31孙远工具箱s e v e n t e e n整理竞争What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A's and F's (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A's looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.标准和道德The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question.道德But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one's faith.教育孩子老师作则There is no escaping the fact that young people need as examples principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.教育孩子家长作则You can't expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain things must be said, certain limits laid down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.重视教育As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be not only healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.失败，错误与成功Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggests, an activity which produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy which generates good creative ideas also produces errors.Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on "the right answer" belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:不敢失败和保守的态度With this kind of attitude, you aren't going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a little penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a "B" performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself in situations where you might fail. This leads to conservative thought patterns designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on "failure."From a practical point of view, "to err is wrong" makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousands of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn't last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand into a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won't keep their jobs very long.Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief "to err is wrong"can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you'll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you'll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend littletime testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, "if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses." That's the way the game of life goes.失败的名人例子！太好啦！As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filled with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions which were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.这一段好哪！失败走向成功的例子Negative FeedbackErrors serve another useful purpose: they tell us when to change direction. When things are going smoothly, we generally don't thinkabout them. To a great extent, this is because we function according to the principle of negative feedback.Often it is only when things or people failto do their job that they get our attention. For example, you are probably not thinking about your kneecaps right now; that's because everything is fine with them. The same goes for your elbows: they are also performing their function—no problem at all. But if you were to break a leg, you would immediately notice all of the things you could no longer do, but which you used to take for granted.Negative feedback means that the current approach is not working,and it is up to you to figure out a new one. We learn by trial and error,not by trial and rightness. If we did things correctly every time, wewould never have to change direction—we'd just continue the current course and end up with more of the same.For example, after the supertanker Amoco Cadiz broke up off the coast of Brittany in the spring of 1978, thereby polluting the coast with hundreds of thousands of tons of oil, the oil industry rethought many of its safety standardsregarding petroleum transport. The same thing happened after the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor in 1979—many procedures and safety standards were changed.We learn by our failures. A person's errors are the whacks that lead him to think something different.引用The creative director of an advertising agency told me that he isn't happy unless he is failing at least half of the time. As he puts it, "If you are going to be original, you are going to be wrong a lot."One of my clients, the president of a fast-growing computer company, tells his people: "We're innovators. We're doing things nobody has ever done before. Therefore, we are going to be making mistakes. My advice to you: make your mistakes, but make them in a hurry."Nature's Errors[[Nature serves as a good example of how trial and error can be used to make changes. Every now and then genetic mutations occur—errors in gene reproduction. Most of the time, these mutations have a deleterious effect on the species, and they drop out of the gene pool. But occasionally, a mutation provides the species with something beneficial, and that change will be passed on to future generations.The rich variety of all species is due to this trial and error process. If there had never been any mutations from the first amoeba, where would we be now?]]If you're not making many errors, you might ask yourself, "How many opportunities am I missing by not being more aggressive?"Remember these two benefits of failure. First, if you do fail, you learn what doesn't work; and second, the failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach.我们学不完，我们不象Aristotle，我们要怎么学Unlike Aristotle who is believed to have known everything there was to know at the time he lived, it is impossible for us to deal with the voluminous amounts of information which are produced daily. The lifelong learning which we have alluded to will not always be acquired through the traditional sixteen-week college course. We in the community college need to provide a smorgasbord of opportunities for individuals who wish to increase their mobility and options.大学要不要规定各种课程What I've missed is an education that integrates philosophy, history, literature and the other humanities into a coherent whole. Part of the fault is my own: I did not seek out some classes that I should have. But a large share of the burden lies with the university, which lacks a core curriculum—for example, "Great Books"—that could provide a general education.好比喻，大学的作用，专业课的不全面的危害Undergraduates are therefore denied the opportunity to pursue a comprehensive curriculum. Instead, they are left, like shoppers in a giant supermarket, to wander the aisles, picking products at random, never sure that their selections will add up to a nutritious meal. Laissez faire may work in the economy, but it's no way to run a university.