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第三周课堂练习Practice 1: Insert the article a or an where necessary1.Helium is gas which consists of one proton and one neutron.bor union is organization of workers formed to improve their economic status and working conditions.3.White dwarf is star that is unusually faint given its extreme temperature.4.Rice is cereal grain that usually requires subtropical climate and abundance of moisture for growth.5.Transduction is technique is which genes are inserted into host cell by means of viral infection.6.Heat is form of energy which can be transmitted through solid and liquid media by conduction.Practice 2: Edit the following by reducing the relative clauses where possible1.Aluminum is a lightweight metal that is often used for high-tension power transmission.2.Heat is a form of energy which can be transmitted through solid and liquid media by conduction.3. A brake is a device that is capable of slowing the motion of a mechanism.4. A dome is generally a hemispherical roof which is on top of a circular, square, or other-shaped space.5.Snow is a form of precipitation which results from the sublimation of water vapor into solid crystals attemperatures below 0 degrees centigrade.6．An antigen is a substance which causesthe formation of antibodies, the body’snatural response to foreign substances.7. A piccolo is a small flute that is pitched an octave higher than a standard fulte.8. An oocyte is a cell which undergoes meiosis to produce an ovum or egg.9. A catalyst is a substance that can speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without changing its own structure.10. A black hole is a celestial body which has approximately the same mass as the sun and a gravitational radius of about 3 km.Practice 3: Complete the following definitions by inserting an appropriate preposition1. A thermometer is an instrument ___ which temperature can be measured.2.Photosynthesis is process ___ which sunlight is used to manufacture carbohydrates from water and carbondioxide.3. A credit bureau is an organization ___ which businesses can apply for financial information on potentialcustomers.4.An anhydride is a compound __ which the elements of water have been removed.5.An eclipse is a celestial event ___ which one body, such as star, is covered by another, such as a planet.6.An axis is an imaginary line __ which a body is said to rotate.Practice 4: Put the sentences into a correct order.a.The term itself comes from the ancient Greek word palindromes meaning “running back again.”b.Another good and more rece nt example is “If I had a HiFi.”c.Some very common English words are palindromes, such as pop, dad, and noon.d. A palindrome is a word or phrase that results in the same sequence of letters no matter whether it is read from leftto right or from right to left.e.One of the classic long palindromes is “A man, a plan, a canal, Panama.”f.Long palindromes are very hard to construct, and some word puzzles spend immense amounts of time trying toproduce good example.Practice 5: Below you will find three pairs of sentences, each consisting of a definition and a generalization. When would it be better to begin a text with the first sentence in each pair rather than the second?A: 1. Russian is the first language of about 150 million inhabitants of the former Soviet Union.2. Russian is a language belonging to the West Slavic subgroup of the Indo-European language family.B: 1. A catalyst is a substance which increases the rate of a chemical reaction.2. Catalyst technology has progressed quickly as researchers better understand the complex interactions of molecules.Practice 6: Label the four parts of this problem-solution text.International students often study English for many years before going to an English speaking country to pursue a graduate degree. Their study of English usually focuses on grammar and reading, with little attention paid to speaking, writing, and listening(Belcher 1994.) Despite their many years of English instruction, after arriving in an English speaking country, many international students understandably find that their interactive skills are weak. In particular, they often experience difficulty actually using their English, which can result in frustration and misunderstanding. Recent research has shown that one way to overcome this frustration is to arrange a language exchange with a native speaker of English who wants to learn a foreign language(Brennan 1991). In this arrangement, the two partners exchange their knowledge of their native languages, thus providing a comfortable learning environment. Language exchanges can be one of the best ways to enhance one’s language skills, because they are done on a one-to-one basis.Practice 7: Here is another passage with the same structure. Read it and answer the questions that follow.①Madagascar has one of the world’s oldest systems of natural reserves. ②This system, established during the early 1900s, was designed to protect lemurs and other animal species unique to the island. ③However, due to severe economic hardship, this island country lacks the funds to properly mange the reserve; as a result , many species risk extinction. ④One recent solution to this problem has been offered by the international community. ⑤If Madagascar begins to better protect its reserves, its foreign debt will be reduced. ⑥This incentive should lead to some level of improvement. (based on information from Scientific American, January 1993)1.For what type of audience was this written?2.What assumptions does the author make about the audience’s knowledge background?3.What is the author’s purpose?4.What does this problem in sentence 4 refer to?5.What does this incentive in sentence 6 refer to?6.What does the author think of the solution?7.If the writer had thought that the solution would not work, what might he have written for the last sentence? In such acase, would this last sentence be enough to complete the text? If not, what would need to be added?Practice 8: write your own problem-solution text. Suggested topics:Private carsHigh educationPopulation explosionEnvironmental pollutionOne related to your own field of studyPractice 9: choose a verb from the list that reduces the informality of each sentence.assist reduce create investigate raise establish increase determine fluctuate eliminate1.Expert Systems can help out the user in the diagnosis of problems.2.This program was set up to improve access to medical care.3.Research expenditures have gone up to nearly $350 million.4.The use of optical character readers(OCRs) should cut down the number of problems with the U.S. mail service.5.Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.6.Building a nuclear power plant will not get rid of the energy problem completely.7.Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.8.This issue was brought up during the investigation.9.Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD.10.The emission levels have been going up and down.Practice 10: Which of the italicized words would be more suitable for an academic paper?1.The government has made good/considerable progress in solving environmental problems.2.We got/obtained encouraging results.3.The results of a lot of/ numerous different projects have been pretty good/encouraging.4. A loss of jobs is one of the things that will happen /consequences if the process is automated.Practice 11: Consider the following passages. Underline the parts in passage b that differ from passage a. Why does b have better “flow” than a?a: Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. Lasers play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery. Most of the eye tissue is transparent. The frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue. The beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue –even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are effective in treating some causes of blindness. Other treatments are not. The interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.b: Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. For example, (Lasers) they play an important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is edally suited for laser surgery because most of the eye tissue is transparent. Because of this transparency, the frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the absorption of the tissue so that the beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue – even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are also effective than other methods in treating some causes of blindness. However, the interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.Practice 12：Edit the following passage by adding semicolons or commas where necessary.Aluminum alloys are now more important in the automobile industry than ever before. The government is pressuring the industry to produce cars of high quality and with high fuel efficiency hence car makers are replacing traditional iron-based alloys with aluminum alloys. Aluminum alloy parts are typically one-third to one-half the weight of those made with steel as a result cars with all aluminum parts use approximately 50% less fuel than those with steel components. Although most aluminum alloys are soft they can have a higher tensile strength than steel. Adequate alloy and solution treatment can increase their tensile strength thus resulting in a vehicle with good impact capacity.。
The Neoclassical Period （18th century）Definitions of literary terms英语081班汪志超51011080951) The Enlightenment MovementThe 18th-century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in France & swept through the whole Western Europe at the time. The movement was a furtherance of the Renaissance of the 15th & 16th centuries. Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modem philosophical & artistic ideas. The enlighteners celebrated reason or rationality, equality & science. They called for a reference to order, reason & rules & advocated universal education. Famous among the great enlighteners in England were those great writers like John Dryden, Alexander pope & so on.2) NeoclassicismIn England, neoclassicism is initiated by John Dryden, culminated in Alexander Pope and continued by Samuel Johnson. It was a reaction against the fire of passions that blazed in the later Renaissance. It found its literary artistic model in the classical literature of ancient Greek and Latin authors, such as Homer, Virgil, Horace. The neoclassicists have their artistic ideas: order, logic, symmetry, restraint, accuracy, good taste, good sense, decorum and so on. In drama, they follow the Three Unities closely.1Richard Steele(1672-1729) and Joseph Addison(1672-1719)The Tatler ; The Spectator (the earliest periodicals)2Samuel Johnson（1709-1784）Samuel Johnson, commonly called Dr. Johnson, was one of the greatest figures of 18th-century English literature. He was the last great neoclassicist enlightener in the late 18th century. He had a hand in all the different branches of literary activities. He was a poet, dramatist, prose romancer, biographer, essayist, critic, lexicographer & publicist.His major works :poems: "London", & "The vanity of Human Wishes"a romance: The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia ;a tragedy: Irenehundreds of essays in the two periodicals :The Rambler & The Idler;English dictionary :A Dictionary of the English Language传记文学双星：Life of Johnson by James Boswell,The Life of Charlotte Bronte by Elizabeth Cleghon Gaskell3Alexander pope（1688-1744）poetPope is one of the fore-most satirists in world literature as well as a great poet. Pope's mock-heroic poem The Rape of the Lock is one of the finest examples of English comic verse. As a representative of the Enlightenment, Pope was one of the first to introduce rationalism to England. He was the greatest poet of his time.His major works1). The Rape of the LockA delightful burlesque of epic poetry, it ridicules the manners of the English nobility. The poem isbased on an actual incident in which a young nobleman stole a lock of a lady's hair.2) An Essay on CriticismHis first important work, An Essay on Criticism was a long didactic poem in heroic couplets. In this work, he reflected the neo-classical spirit of the times by advocating good taste, common sense & the adherence to classical rules in writing & criticism. The whole poem is written in a plain style, hardly containing any imagery or eloquence &therefore makes easy reading.3）The DunciadGenerally considered Pope's best satiric work, The Dunciad goes deep in meaning & works at many