to S with their problems.______ 33. S generally says the right thing at the right time.______ 34. S likes to use his/her voice and body expressively.______ 35. S is sensitive to others' needs of the moment.Note. Items 4, 8, 11, 12, and 28 are reverse-coded before summing the 36 items. For "Partner" version, "S" is replaced by "My partner" and by "my long-standing relationship partner" in the instructions. For the "Self-Report" version, "S" is replaced by "I" and statements are adjusted forfirst-person singular.。

municative competence typically refers to how well someone is able to communicate with others, though this can be elaborated upon and further refined in a number of ways.2. Communicative competence is important for anyone who wishes to be able to communicate clearly, especially public speakers and people learning a second language.Politicians and other public speakers often seek high levels of communicative competence to be able to effectively convey meaning and express ideas to others. People who are learning a second language also tend to focus on this type of competence to ensure they understand subtext and various aspects of communication within that language that may be subtle and complex.The idea behind communicative competence is that the ways in which people communicate can be analyzed and considered with regard to effectiveness. Someone is often considered competent, at least on a surface level, if he or she can talk to someone else in a way that is appropriate and which conveys meaning in an accurate way. This actual process, however, is often seen as being composed of three basic steps that occur in communication. Planning is a vital part of communicative competence as it demonstrates that someone is able to think about communication ahead of time and prepare for it.2.During communication, the way in which a person communicates is often considered in two elements regarding his or her communicative competence. The message that is delivered is the actual content that a person speaks, writes, or otherwise expresses in some way. Within this message, however, is the meaning that a person manages to convey. Someone may feel that his or her message expresses one idea, but the actual meaning might not necessarily match the intention of the message.Communicative competence is important for just about anyone who wishes to communicate with other people in any type of relationship. Arguments and disagreements can often be avoided if people are able to effectively express meaning in a message.3. Comment1: Communicative competence starts developing at a young age. So childhood and education is important. But it's also true that some people naturally have more skill andcompetence in this area. I think it has to do with the various areas of the brain and which areas an individual uses more heavily.For example, my brother is a very smart person but his communication skills are very poor. I don't think he will every be competent in this area. He has always been this way.Comment2: Those who want to know what excellent communicative competence means can observe lawyers. Lawyers, naturally, have to be great communicators. They have to present their ideas and information in the right ways in order to make an impact on the listener.I knew many law students in school and they were some of the best communicators I have come across. The amazing part was that they used language so well that they could convince me of one thing and then argue against it and convince me of the opposite argument in a matter of minutes. Now that's communicative competence.4Language teaching in the United States is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is communicative competence: the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals. The desired outcome of the language learning process is the ability to communicate competently, not the ability to use the language exactly as a native speaker does。

1.The ultimate goal of ELT: the ultimate of foreign language teaching is to enable students to usethe foreign language in work or life when necessary. Thus we should teach that part of the language that will be used (rather than all part of the language).Definition of task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan 1989:8)A lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decision about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. In other words, teachers need to think about the aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques and resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. As the goal of classroom management is to create an atmosphere conductive to interacting in English in meaningful ways.Deductive method: The Deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. First, the T writes an example on board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. Second, the T explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. The explanations are often done in the S’s native language and use grammatical terms. Sometimes, comparisons are made between the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. Finally, the Ss practice applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.Inductive method: the T provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any forms of explicit explanation.1. Language:” Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” It can be understood in the following six aspects:Language as system;Language as symbolic;Language as arbitrary;Language as vocal;Language as human;Language as communicationBottom-up modelSome teachers teach reading by introducing new vocabulary and new structures first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. This way of teaching reading reflects the belief thatreading comprehension is based on the understanding and mastery熟练of all the new words, new phrases, and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice. Also, this reading follows a linear process from the recognition of letters, to words, to phrases, to sentences, to paragraphs, and then to the meaning of the whole text. This way of teaching reading is said to follow a bottom-up model.2). Top-down modelIt is believed that in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. This process of reading is said to follow the top-down model of teaching reading just as Goodman(1970) once said that reading was “a psycholinguistic guessing game”2. Structural view:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences.3. The functional view:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: greetings; offering,suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc.The communicative view of languageThe communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.4. The interactional view:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.1) The behaviorist theory( Skinne r)-- a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that "you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus,response, and reinforcement"2) Cognitive theory( Noam Chomsky):The term cognitive is to describe loosely methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat.The goal of CLTThe goal of CLT is to develop students' communicative competenceLesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.Teaching stages and procedures:Teaching stages are the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom.Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.31. Three P's model: presentation, practice and production.SkimmingSkimming means reading quickly to get the gist,i.e. the main idea of the text. ScanningScanning means to read to locate/get specific information.1). DiscussionA discussion is often used for a) exchange of personal opinions. This sort of discussion canstart with a question like "What do you think of?"b) stating of personal opinions ongeneral issues. c) problem-solving.d) the ranking(分类；顺序)of alternatives e) deciding upon priorities(先;前)etc.2). Role-playRole-play is a very common language learning activity where students play differentroles and interact from the point of view of the roles they play.What’s called A process approach to writing1). DefinitionWhat really matters or makes a difference is the help that the teacher provides toguide the students through the process that they undergo when they are writing. What’s the assessmentAssessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of the learning process.a. Grammar Translation:The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)b. Direct Method:The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Viëtor in the early 1800's.Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized--grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.c. The Silent Way:The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most of the talkingand interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as a normal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and student initiative.d. Community Language Learning:Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and accepting students' fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of language learning--ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at language learning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus is learner-generated.e. Natural Approach:Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrase and the use of manipulatives. Terrell (1977) focused on the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is applied in the Naturale. Reading Method:The reading method was prominent in the U.S. following the Committee of Twelve in 1900 and following the Modern Foreign Language Study in 1928. The earlier method was similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized the transference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading method focuses more on silent reading for comprehension purposes.f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method:This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrases in the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously.ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach to language instruction used in during the 1940's. In the postwar years, the civilian version of ASTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues, pattern drills, and emphasis on pronunciation.g. Cognitive Methods:Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition of grammar structures followed by meaningful practice.h. Communicative Methods:The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials (authentic realia) in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.i. Total Physical Response Method:This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listening comprehension should be fully developed before any active oralparticipation from students is expected (just as it is with children when theyare learning their native language) .What is the Grammar-Translation Method?The Grammar-Translation Method is designed around grammatical structures.The Functional-Notional ApproachUnlike the Grammar-Translation Method, which is based on the grammar structures, it thinks thata general learner should take part in the language activities, the functions of language involved inthe real and normal life are most important. For example, the learners have to learn how to give directions, buy goods, ask a price, claim ownership of something and so on. It tells that is not just important to know the forms of the language, it is also important to know the functions and situations, so that the learner could practice real-life communication.Communicative CompetenceBoth knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language in communicative situation appropriately.Critical Period Hypothesis关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.1.Process-oriented theories:强调过程are concerned with how the mind organizes newinformation such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulus, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.There are a fin ite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of sentences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that learning is a proces in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/he r already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and engagement with the tar get language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.。

