语言学教程morphology

Chapter 3 LexiconTime periods: two classesTeaching contents:definition of a wordThe formation of wordsTeaching aims and requirementsLearn by heart:1. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.2. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Know:1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. Two different fields of morphology, including inflectional morphology and derivational morphology.Understand:1. Definition of a word2. The classifications of word according to different aspects3. The formation of wordsTeaching focus and difficulties:Focus：1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.3. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Difficulty:1. Classification of morphemes2. Inflection and derivations.1. Review what we have learned in last chapter, and ask some students to answer the following questions: (5m)1) How are English consonants classified2) How are English Vowels classified3) What are phonemes and allophones2. Study Definition of a wordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.Zhang Weiyou (1999)a minimum free formStability --internal structure (can’t rearrange)relative uninterruptibility --internal structure (can’t insert) Classification of words(1)Basic word stock & non-basic vocabularyContent words & functional wordsNative words & borrowed wordsVariable words & invariable wordsOpen-class words & closed-class wordsTraditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesClassification of words (2)Variable words & invariable words (variability)—variable words: the words whose form is changeable, words which might appear in different inflective and derivative forms, v. n.—invariable words: the words whose form is unchangeable, words which usually occur in the same form such as: since, in, for, of, at, on Classification of words (3)Open-class words & closed-class words (membership)--open-class words: membership is unlimited, n. v. (economic words, scientific words.)--closed-class words: membership is comparatively limited. Pronouns, conj, prep. Articles.Classification of words (4)Traditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesTraditional parts of speech:N. v. adj. Adv. Prep. Conj.Additional four categoriesParticles : 小品词infinite maker ‘to’, negative maker ‘not’, subor dinate units in verbal phrases.Auxiliaries: 助词(助动词、情态动词)Pro-form 代词形式 pro-v. pro-adj.. He likes the animal, so do i.. The desk is white, so is the chair.Determiners 限定词‘the’, ‘a’, ‘some’, ‘all’. ‘all the beautiful Chinese girls’,3. Study The formation of word1) Ask the students to skip over this section and find out the answers to the following questions:a. What is morphologyb. What is morpheme What is the biggest difference between morpheme and phonemec. How can we classify morphemes2) 3.2.1 MorphologyDefinition: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components: morphemes.For example:Verbs are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective (adj.) or a noun (n.)在形容詞或名詞加-ify變成動詞*simple (adj.) simplify (v) 簡化*quality (n) qualify (v)使具有資格*identity (n) identify (v) 認出MorphemesThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful components of words..: boyish孩子氣的;男孩似的boy, -ish (two morphemes)3) 3.2.2 Types of morphemes (1)Those that may constitute words by themselves,自由形式的詞素本身就是一個詞，可以單獨使用.: boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes PK Bound morphemesThose that cannot occur alone,Bound morpheme includes two types: roots and affixes..: -s in dogs, -ed in worked, dis- in dislike, un- in unable.A certain affix here refers to an inflectional affix: grammatical endingsTypes of morphemes (2)Root: the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根Stem: the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干Affix: the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀.: friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may be:Free: those that can stand by themselves,.: black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,.: -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: normally divided into:Prefix (dis-, un-) prefixes occur at the beginning of a word.suffix (-en, -ify) at the endinfix (foot-feet) in the middlePrefix 前綴mis- 誤 mistake 誤解over- 過分 overdo 做得過分Prefixed modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Exceptions are the prefixes be-, and en(m)-.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Accordingly, there are noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, adverb-forming suffixes, and verb-forming suffixes.-er teacher, writer-ician “...(專)家,...工作者” electrician電工-bility “能力” possibility可能性-hood “時期” childhood幼年時期,童年時期-age “(人生的)某一時期” orphanage孤兒-ary (adj) elementary基本的, secondary第二位的-ful (adj) beautiful美麗的, delightful愉悅的, sorrowful悲傷的-en (V 使..) weaken使變弱 , darken, deepen-ize (v …化) modernize使現代化-ly (adj+ -ly=adv n + -ly= adj) slowly慢慢地, friendly友善的-ward (往…方向) forward(adv)往前, eastward往東Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,.: friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself..:*toler- (root) + affix –ate: tolerate忍受*quick (free morpheme) + affix –ly: quickly *careless (a derived form) + affix lessInflectional affix: Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case etc..: -ed, -s, -erHe had regular features. 他五官端正。