levels. Its satire is directed at Dullness in general, & in the course of it all the literary men of the age. Poets mainly who had made Pope's enemies, are held up to ridicule. But the poem is not confined to personal attack. Dullness as reflected in the corruptness of government, social morals, education & even religion, is expertly exposed & satirized.The Realistic Novel:The mid-century was, however, predominated by a newly rising literary form, the modern English novel, which, contrary to the traditional romance of aristocrats, gives a realistic presentation of life of the common English people. This-the most significant phenomenon in the history of the development of English literature in the eighteenth century - is a natural product of the Industrial Revolution & a symbol of the growing importance & strength of the English of the growing importance & strength of the English middle class, Among the pioneers were Daniel Defoe ,Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, Tobias George Smollett, & Oliver Goldsmith.1Daniel Defoe(1660-1731)He acquired a pure naked English—smooth, easy, almost colloquial. Yet never coarse. He loved short, crisp, plain sentences. There is nothing artificial in his language; it is really common English.作品：1）Pamphlet: The Trueborn Englishman—A Satire.(It contained a caustic exposure of the aristocracy and the tyranny of the church.)2)Novels:Robinson Crusoe(The character of Robinson Crusoe is representative of the English bourgeoisie atthe earlier stage of its development.); Captain Singleton; Moll Flanders; Colonel Jacque2Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)He is an Irish. Swift is one of the greatest masters of English prose. His language is simple, clear and vigorous. He said, “Proper words in proper places, makes the true definition of a style.” Swift is a master of satirist, and his irony is deadly. But his satire is masked by an outward gravity, and an apparent calmness conceals his bitter irony. This makes his satire all the more powerful, as shown in his Modest Proposal.作品：1）Two stories: A Tale of a Tub; The Battle of the Books(The two stories made him well-known as a satirist.)2) Novel:Gulliver’s Travels3) Pamphlets :The Drapier’s Letters; A Modest Proposal(Swift’s pamphlets in Ireland form avery important part of his works.)3Samuel Richardson(1689-1761)His main achievement as a novelist lies in his technique to show characters as personalities. Psychological analysis.作品：Pamela (The story is a told in a series of letters from the heroine, Pamela Andrews.书信体小说);Clarissa; Sir Charles Grandison.Pamela was a new thing in three ways:Firstly, it discarded the “improbable and marvellous”accomplishment of the former heroic romances, and pictured the life and love of ordinary people.Secondly, its intension was to afford not merely entertainment but also moral instruction. Thirdly, it described not only the sayings and doings of the characters but also their secret thoughts and feelings. It was, in fact, the first English psycho-analytical novel.4Henry Fielding(1707-1754)1)简介：As a novelist, Fielding is very great. He is the founder of the English realistic novel and sets up the theory of realism in literary.“Nature herself,” i.e., the exact observation and study of real life, was the basis of Fielding’s work. Byron, in a famous phrase, called Fielding “the prose Homer of Human Nature”. Fielding established once for all the form of the modern novel. His importance in the history of the novel is unique. He has been rightly call the “father of the English novel”.2）作品：Novels:①Joseph Andrews ②Jonathan Wild ③Tom Jones(流浪汉小说) ④AmeliaPicaresque Novel(流浪汉小说)is a popular sub-genre of prose fiction, which is usually satirical and depict in realistic and humorous details the adventures of a roguish hero of low social class, who lives by his or her wits in a corrupt society. The characteristic of it is loosely linked episodes, intrigue fights and adventures. The style of this novel originated in Spain and flourished in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, and continued to influence modern literature. In England, Tobias Smollett’s works, Daniel Defoe’s “Moll Flanders”, Fielding’s “Tom Jones”, and Charles Dickens’“Pickwick Papers” are considered to be picaresque novels. In modern America, Sawl Bellow’s “Adventure of Augie March”, Jack Kerouac’s “Dharma Bums” can be called picaresque novels. The Chinese “Journey to the Wrest” is considered to has considerable elements of picaresque.3）Some Features of Fielding’s Novels①Fielding’s method of Relating a Story: told directly by the author.②Satire in Fielding’s Novels. Satire sounds everywhere in Fielding’s works.③Fielding believed in the educational function of the novel.④Style. Fielding is a master of style. His style is easy, unlaboured and familiar, but extremely vivid and vigorous.5Tobias Smollett(1721-1771)He is a Scottish. He belonged to the realistic school.作品：Roderick Random, Peregrine Pickle, Humphry Clinker, History of England.6Laurence Sterne(1713-1768)He is a novelist of the sentimentalist school. He was born in Ireland.A Sentimental Journey.The drama of the 18th century was extensive, but very little of it has permanent or acting value. Only two men, Goldsmith and Sheridan, produced works which are of high literary quality and which are still remain their interest upon the stage.1Oliver Goldsmith(1730-1774)Goldsmith was a poet, novelist, dramatist and essayist, all combined in one person. He was born in Ireland.Comedies: The Good-Natured Man, She Stoops to Conquer2、Richard Brinsley Sheridan(1751-1816)was, like Goldsmith, an Irishman. His literary fame rests almost exclusively uponhis dramas. His dramas are sufficient to maintain his reputation as one of the most brilliant of English writers of Comedy.