太注重专业课First, granting that our graduates know a good deal, their knowledge lies about in fragments and never gets welded together into the stuff of a tempered and mobile mind. Secondly, our university graduates havebeen so busy boring holes for themselves, acquiring special knowledge and skills, that in later life they have astonishingly little in common in the way of ideas, standards, or principles, Thirdly, it is alleged that the past two decades have revealed a singular want of clarity about the greatends of living, attachment to which gives significance and direction to a life.真是好！苏格拉底说真正的教育But genuine education, as Socrates knew more than two thousand years ago, is not inserting the stuffings of information into a person, but rather eliciting knowledge from him; it is the drawing out of what is in the mind. "The most important part of education," once wrote William Ernest Hocking, the distinguished Harvard philosopher, "is this instruction of a man in whathe has inside him."And, as Edith Hamilton has reminded us, Socrates never said, "I know, learn from me." He said, rather, "Look into your own selves and find the spark of truth that God has put into every heart, and that only you can kindle to a flame."电信和技术的发展1. The development of information technologies.Throughout the world, information and telecommunication technologies are bringing about a new industrial revolution whichalready looks to be as important and radical as those revolutions which preceded it.全球化2. Internationalization is connected both with political situation and with the development of technologies.Nowadays our world is becoming smaller and smaller, and turns into a "global village." International academic cooperation is an excellent basis for nation-wide cooperation and one of the key factors for sustainable development.传统教学模式的转变The learning community reflects a shift away from the typical lecture approach where the professor professes, i.e. imparts knowledge to the student and the student simply takes it down and takes it in. The new emphasis will be on learning, in addition to the lecture through student initiative in setting the program, acquiring knowledge through the Internet as needed, collaborating with peers in special projects, experiential learning through internships, study abroad, and many other out-of-classroom experiences.需要全面发展，对研究也是如此The research role will continue to be a key function in the research university, but there will continue to be a shift in emphasis away from single investigator, working on a particular and narrow area, toward multi-disciplinary teams working on problems driven by societal need.职业培训和教育Training is intended primarily for the service of society; education is primarily for the individual. Society needs doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers to perform specific tasks necessary to its operation, just as it needs carpenters and plumbers and stenographers. Training supplies the immediate and specific needs of society so that the work of the world may continue. And these needs, our training centers the professional and trade schools fill. But although education is for the improvement of the individual, it also serves society by providing a leavening of men of understanding, of perception, and wisdom. They are our intellectual leaders, the critics of our culture, the defenders of our free traditions, the instigators of our progress. They serve society by examining its function, appraising its needs, and criticizing its direction. They may be earning their livings by practicing one of the professions, or in pursuing a trade, or by engaging in business enterprise. They may be rich or poor. They may occupy positions of power and prestige, or they may be engaged in some humble employment. Without them, however, society either disintegrates or else becomes an anthill.艺术/ 全面教育In the liberal arts college, on the other hand, the student is encouraged to explore new fields and old fields, to wander down the bypaths of knowledge. There the teaching is concerned with major principles, andits purpose is to change the student, to make him something different from what he was before, just as the purpose of the Y gym is to make a fat man into a thin one, or a strong one out of a weak one.专业课和艺术In general, certain courses of study are for the service of society and other courses are for self-improvement. In the hierarchy of our educational system, the former are the function of our professional schools and the latter are the function of the college of liberal arts.智慧是什么There are, I think, several factors that contribute to wisdom. Of these I should put first a sense of proportion: the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a problem and to attach to each its due weight.有关智慧和人类Comprehensiveness alone, however, is not enough to constitute wisdom. There must be, also, a. certain awareness of the ends of human life.要的It is not only in public ways, but in private life equally, that wisdom is needed. It is needed in the choice of ends to be pursued and in emancipation from personal prejudice.理智的作用，满好的I think the essence of wisdom is emancipation, as far as possible, from the tyranny of the here and the now. We cannot help the egoism of our senses. Sight and sound and touch are bound up with our own bodiesand cannot be made impersonal. Our emotions start similarly titan ourselves. An infant feels hunger or discomfort, and is unaffected except by his own physical condition. Gradually with the years, his horizon widens, and, in proportion as his thoughts and feelings become less personal and less concerned with his own physical states, he achieves growing wisdom. This is of course a matter of degree. No one can view the world with complete impartiality; and if anyone could, he would hardly be able to remain alive. but it is possible to make a continual approach towards impartiality, on the one hand, by knowing things somewhat remote in time or space, and, on the other hand, by giving to such things their due weight in our feelings. It is this approach towards impartiality that constitutes growth in wisdom.