Cross-Cultural Communication Competence: The Key to Successful Global InteractionIn an increasingly interconnected world, the importance of cross-cultural communication competence has become paramount. The ability to effectively communicate across cultural barriers is crucial for personal and professional success. This essay explores the essence of cross-cultural communication competence, its significance, and strategies to develop this crucial skill.Cross-cultural communication competence is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in diverse cultural contexts. It involves understanding and respecting cultural differences, adapting communication styles to fit the cultural norms of the other party, and managingconflict and misunderstandings that may arise due to cultural differences. This competence is essential intoday's globalized world, where people from diverse backgrounds interact frequently in business, education, and social settings.The significance of cross-cultural communication competence lies in its ability to bridge cultural dividesand foster mutual understanding. In the business world, for instance, cross-cultural communication skills are crucial for successful international collaborations and negotiations. In education, they are essential for creating an inclusive learning environment where students from different cultures can learn together effectively. Insocial settings, they promote cultural exchange and understanding, leading to greater tolerance and respect among people.Developing cross-cultural communication competence requires a conscious effort and a continuous process of learning and adaptation. Here are some strategies that can help individuals enhance their cross-cultural communication skills:1. Cultural awareness: Gaining knowledge aboutdifferent cultures, their values, beliefs, and communication styles is crucial. This can be achieved through reading books, articles, and websites that provide insights into different cultures. Participating in cultural exchange programs and interacting with people from diverse backgrounds can also be beneficial.2. Language proficiency: Language is a key component of cross-cultural communication. Mastering the language of the other culture, including its vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions, can help individuals communicate more effectively. Additionally, learning to speak with a cultural accent and intonation can further enhance communication.3. Adaptability: Being flexible and willing to adapt one's communication style to fit the cultural norms of the other party is essential. This involves understanding and respecting the communication preferences and taboos of the other culture and adapting one's behavior accordingly.4. Active listening: Active listening is a crucialskill in cross-cultural communication. It involves paying attention to what the other person is saying, understanding their perspective, and responding appropriately. Active listening helps individuals build trust and rapport with their interlocutors, leading to more effective communication.5. Conflict management: Cultural differences can sometimes lead to conflicts and misunderstandings. It isimportant to have strategies to manage these conflicts constructively. This involves remaining calm and respectful, seeking clarification when needed, and using appropriate conflict resolution techniques.In conclusion, cross-cultural communication competenceis a crucial skill for success in today's globalized world. By developing a deep understanding of different cultures, mastering the language, adapting communication styles, actively listening, and managing conflicts constructively, individuals can effectively communicate across cultural barriers and foster mutual understanding and respect. This, in turn, can lead to enhanced personal and professional success in the global arena.**跨文化交际能力的重要性：全球互动成功的关键** 在日益相互关联的世界中，跨文化交际能力的重要性变得至关重要。