戏剧作品：①The Rivals, ②The School for Scandal（It gives a brilliant portrayal and a biting satire ofIn the first half of the 18 century, Pope was the leader of English poetry and the heroic couplet the fashion of poetry. But the middle of the century, however, sentimentalism gradually made its appearance.The appearance and development of sentimentalist poetry marks the midway in the transition from classicism to its opposite, Romanticism, in English poetry.Sentimentalism : It is a literary current started in the middle of 18th century. It is a part of the Pre-Romantic trend as reaction against the cold, logic rationalism that dominated people’s life and writing since the last decade of the 17th century. It appeared to sentiment as a means of achieving happiness and social justice. They believed that the effective emotions were the evidence of kindness and goodness. A ready sympathy and an inward pain for the misery of others became part of accepted social morality and ethics. Their words reveal a purely emotional approach to life on the part of the narrator. They formed the contrast of rationally composed novel. The most outstanding figure of this school was Laurence Stern who composed “Tristram Shandy”and “Sentimental Journey through France to Italy”. Samuel Richardson’s work also belong to this school because he used a lot of psychological analysis. Oliver Goldsmith’s work, especially “The Vicar of Wakefield”is of this time. Thomas Gray, a member of Graveyard school is a member of sentimental school, because Graveyard School is part of Sentimental School.1Laurence Sterne(1713-1768)He is a novelist of the sentimentalist school. He was born in Ireland.作品：Tristram Shandy, A Sentimental Journey.2Thomas Gray(1716-1771):作品：Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. （This is a poem full of the gentle melancholy which marks all early romantic poetry.）Graveyard School: is a term applied to the 18th century poets who wrote melancholy, reflective works, often set in graveyard, on the theme of human morality. The dominant imageries are graveyard, death and darkness. They are part of Sentimental School in the 18th century literature. Thomas Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” was the best known example for the time.Elegy: It is an ancient form of writing. Its tradition can be traced back to Greek. It is a kind of war song, the song that eulogizes the warring spirit, especially to celebrate the victory of the war and to lament upon the dead. Later, thiswriting is used for lamentation over one’s loss, one’s complaint, one’s unhappiness or things like that. In France, people sometimes use elegy for love lyric.3Oliver Goldsmith(1730-1774)Goldsmith was a poet, novelist, dramatist and essayist, all combined in one person. He was born in Ireland.作品：⑴Poems:①The Traveller is based on Goldsmith’s personal observation during his European wanderings. He came to the conclusion that human happiness depends less on political institution than onour own minds.②The Deserted Village is Goldsmith’s best poem. It contains some charmingdescriptions of village life. He marks the depopulation in the countryside owing to the inroads ofmonopolizing riches.⑵Novel: The Vicar of Wakefield. His novel appeals to human sentiment as a means of achieving happinessand social justice. That is why he is acknowledged to be one of the representatives of English sentimentalism.⑶Comedies: The Good-Natured Man, She Stoops to Conquer⑷Essays: The Citizen of the World.Goldsmith’s place as one of the greatest English essayists is mainlyIn the latter half of the 18century, a new literary monument arose in Europe, called the Romantic Revival. In England, this movement showed itself in the trend of Pre-Romanticism in poetry, which was ushered by Percy, Macpherson and Chatterton, and represented by Blake and Burns,the two greatest romantic poets of the 18th century.Pre-Romanticism:It rose as a reaction against enlightenment and neoclassicism, especially against reasons advocated by them. It originated by conservative groups men of letters and rose in the latter half of 18th century. The representatives are Thomas Gray, William Blake and Robert Burns.1William Blake(1757-1827)①The earliest of the major English Romantic poets.②Like Shelley, Blake strongly criticized the capitalists' cruel exploitation, saying that the "dark satanic mills left menunemployed, killed children & forced prostitution."③From childhood, Blake had a strongly visual mind; whatever he imagined, he also saw. As an imaginative poet, hepresents his view in visual images instead of abstract terms. " I know that This world is a world of IMAGINATION & Vision," & that "The Nature of my work is visionary or imaginative."④Blake writes his poems in plain & direct language.works：①The Songs of Innocence is a lovely volume of poems, presenting a happy & innocent world,though not without its evils & sufferings.②The Songs of Experience paints a different world, a world of misery, poverty, disease, war &repression with a melancholy tone.③Marriage of Heaven & Hell marks his entry into maturity.④The Book of Urizen, The Book of Los，The Four Zoas，Milton2、Robert Burns(1759-1796)He is the greatest of Scottish poets. He devoted all his free time to collecting, editing, restoring and imitating traditional Scottish songs, or writing verses of his own to traditional tunes.works：①Burns is remembered mainly for his songs written in the Scottish dialect on a variety of subjects.②Numerous are Burns’ songs of love and friendship. A Red, Red Rose③Bruce at Bannockburn is a typical song of patriotism.⑤The Tree of Liberty and A Revolutionary Lyric are the poems on the theme of revolution.⑥The Toadeater is a piece of bitter satire.⑦The Jolly Beggars is characterized by humour and lightheartedness.。
1234代价,与敌人同归于尽。
51. In his life, Milton shows himself a real revolutionary, a master poet and a great prose writer. 弥尔顿毕生都展现了真正的革命精神和非凡的诗歌才华。
52. Paradise Lost:人类由于理性不强,意志薄弱,经不起考验,暗示英国自产主义革命失败的原因。
Chapter2 The Neoclassical Period(1660-1798新古典主义1. In short, it was an age full of conflicts and divergence of values. 总之, 这一时期是矛盾与价值观分歧的时期。
2. The eighteenth-century England is also known as the Age of Enlighte nment or the Age of Reason. 英国的十八世纪也同时是启蒙主义时代, 或曰理性时代。
3. Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas. 运动的主旨便是用当代哲学与艺术思想的晨光启迪整个世界。
4. Enlighteners held that rationality or reason should be the only, the fin al cause of any human thought and activities. They called for a referenc e to order, reason and rules. 启蒙者主张理性是任何人思想与行动的唯一缘由。
他们大力提倡秩序,理性及法律。
5. As a matter of fact, literature at the time, heavily didactic and moralizi ng, becamea very popular means of public education. 其实, 当时的文学作品种充满了说教与道德理念,就已经成为大众教育的良好工具。