计算机与教育：对学生和老师Computers enhance a student's learning experience in many ways. First of all, the computer has the ability to accommodate individual differences in learning speed because the user (the student) is the one who controls the pace of the lessons. In addition, because a computer Is nonjudgmental, the learner does not have to be afraid of reprisal or humiliation when making errors. For example, because computers can repeat information over and over, the user can ask for many repetitions of a lesson without fearing a judgmental response about his or her ability to learn. The beneficial effects of learning in a stress-free atmosphereare well documented. A third advantage of CAI is that a computer can give a student immediate feedback. It can tell the student why she or he is wrong as soon as an error is made, and it can even provide an appropriate hint for figuring out the correct answer.Not only do computers benefit students, they also make the teacher's job easier. One advantage lies in the preparation of instructional materials. Schools and colleges can purchase educational computer programs that can be adapted to any learning situation. These systems, called "authoring systems," are like skeletal lesson plans: The format of several exercises and tests is already planned out; all the teacher adds is the information he or she wants the students to learn (mathematical problems, vocabulary lists, and so forth). The authoring system automatically incorporates these teaching points into its preplanned format and then is ready to be used by several students for a long time. The system can also correct the students' work and determine and record grades. In addition, the computer offers numerous advantages to teachers in managing their classrooms. A computer laboratory (a room having one computer for every two students) can free the teacher to meet individually with students while the rest of the class is occupied with computer lessons. Finally, computers can help teachers keep student records and chart student progress, thereby cutting down on time-consuming paperwork."计算机引发疾病In an atmosphere of computer monitoring, inept work stations, inflexible pacing, and nerve-wracking anxiety, workman's compensation claims based on job stress have more than doubled since 1980, and now account for approximately 15 percent of all occupational disease claims.According to estimates by the OTA, stress-related illness costs business, between $50 and $75 billion per year.太阳能：环保的潜力But the era of solar power will have to wait for the cost of converting sunlight to fall far enough to pay for the cost of installing a system. "Solar is competitive now if you take the long view," says SMUD general manager Freeman. "And it's going to be highly competitive by the end of the decade." If he's right, the forecast for the industry in the 21st century is bright and sunny.技术的进步In the past, one of the biggest disadvantages of machines has been their inability to work on a micro (or tiny) scale. For example, doctors did not have devices allowing them to go inside the human body to identify health problems or to perform delicate surgery. Repair crew did not have a way of identifying broken pipes located deep within a high-rise apartment building. However, that's about to change. Advances in computers and biophysics have started a microminiature revolutionthat's allowing scientists to envision and in some cases actually build microscopic machines. These devices promise to radically change the way we live and work.技术导致的环境污染New technologies often cause new forms of pollution and environmental stress. Pollution may be defined as the addition to the environment of agents that are potentially damaging to the welfare of humans or other organisms. Environmental stress is a more general term that refers to the effects of society on the natural environment Pollution is the most common form of environmental stress, but it is not the only one.技术的负面影响In sum, although scientific discoveries and technological advances have produced tremendous improvements in the quality of human life, they have often had negative consequences as well. The risk of cancer caused by the inhalation of asbestos particles, the possibility of large-scale industrial accidents, the ethical issues raised by the use of life-prolonging technologies, and the ever-present danger of nuclear holocaust are as much a part of the modern era as space travel, miracle drugs, and computers that can operate whole factories. Although technology is not "out of control," there is clearly a need for improved procedures for anticipating and preventing the negative consequences of new technologies高科技导致失业It should be noted that the effects of new technologies are not always positive. The phrase technological dualism is sometimes used to refer to the fact that technological changes often have both positive and negative effects. The introduction of diesel locomotives, for example, greatly increased the efficiency of railroad operations, but it also led to the decline and eventual abandonment of railroad towns whose economies were based on the servicing of steam locomotives. Another example is the automation of industrial production. Automation has greatlyimproved manufacturing processes in many industries. It has increased the safety of certain production tasks and led to improved productquality in many cases. But it has also replaced thousands of manual workers with machines, and significant numbers of those workers find themselves unemployed and lacking the skills required by the high-tech occupations of postindustrial society.人们对技术的依赖Sociologists who have studied this issue point out that the problem is not one of humans being dominated by machines but, rather, one of depending on technology to meet a wide and growing range of human needs.科技对社会的影响The obvious importance of technology to human cultural and social evolution has led some sociologists to view technology as a basic principle of social change. The classic statement of this view is that of William Fielding Ogburn. Ogburn hypothesized that inventions affect the size of populations, which in turn influences the course of history. (For example, overpopulation often leads to wars and migrations.) Some inventions affect population directly: Improvements in sanitation, the development of cures for fatal illnesses, and more effective contraceptive techniques are examples. But inventions can also have indirect effects on population. For example, techniques that improve crop yields or permit long-term storage of food surpluses make it possible to support a larger population with a given amount of farmland. And improvements in military technology (e.g., the use of horses in warfare, the invention of gunpowder, and the development of the armored tank) have bad dramatic effects on the conduct of war and hence on population size.科技对能源满好的Throughout human history a central aspect of technological change has been the quest for new sources of energy to meet the needs of growing populations. That quest has given rise to a succession of energy technologies, each more sophisticated than the last. Animal power gave way to steam-driven machinery, which in turn was replaced by the internal-combustion engine. Reliance on oil and its derivatives, especially gasoline, encouraged the growth of powerful energy corporations, which often lobby government agencies for assistance in developing new technologies like nuclear energy. And today the technologically advanced nations are attempting to control the fusion reaction, in which hydrogen atoms are fused into helium, thereby producing an enormous release of energy. The implications of this energy technology, if it can be achieved, are staggering. Fusion promises to bring about a major revolution in human existence. It could make possible the colonization and exploration of space, the rapid development of the less-developed nations, the elimination of energy technologies based on oil and coal (which pollute the environment), and much else. But the effort to develop fusion power is also indicative of a fundamental crisis in modern life: the dwindling supply of energy resources.