e different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence, e.g. red ‵coat （红外套） green ‵house （绿色房子） black ‵bird （黑色的鸟） hot ‵dog (热的狗) black ‵smith catch ‵word pig ‵pen
Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.
Morpheme（词素）--the minimal unit of meaning
Morphological（形态学的） rules
The rules that govern the formation of words: in general, English words are formed through six ways. Derivation/Affixation派生/词缀: to add a prefix or a suffix to a word or a root to change either the part of speech or the meaning, or both of the original word. e.g. play—replay, read----reader
Some points about compounds
When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady（女房东）, icy-cold, blue-black… When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong（固执）, pickpocket（扒手）…

Bound Morphemes
• Derivational morphemes: to make new words in the L and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem; ness, -less, -ful, -ly, etc
morphemes • Bound stems and free stems (dress, care)
Free morphemes
• Lexical morphemes实意词素: a set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs which we think of as the words which carry the ‘content’ of messages we convey
• Inflectional morphemes: indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form
• Allomorphs: actual forms of the morphs which result from the single morpheme
• All affixes in Eng are bound • Stem: when used with bound morphemes, the basic

the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories: Lexical morphemes(词汇语素)：ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey. E.g. book, desk Functional morphemes(功能语素)：conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. E.g. if, when, because.
2. The smallest unit of morphology & the classification of morphemes
Morpheme(语素): A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
1.4 Definition of morphology P52
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。

The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。

前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。

2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。

Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table,room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。

Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。

2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。

（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。

语义的最小单位是语素。

语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。

2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。

"basketball" (combination of "basket" and "ball")
"mother-in-law" (combination of "mother" and "in-law")
"blackboard" (combination of "black" and "board")
• Inflectional Variation: Morphology also deals with the inflectional variation of words, which refers to the changes in word form that indicate grammatical function or category. Understanding inflectional morphology is crucial for proper sentence structure and grammar.
Grammar
目录
• The Relationship between Morphology and Vocabulary
01
Morphological Overview
Definition and Purpose
Definition: Morphology is the study of the structure and forms of words in a language. It focuses on the internal composition of words, including the derivation of new words from existing words (derivational morphology) and the modification of words through the addition or deletion of affixes (inflectional morphology).

Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
Definition: must be attached to another morpheme
Boy Boys Boy Boy’s Beauty Beautiful Expensive Inexpensive
New word???
Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
so-so
zigzag
bye-bye
dilly-dally
hotchpotch mishmash
…
人人, 天天, 一点点, 冷冰冰,
来来往往, 点点滴滴, ……
4.Blending 拼缀法
similar to compounding,
but some parts of the free morphemes involved
Morpheme: ‘minimal unit of sound and meaning’
A further division: whether they can occur on their own or not:
No:
Bound morpheme 黏着词素
-s in dog-s; -ed in kick-ed; cran- in cran-berry
no new word added not change syntactic class to indicate the grammatical function
E.g.: Only 8 kinds in English: N.: -’s, -s (plural nouns), V.: -ing, -ed/-en, -s (S-V agreement) Adj./Adv.: -est, -er.

Morphology
Morph, verb; morphing, noun [U] [V, VN] to change smoothly from one image to another using computer ANIMATION; to make an image change in this way -ology (BrE also -logy) combining form (in nouns), a subject of study: sociology; genealogy a characteristic of speech or writing: phraseology; trilogy

Nouns verbs adjectives adverbs

Conjunctions prepositions articles pronouns
4. Word class
traditional grammar — parts of speech
word class in linguistic analysis — wider range of more precisely defined categories： particles, auxiliaries, pro-forms, determiners.
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
1. A physically definable unit: a set of sound segments or wirting letters between two pauses or blanks 2. Word both as a general term and as a specific term 3. A grammatical unit, just like morpheme or clause complex

Derivational
more productive—form new wor ds
Changes meaning or part of speec h of the stem.( like--dislike, sleep Indicates syntactic relations betw —asleep) een different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning) Indicates semantic relations with Occurs with all members of som e large class of morphemes Occurs at margins of words , in most cases suffixes. (radio—radi os) in the word. (specific lexical meaning，e.g., u n-) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes Occurs before any inflectional su ffixes added, prefixes/suffixes
Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes
which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John’s