Chapter 2 The Neoclassical Period 打印本页一、关于新古典主义时期（一）新古典主义时期的标志Neoclassical period：Between the return of the Stuarts to the English throne in 1660 and the full assertion of Romanticism which came with the publication of Lyrical Ballads by Wordsworth and Coleridge in 1798.（二）新古典主义时期的社会背景The English society of the neoclassical period was a turbulent one; conflicts and divergence of values.1.The Great London Fire: destroyed a large part of the city, leaving two-thirds of the population homeless.2.The Great Plague: took 70,000 lives in London alone in 1665.3.The great political and social events: the Restoration of king CharlesⅡin 1660.4.The Glorious Revolution: King JamesⅡwas replaced by his protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband William, Duke of Orange, in 1689.5.There was constant strife（1）between the monarch and the parliament,（2）between the two big parties: the Tories and the Whigs.（3）between the ruling class and the laboring poor.6.The opposing religious sects such as the Roman Catholicism, the Anglican Church and the Dissenters.（三）18th世纪的英国The 18th century saw the fast development of England as a nation.Towards the middle of the 18th, it had been come the work-shop of the world, her manufactured goods flooding foreign markets far and near.1.AbroadA vast expansion of British colonies in North America, India, the West Indies, and a continuous increase of colonial wealth and trade provided England with a market for which the small-scale hand production methods of the home industry were hardly adequate, this created a steady demand for British goods and standardized goods.2.HomeActs of Enclosure were putting more land into fewer privileged rich landowners and forcing thousands of small farmers and tenants off land to become wage earners in industrial towns.This coming together of free labor from the home and free capital gathered or plundered from the colonies was the essence of the Industrial Revolution.3.The British bourgeois or middle classAlong with the fast economic development, it was the major force of the Revolution and was composed of city people: traders, merchants, manufacturers, and other adventurers such as slave traders and colonists.As the Industrial Revolution went on, more and more people joined the rank of this class.It is a revolutionary class and quite different from the feudal aristocratic class.They were people who had known poverty and hardship, and some had obtained their present social status through hard work.They believed in self-restraint, self-reliance and hard work.To accumulate wealth constituted the whole meaning of their life.（四）启蒙运动1.时间:The 18th century England is known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason.2.定义:It was a progressive intellectual movement which flourished in France and swept through the whole Western Europe at the time.It was a furtherance of the renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries.3.宗旨:To enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas.4.人文观:The Enlighteners celebrated reason or rationality, equality and science.They held that rationality or reason should be the only, the final cause of any human thought and activities.They called for a reference to order, reason and rules.They believed that when reason served as the yardstick for the measurement of all human activities and relations, every superstition, injustice and oppression was to yield place to"eternal truth,""eternal justice,"and"natural equality."5.理性原则:The Enlighteners advocated universal education.They believed that human beings were limited, dualistic, imperfect, and yet capable of rationality and perfection through education.Heavily didactic and moralizing became a very popular means of public education.6.代表作家:John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Joseph Addison, Sir Richard Steele, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Jonathan Swift, Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson.（五）新古典主义：1.定义：In the field of literature, Enlightenment Movement brought about a revival of interest in the old classical works.The tendency is known as neoclassicism.2.创作旨意、文学渊源（1）According to the neoclassicists, all forms of literature were to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient Greek and Roman writers and those of the contemporary French ones.（2）They believe that the artistic ideals should be order, logic, restrained emotion and accuracy, and that literature should be judged in terms of its service to humanity.3.新古典主义特点:The writers seek Proportion, unity, harmony and grace in literary expressions, in an effort to delight, instruct and correct human beings, thus, a polite, urbane, witty, and intellectual art developed.4.新古典主义标准:Neoclassicists had some fixed laws and rules for almost every genre of literature.（1）Prose: Precise, direct, smooth and flexible.（2）Poetry: Lyrical, epical, didactic, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by its own principles.（3）Drama: written in the Heroic couplets（iambic pentameter rhymed in two lines抑扬格五音步的押韵双行诗）; The three unities of time, space and action should be strictly observed; regularity in construction should be adhered to, and type characters rather than individuals should be represented.（六）新古典主义启蒙文学影响:The poetic techniques and certain classical graces such as: order, good form, unified structure, clarity and conciseness of language developed in this period have become a permanent heritage.1.早期新古典主义诗歌:（1）From restoration to the 2nd half of 18th century, It witnessed the flourish of English poetry in the classical style climaxing with: John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Samuel Johnson.（2）The wit, form and art of poetry were given much attention.（3）Mock epic, romance, satire and epigram were popular forms adopted by poets of the time.（4）The neoclassical poetry was also noted for its seriousness and earnestness in tone and constant didacticism.2.现实主义小说: （In the mid- 18th century）（1）The modern English novel gives a realistic presentation of life of the common English people.（2）This most significant phenomenon in the history of the development of English literature is a natural product of the Industrial Revolution and a symbol of the growing importance and strength of the English middle class.（3）The pioneers were Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne3.