要It would seem from what we have said so far that the quest for energy is a positive force that results in new, sometimes revolutionarytechnologies that greatly improve the quality of human life. Many people believe that societies can meet their growing energy needs bycontinually investing in more sophisticated technologies. This approach has led to the development of huge nuclear-power plants to replace oil-fueled generators, and it is widely hoped that investment in fusion, an even more complex technology, will eliminate the dangers posed by nuclear power."Soft" energy technologies depend on renewable sources like sun and wind and tend to be labor-intensive in that larger numbers of people are needed to produce a given amount of energy. They are more diverse than "hard'' energy technologies and are more directly matched to energy needs. (Solar energy, for example, can be used to heat water withoutfirst being converted into electricity.) But the major difference between the two paths, according to Lovins, is that whereas the soft path depends on "pluralistic consumer choice in deploying a myriad of small devices and refinements, the hard path depends on difficult, large-scale projects [e.g., nuclear-power plants and fusion reactors] requiring a major social commitment under centralized management" Such projects are characterized by a "remote and…uncontrollable technology run by a faraway, bureaucratized, technical elite who have probably never heard of you."科技在现代社会中的一句总结The place of technology in modern societies is a subject of continuing controversy. Key issues include not only the Impact of technology on daily life but also the need to control the development and uses of technological innovations so that they benefit all sectors of society.医疗的问题Throughout most of human history, limitations on food production, together with lack of medical knowledge, have placed limits on the sizeof populations. Dreadful diseases like the bubonic plague have actually reduced populations. In England the plague, known as the Black Death, was responsible for a drastic drop in the population in 1348 and for the lack of population growth in the seventeenth century. In 1625 more than 35,000 residents of London died of the plague. Smallpox and dysentery have had similar, though less dramatic, effects.医疗好让人口猛增In sum, as medical science progressed toward greater understanding of the nature of disease and its prevention, new public-health andmaternal-care practices contributed to rapid population growth.技术的不好：很好的开头！The case of medical technology illustrates once again that technology can be both a blessing and a curse. In recent decades we have become increasingly aware that the problems of human life cannot always be solved by technological means. The "technological fix" can have adverse consequences. In the case of medical technology, vital ethical issues must be addressed. Other technologies, such as nuclear power and chemical plants, can directly threaten human life. As Charles Perrow writes, "Human-made catastrophes appear to have increased with industrialization as we built devices that could crash, sink, burn, orexplode." Perrow also points out that the increasing complexity of modern technology has led to a new kind of catastrophe: the failure of whole systems (i.e., activities and organizational networks as well as apparatus), as in the case of the Three Mile Island accident or the Challenger disaster.核污染例子研究者不更新和质问理论而视为当然地咨询Rather than spending their time testing and refuting existing hypotheses in order to establish new, more valid ones, they often take it for granted that existing theories are valid and use them in their efforts to solve specific problems. In other words, the researcher uses existing theories and methods as a paradigm, or model, to guide future research.研究者与社会脱节，固守传统理论This view of the scientific community (or, rather, communities of specialized researchers) implies that science is insulated from the rest of society. Scientists are guided by the tradition of research in their field, which is passed along from one generation of scientists to the next. The problems they choose to solve are determined by that tradition, as are the methods they use in trying to solve them. This process continues, according to Kuhn, until the paradigm is no longer useful—that is, until enough members of the scientific community believe a particular set of observations can no longer be explained by existing theories and procedures. Then the community becomes more open to outside influences. Its members explore a variety of ideas not directly related to the dominant paradigm in their field, ideas that in some cases lead to a scientific revolution. When this occurs, the old paradigm is set aside in favor of a new one that will henceforth guide the work of the members of a particular scientific community. Some of the most famous scientific revolutions have occurred in physics, for example, in the shift from Newtonian physics to Einstein's theory of relativity and quantum theory and most recently in the discovery of the existence of subatomic particles.物理学上的发展更新和飞跃的例子好句子呀！科学的本义是普遍而非个人色彩One of the basic norms of scientific institutions is universalism: The truth of scientific knowledge must be determined by the impersonal criteria of the scientific method, not by criteria related to race, nationality, religion, social class, or political ideology.科学是大家共有的Another norm of science is common ownership of scientific findings. Those findings are a result of collaboration and hence are not the property of any individual, although in some cases they may bear the name of the person who first published them, as in "Darwin's theory of evolution" or "Einstein's theory of relativity."科技对交流，传媒We noted earlier that a significant aspect of modern science is its contribution to the rapid pace of technological change. The technologies produced by scientific research are applied to all aspects of human life and hence are a major force in shaping and changing other institutions in addition to scientific institutions themselves. An example is the impact of technological change on the institutions of mass communication. The advent of radio and then television dramatically changed the ways in。