Morphology 词法studies the internal structures of words and word formation rules. It divided into two fields:inflectional morphology(屈折词法) and derivational/lexical morphology(派生词法). It studies the different categories of morphemes( bound, free, derivational and inflectional) morphological rulesMorpheme is a minimal meaningful grammatical unit in a language. 词素Free morpheme s: those that can exist as individual words 自由语素Lexical morphemes实词Functional morphemes 虚词Bound morphemes(粘着词素): those that can not occur alone as separate words.Roots(词根),the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaningAffixes(词缀): those that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.Position: prefixes, suffixes and inffixes(中缀)Function: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes 屈折词法派生词法Inflectional affixes: indicate grammatical function, do not produce new words or cause a change in grammatical class. Number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree (8个:-s,-s,’s, -ing, -ed,-en,-er,est )Derivational affixes: produce new words, some change grammatical classes of words.root词根the basic part of a word that can’t be further analyzed without total loss of its identity Base 词基: the form that a derivational affix is attachedStem 词干: the form that an inflectional affix is attachedMorphs语子are related to morphemes in general and allomorphs are related to a specific morpheme.empty morph 空语子: a morph which has form but no meaning. children=child+r+enzero morph 零语子: a morph which has meaning but no form. They work in Nanjing. Allomorphs 词素变体: the realizations of a particular morpheme. /in/,/il/ /ir/,/im/Morphemic analysis: to analyse the number of morphemes and the relationships between the morphemes.linear order of morphemes: the horizontal order or the sequential characteristics of morphemes in a wordhierarchical order: the internal structure or relationships of the morphemes.Immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis)to divide the morphemes of a word into two groups and then divide them into sub-groups and so on, until the irreducible constituents or the morphemes are obtained.morphological rule s: the rules that determine how morphemes are combined into new words.word-formation processes: the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.productive ones: derivation(派生), conversion(转换) and compounding(复合);less productive ones:blending(拼缀法), clipping(截短法), backformation(逆成法),acronymy(首字母法)Derivation: a process in which one or more affixes are attached to a root or a base to produce a new word known as derived words.compounding:a process in which two or more free morphemes are combined to form a new word called compound word or compound.A solid compound: two words are written together: fingerprint, sunburn doorknob.Open compound: the words are written separately: April Fool’s day, Boston terrier. Conversion: a process to turn a owrd into a new word class without the addition of affix blending: to delete parts of two words and combine the remaining parts to form a new word. clipping: to form a new word by deleting one or two syllables without any change in meaning or part of speech. ominibus= busback-formation: to form a new word by removing the supposed suffix from a longer word already in a language.acronymy: to form a new word by joining the first letters of several words together.Acronym: the letters are pronounced as a single word. APEC, NASAInitialism: the letters are pronounced one by one. UFO, VOA。

3.6 Morphological rules of word formaion
--- the rules that govern the formation of words, e.g
un+ADJECTIVE = not ---ADJECTIVE unfair unthinkable unacceptable…
3.2 Open class and closed class
Open class words---content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs,
In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme. e.g
friendship=friend(stem)+ship
friendships=friendship(stem)+s
3.5 Derivational and Inflectional morphemes
Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g
a building an orange;
Each of the variants is called an allomorph of a morpheme.

{z}: /s/: after voiceless consonants except /s/, / /, and / /, books, maps streets; /z/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /z/, / /, / /.bags, cars keys /iz/ after /s/, /z/, / /, / /, / /, / /. sizes, bridges bosses, matches
Semantically:root(词根 and affix 词根) 词根 affix( 词缀): prefix(前缀 suffix(后缀 ; 前缀), 后缀) 词缀 前缀 后缀 derivational affixes(派生词缀 and 派生词缀) 派生词缀 inflectional affixes(屈折词缀 屈折词缀) 屈折词缀 Structurally: free morphemes(自由词素 自由词素, 自由词素 即自由词根) and bound morphemes(粘 即自由词根 粘 着词素) 着词素
Affixes(词缀 those that lexically 词缀): 词缀 depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words. Interralation: all free morphemes(like bird) are roots but not all roots are free morphemes. (like spect). All affixes are bound morphemes but not all bound morphemes are affixes (like ceive)

morphology语言学定义【形态学morphology】是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。