后期文学创作:From the middle part to the end of the century there was also an apparent shift of interest from the classic literary tradition to originality and imagination, from society to individual, and from the didactic to the confessional, inspirational and prophetic.（1）哥特式小说（gothic novels）Gothic novels - mostly stories of mystery and horror which take place in some haunted or dilapidated Middle Age castles-were turned out profusely by both male and female writers.The Castle of Otranto Horace WalpoleThe Mysteries of Udolpho, The Italian Mrs.Ann RadcliffThe Champion of Virtue, a Gothic Story Clara ReeveThe Monk（2）自然诗人（Nature poets）Nature poets like James Thomson, William Collins, and William Cowper.（3）伤感诗人（sentimentalists or "Graveyard School"）.（4）农民诗人（peasant poet）Robert Burns and William Blake were paving the way for the flourish of Romanticism early the next century.（5）意义：It paves the way for the flourish of romanticism early the next century.4.戏剧界（1）Richard Brinsley Sheridan was the leading figure among a host of playwrights.二、John Bunyan（一）生平（略）（二）作品风格1.His style was modeled after that of the English Bible.With his concrete and living language and carefully observed and vividly presented details, he made it possible for the reader of the least education to share the pleasure of reading his novel and to relive the experience of his characters.（三）主要作品Chief of sinners The Life and death of Mr.BadmanThe Holy War The Pilgrim's progress（四）选读：名利场"The Vanity Fair," an excerpt from part 1 of The Pilgrim's Progress1.作品介绍:The story starts with a dream in which the author sees Christian the Pilgrim, with a heavy burden on his back, reading the Bible.When he learns from the book that the city in which he and his family live shall be burnt down in a fire, Christian tries to convince his family and his neighbors of the oncoming disaster and asks them to go with him in search of salvation, but most of them simply ignore him.So he starts off with a friend, Pliable, Pliable turns back after they stumble into a pit, the Slough of Despond, Christian struggles on by himself.Then he is misled by Mr.Worldly Wiseman and is brought back onto the right road by Mr.Evangelist.There he joins Faithful, a neighbor who has set out later but has made better progress.The twogo on together through many adventures, including the great struggle with Apollyon （devil）, who claims them to be his subjects and refuses to accept their allegiance（faith）to God.After many other adventures they come to the Vanity Fair where both are arrested as alien agitators.They are tried and faithful is condemned to death, Christian, however, manages to escape and goes on his way, assisted by a new friend, hopeful.Tired of the hard journey, they are tempted to take a pleasant path and are then captured by Giant Despair.Finally they get away and reach the Celestial City, where they enjoy eternal life in the fellowship of the blessed.（2）作品寓意:It is the most successful religious allegory in the English language.It purposes is to urge people to abide by Christian doctrines and seek salvation through constant struggle with their own weaknesses and all kinds of social evils.It is not only about something spiritual but also bears much relevance to the time.（3）选读（略）（p85-90）三、Alexander Pope（一）生平（略）（二）创作生涯及时代观1.As a representative of the Enlightenment, Pope was one of the first to introduce rationalism to England.2.He upheld the existing social system as an ideal one, but he was not entirely blind to the rapid moral, political and cultural deterioration.3.He assumed the role of champion of traditional civilization: of reason, classical learning, sound art, good taste and public virtue, and emphasis on order found expression in all of his works.4.For him the supreme value was order-cosmic order, political order, social order, aesthetic order, and this can found expression in all of his works.（三）主要作品介绍An Essay on Criticism,The Rape of the Lock,The Dunciad,An Essay on Man,Eloisa to AbelardEpistle to Dr.ArbuthnotTranslated Homer's Iliad and Odyssey（四）文学观/语言风格1.He was the greatest poet of his time.He strongly advocated neoclassicism, emphasizing that literary works should be judged by classical rules of order, reason, logic, restrained emotion, good taste and decorum.2.He worked painstakingly on his poems, developed a satiric, concise, smooth, graceful and well-balanced style3.Brought to its last perfection the heroic couple Dryden had successfully used in his plays.（五）作品简介1.The Rape of the Lock 《夺发记》The story is based on an actual episode in which a lord did really cut a lock of hair from the head of a young lady, thus breaking up the friendship between the two families, Pope was told to write something to restore peace but he chose to use the mock epic form to retell the cutting of the lock, to ridicule the trivial incident, to emphasize the pettiness of the quarrel and to satirize the foolish, meaningless life of the lords and ladies in the aristocratic bourgeois society of the 18th century England.2.The Dunciad《群愚史诗》It is considered pope's best satiric work, its satire is directed at Dullness in general, and in the course of it all the literary men of the age, poets mainly, who had made Pope's enemies, are held up to ridicule.But the poem is not confined to personal attack.Dullness as reflected in the corruptness of government, social morals,education and even religion, is expertly exposed and satirized.（六）An Essay on Criticism《论批评》1.简介:Pope made his name as a great poet with the publication of An Essay on Criticism, It sums up the art of poetry as upheld and practiced by the ancients like Aristotle, Horace, Boileau, etc, and the 18th century European classicists.2.结构The poet first laments the dearth of true taste in poetic criticism of his day and calls on people to turn to the old Greek and Roman writers for guidance.After a detailed account of the various problems in literary criticism, he offers his own ideas and presents the classical rules.At the end of the poem, he also traces the history.3.体裁、语言风格An Essay on Criticism is a didactic poem written in heroic couplets, written in a plain style, hardly containing any imagery or eloquence and easy reading.P93-94 （line1-8）Some to conceit alone their taste confine,（fantastic ideas or affected thought）And glittering thought struck out at every line;（Devised, invented）Pleased with a work where nothing's just or fit,One glaring chaos and wild heap of wit.Poets, like painters, thus unskilled to trace.The naked nature and the living grace,（To portray nature in its plainness and the beautiful objects from real life.）With gold and jewels cover every part,And hide with ornaments their want of art.（Lack of artistic skill or talent.）有的诗人喜欢追求无谓的雕饰，其作品除了不相干的比喻卖弄以外，一无是处，而他们正是借此掩盖自己本来就缺乏的艺术技巧。
（英国部分）1.What are the general features of Shakespeare’s romantic comedies?2.what did Shakespeare criticize in his plays?3.What does Shakespeare write in his plays?4.William Shakespeare is one of the most remarkable playwrights the world has ever known. his four greatest tragedies.B.What are the characteristics of the four tragedies in common ?C.Briefly summarize each hero’s weakness of nature.5.What’s the theme of The Merchant of Venice by Shakespeare’s work ?6.Briefly discuss William Shakespeare’s artistic achievement in characterization,plot construction and language.7.Hamlet ‘s one of Shakespeare’s great tragedies.Try to analyze the character Hamlet.8.Try to analyze the Merchant of Venice9.Working through the tradition of a christian humanism Milton wrote Paradise Lost ,intending to expose the way of Satan and to “justify the ways of God to men”and what is Milton’s fundamental concern in Paradise Lost?10.According to the setting of the poem Paradise Lost,discuss the theme,the author’s intention to create it and the implication that the poem express.11.According to the setting of the poem Paradise Lost, discuss the theme of it.12.List at least two leading neoclassicist in England. What did Neoclassicists celebrate in literary creation?13.What is Neoclasscism ?14.what are the common features of Defoe’s four minor novels?And what are their social significances ?15.Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe was a great success partly because the protagonist wasa real middle-class hero.Discuss crusoe,the protagonist of the novel as an embodiment of the rising middle-class virtues in the mid-eighteenth century England16.Briefly discuss Enlightenment Movement.17.Robinson Crusoe is universally considered as Daniel Dofoe’s masterpiece .Discuss why it became so successful when it was published .18.what is Swift’s achievements ?19.A Modest of Proposal is a satire written by Swift and it is generally taken as a perfect model of satire.Guliver’s Travel is Swift ‘s masterpiece.Based on them ,discuss why swift is a master satirist.20.Please cite example from Gulliver’s Travels to explain briefly how swift criticized and alluded to the government and the society.21.Briefly discuss why Jonathan Swift is a master satirist based on his greatest novel Gulliver’s Travels.22.what is the position of Henry Fielding in the history of English literature?23.what are the characteristics of Henry Fielding ‘s writing ?24.Fielding has been regarded by some as “Father of the modern novel.”25.What is the Gothic novel?26.How is Romanticism different from Neoclassicism ? Provide brief evidence from the literary works you know best.27.William Blake ‘s own style ,what is it ?28.What does the poem “The Chimney Sweeper(from Songs of Experience )”reveal ?29.Briefly introduce Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience.30.Literarily Blake was the first important Romantic poet,showing contempt for the rule of reason,opposing the classical tradition of the 18th century ,and treasuring the individual’s imagination .Please make a comment on William Blake ‘s poetry.31.As a romantic poet,Percy Bysshe Shelley has his own literary style.what is it ?32.William Wordsworth’s literary style,what is it?33.please discuss the significance of William Wordsworth’s poetry in history English literature.34.What are Austen ‘s writing features?35.what ‘s the theme of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice?36.Generally speaking ,Jane Austen was a writer of the 18th century,though she lived mainly in the nineteenth century .Based on her writings discuss Jane Austen ‘s greatest contribution to English literature.37.In Pride and Prejudice ,Jane Austen explored three kinds of motivations pf marriage themiddle class people had in the second half of the 18th century.Try to make a brief discussion about them with specific examples from the novels.Make comments on Austen’s attitude towards these motivations.38.what is the theme of the novel ,Oliver Twist?39.Let it not be supposed by the enemies of the system,that during the period of his solitary incarceration ,Oliver was denied the benefit of exercise,the pleasure of society,or the advantages of religious consolation.What do you think Character .Dickens intends to say in the above ironic statement taken from Oliver Twist?40.”My boy!”said the old gentleman .leaning over the desk,Oliver started at the sound.He might be excused for doing so,for the words were kindly said and strange sounds frighten one. He trembled violently ,and burst into tears.”(Charles Dickens)Explain why Oliver Twist started first then trembled violently and burst into tears when the words were “kindly ”said.41.Charles Dickens is one of the greatest Victorian writers in his own unique way.Discuss Dickens ‘s art of novels;the setting ,the language ,and the characters,etc, based on his novel Oliver Twist.42.Why is character-portal the most distinguishing features of Charles Dickens’s works?43.Jane Eyre is one of the most popular and important novels of the Victorian Age .Why is Jane Eyre such a successful novel?44.Emily Bronte used a very complicated narrative technique in writing her novel Wuthering Heights.Try to tell Bronte’s way of narrative briefly.45.what’s the theme of Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights?46.Make a comment on the character of Jane Eyre ,the heroine of the novel by Charlotte Bronte.47.Why is Thomas Hardy regarded as a naturalistic writers in English literature? Discuss in relation to his novels you know.48.Thomas Hardy ,living at the turn of the century,is often regarded as a transitional writer .Inhim,we see the influence from the past and the modern.Tess of D’urbervilles is out of his greatest works.Try to discuss the fate of Tess in this work.49.Thomas Hardy is not an analyst of human life or