形态学有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。

曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。

morphology什么意思？1、词法：词法研究的对象是各种词的形式及其用法. 英语词类的形式变化有：名词和代词的数，格和性的形式变化；动词的人称、时态、语态、语气等形式变化；以及形容词和副词比较等级的形式变化。

2、句法(syntax)句法研究的对象是句子各个组成部分及其安排的规律，。

3、构词学：构词学(morphology)是语言学中的一门比较简单的学问，主要研究的是词的构成. 最近几年，电脑领域的某些词汇有了一些改变，某些词汇渐渐不被人们使用，新的词汇取而代之. 例如说，以前我们说「执行」一个程式，现在则说「跑」一个程式。

资料拓展：morphology.n.形态学，形态论；词法，词态学。

短语：soil morphology土壤形态学；土壤形态。

urban morphology城市形态；城市形态学。

例句：And morphology and performance of the coating has been examined. 并对镀层的表面形貌和性能进行了测定。

We also analyzed the effect of morphology on field emission properties.我们还分析了形貌对场发射性能的影响。

He also gave a very accurate description of the morphology of his cells.他给他所发现的.细胞的形态学特征进行了非常精细的描述。

They attain complex morphology, appearing as branched, tubular processes.它们达到复杂的形态，出现分枝，管状突起。

戴炜栋语言学-Chapter 3 Morphology●开放类和封闭类Open class and closed class●开放性词类（open class words）:名词、动词、副词和形容词●封闭性词类（closed words）：连词、介词、冠词、代词●词素Morphemes---the minimal units of the meaning●词素的定义the definition●词素morpheme--带着信息和功能的语言的最小单位 a morpheme can be definedas.a minimal unit of meaning.例如：reader是由read和er两个词素组成 boys是由boy和-s两个词素●注意：●词素既不是意义，也不是音阶，而是意义和音阶的组合；●词素通常是任意的，他们的声音和意义之间没有必然的联系；●如果想区分词素之间的区别，可以使用语素（morph）；●区分独立词和复杂词的区别：前者为单一词素构成，后者包括两个及以上的词素●词素的分类●自由和黏着词素（Free and bound morphemes）●自由词素：可以独立成词的词素成为自由词素 can be a word by itself●黏着词素：必须依附于另一个词素must be attracted to another one●同质异形体(Allomorphs)The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.●Analyzing word structures分析词的结构●root词根 The roots constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component ofits meaning.●The roots typically belongs to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes.●affixes词缀 Affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes ●Derivational and inflectional morphemes派生词素和曲折词素●派生词素：-en, -ate, and -ic are thus called derivational morphemes●曲折词素：there are bound morphemes which are for the most part of purelygrammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.●Morphological rules of word formation构词的形态学规则●词的构成方式被称为形态学规则（morphological rules)，这些规则决定了词素怎样组合成为词。

boychecktwosets词位被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的
Chapter 3 Lexicon
范雪菲
3.1 What is word?
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
＊A physically definable unit (自然的有界限的单位）
• 3.1.3 classification of words
• Variable and invariable words
variable words----one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. “ follow-followsfollowing”
※some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic
analysis: particles, auxiliaries, pro-form(代词形式“So
do I “), determiners
Determiners
• It refers to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has: definite (the) or indefinite( an ), partitive ( some ), or universal (all).

Free and Bound Morphemes
• This type of description is a partial simplification of the morphological facts of Eng. • Re- in words: receive, reduce, repeat • But –ceive, -duce- and –peat are not free morphemes • Bound stems and free stems (dress, care)
Bound Morphemes
• Derivational morphemes: to make new words in the L and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem; ness, -less, -ful, -ly, etc • Inflectional morphemes: indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. Used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form • Eng has 8 inflectional morphemes: -’s, -s (books), -s (lies), -ing, -ed, -en, -er, -est. • All suffixes
Morphology
• A better way of looking at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use the notion of “elements” in the message. • Morphology: the type of investigation which analyzes all those “elements” which are used in a language • Morphemes: “elements” in the form of a linguistic message