nature,but a meditative storyteller or romancer .Please make a brief comment on Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles.50.Thomas Hardy is often regarded as a transitional writer .Some critics believe that emotional traditional and intellectually advanced .How do you understand this idea?51.George Bernard Shaw is the leading playwright of his time.What’s Shaw’s viewpoint on literature?52.What are the themes of George Bernard Shaw in his novels?53.it’s said that Shaw’s Mrs.Warren’s Profession ,has a strong realistic theme,which fully reflects the dramatist’s Fabianist idea.what is the theme of the work?54.What is your comment on the main features of George Bernard Shaw ‘s plays in the terms of the plots or the talk?55.Discuss brief the features of George Bernard Shaw ‘ works56.The Waster Land is T.S .Eliot’s most important single poem.Try to state the theme and the significance of the poem briefly .57.Please give a short introduce to the major characters of D.H Lawrence’s literary creation in novel writing.（美国部分）1.Discuss the theme and significance of The Scarlet Letter written by Nathaniel Hawthorne2.”Yong Goodman Brown ”by Hawthorne exemplifies the power of blankness in society in general.What is the metaphorical meaning of Brown ‘s experience in the woods?3.why is Hawthorne regarded as a master of symbolism?4.What is the theme of Nathaniel Hawthorne ‘s Young Goodman Brown ?5.Try to discuss the theme of Nathaniel Hawthorne ‘s works6.Discuss the allegory and symbolism in Hawthorne’s Young Goodman Brown7.”My faith is gone !”Gried he (Goodman Brown ),after one stupefied moment “there is no good on earth ;and sin is but a name, come ,devil! For to thee is this world given.”(From Nathaniel Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”)make a comment on this passage .8.Briefly disuss the theme of Walt Whitman’s volume of poems Leaves of Grass9.Whitman is one of the representative poets in America.He employs brand-new means in his poetry.What are the features of his poetry .10.How did Walt Whitman make use of the poetic “ I ”in his work ?11.Retell in a few sentences the story of the last chapter （chapter 135）“The chase ----Third Day ”of Melville’s novel Moby-Mick.Discuss the meaning of the ending of the story .12.how do you understand the white whale or Moby-Dick Herman Melville’s Moby Dick?13.Symbolism is an importanr literary practice in literature and it has been widely used by many American writers.Discuss the way symbolism is used in Melville’s Moby-Dick.14.What is local colorism in American literature ?15.The literature school of naturalism was quite popular in the late 19th century .What are the major characteristics of naturalism?16.who is the most famous local colorist? What are local colorists most concerned?17.Mark Twain and Henry James are two representatives of the realistic writers in American literature .How is Mark Twain’s realism different from James’s realism?18.How do you interpret the meaning of “the damned human race ,”with reference to The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain ?19.What is the language style of Mark Twain?20.In American literature what is the significance of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain?21.What is Henry James outlook ,which is an indispensible of his contribution too literature ,in literature criticism?22.what is the most famous theme in Henry James ‘s fiction ?And what is his favourite approachin characterization ,which makes him different from Mark Twain and W.D .Howells as realists?Give two titles of his works in which this theme and this approach are employed .23.Daisy Miller brought Henry James international fame for the first time,what is the character of Daisy Miller,the protagonist?24.According to Henry James ‘viewpoint ,what is the conflict between the American personalities and European personalities?25.Henry James s regarded as one of the most important writers in the Age of Realism in America.Try to discuss his literary achievement.26.Henry James is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th century “stream-- of --consciousness”novels and the founder of psychological realism.Based on his work Daisy Miller ,briefly discuss why he achieved this glory.27.the publication of Daisy Miller brought Henry James international fame for the first time .Try to discuss the character of Daisy Miller and the theme of the novel.28.what are major ideas of Henry James ‘s literature criticism reflected in his essay “The Art of Fiction ”?29.please make a comment on American literature naturalist Theodore Dreiser’s writing style.30.Sister Carrier best embodies Theodore Dreiser’s naturalistic belief .How do you understand that ?31.what is Theodore Dreiser ‘s style ?32.Theodore Dreiser is a celebrated American novelist in the realistic period .What do he discuss in his novel?Give examples to prove your viewpoint.33.Emily Dickinson is now recognized not only as a great poetess on her own right but as a poetess of considerable influence upon poetry of the present century .What are the qualities of her poems?34.How does Emily Dickinson deal with the subject love?35.what is the theme of Dickinson ‘ poem?36.Robert Lee Frost’s poems are mostly concerned with his contemplation on nature ,and the relationship between nature and man,what is the characteristics of Robert Lee Frost’s poetry?ment briefly on Robert Frost ‘s nature poetry.38.The Great Gatsby is an examination of American myth in the 20th century .Fitzgerald deliberately depicts Gatsby as a mysterious person as to achieve the effect that Gatsby is American Everyman .Please make a brief comment on The Great Gatsby.39.The Great Gatsby ,a masterpiece in American literature ,evokes a haunting mood of a glamorous ,wild time that seemingly will never come again.Based on the novel ,discuss the characteristics of Fitzgerald’s works.40.F.Scott Fitzgerald id a great stylist in American literature. What is his art of novels？41.what is “Hemingway code Heroes”？（什么是海明威式英雄）42.Give a brief analysis of Emily Grierson,the protagonist of A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner.43.what does Yoknapatwapha country stand for in Faulkner’s novels?44.William Faulkner is one of the greatest American novelists .What do you know about his narrative techniques?。
