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(1),本国共有1200单位的劳动，能生产两种产品：苹果和香蕉。
苹果的单位产品 劳动投入是3,香蕉的单位劳动产品投入时 2。
a. 画出本国的生产可能性边界。
b. 用香蕉衡量的苹果的机会成本是多少c. 贸易前，苹果对香蕉的相对价格是多少为什么答：a.本国的生产可能性边界曲线是直线，在400( 1200/3)处与苹果轴相截，(1200/2 )处与香蕉轴相截，如图 2-7所b.用香蕉衡量苹果的机会成本是 3/2。
单位苹果需要3单位的劳动，生产1单位单位的劳动可以被用来生产 3/2单位的香蕉c.劳动的流动性可以使得各个部门的工资趋同，竞争可以使得商品的价格等于它们的生产成本。
这样，相对价格等于相对成本，而相对成本等于工资乘以苹果的单位劳动产品投入。
因为各个部门工资相等，所以价格比率等于单位产品劳动投入的比率，即生产苹果所需的3单位劳动与生产香蕉所需的 2单位劳动比率。
(2)假设本国的情况和习题 1相同。
外国拥有800单位的劳动，外国苹果的 单位劳动投入是5,香蕉的单位产品劳动投入是 1。
a. 画出外国的生产可能性边界。
需要2单位的劳动 如果放弃1单位苹果的生产, 这将释放国生产可能勺劳动。
一条 在600 示。
生产1香蕉b. 画出世界相对供给曲线。
答：a.外国的生产可能性边界曲线是一条直线，在160 (800/5 )处与苹果轴相截，在800（800/1）处与香蕉轴相截。
如图2-8所示b.世界相对供给曲线可以由苹果和香蕉的相对价格和相对供给量绘出。
如图2-9。
从图2-9可以看出，苹果对香蕉的最低相对价格是3/2图在这个价格相对供给曲的世界相对供给曲线是水平曲在3/2的木酣价格上世界相国对苹果的最大供给量是400,外国对香蕉的供给量是800,这时，相对供给量为1/2。
只要相对价格保持在3/2和5之间，产量相对供给量就不变。
如果相对价格成为5,两个国家都会生产苹果，香蕉的产量为零。
这时，相对供给曲线是水平的。
第2章现代贸易理论的基础2011年12月18日15:141,现代贸易理论主要关注贸易基础，贸易方向和贸易收益的决定因素.2,当前对世界贸易模式的解释是基于经济思想史的丰富遗产。
重商主义以及亚当斯密和李嘉图是现代贸易理论的先驱。
3，在重商主义学派看来，贵金属储备代表了一国的财富。
重商主义学派主张政府应该实行贸易管制，以限制进口和促进出口。
一国只有牺牲贸易伙伴的利益才能获得贸易收益，因为在给定时间点上，世界财富的存量是固定的，而且不能所有国家同时出现贸易顺差。
4，斯密对重商主义的贸易观点提出了挑战。
他认为通过自由贸易，投入要素的国际专业化分工能够增加世界的产出，这些产出可由各贸易国共同分享，所有国家能够同时享有贸易收益。
斯密认为每个国家都将发现专门生产本国具有绝对优势的商品是有利的。
5，李嘉图认为，即使一国同他国相比在两种商品的生产上处于绝对劣势地位，互利贸易也是可能的。
生产率低的国家应当专门生产并出口具有比较优势的商品。
6，现代贸易理论认为：如果在无贸易条件下，两个国家生产两种商品的比较成本（价格）不同，两国就都能从国际贸易中获利。
贸易收益来自于国际劳动分工及专业化带来的生产和消费水平的提高。
7，比较成本可以用生产可能性曲线解释。
这条曲线表明，假定所有资源都以最有效的方式得到利用，一个经济所能产生的两种产品的最大产量组合。
生产可能性曲线的斜率提供了一种测算边际转换率的方法，边际转换率是指每增加一单位的一种产品必须牺牲的另一种产品的数量。
8，在成本不变的情况下，生产可能性曲线是一条直线。
国内的相对价格只由本国的供给条件决定。
在成本不变的情况下可能发生一个国家完全专业生产一种商品的情况。
9，在现实世界中，各国往往处于成本递增的情况。
因此，生产可能性曲线凹向坐标原点。
每个国家的产品的相对价格由供给和需求因素共同决定。
在成本递增的情况下生产完全专业化就不太可能了。
10，当生产率的增长落后于国外竞争对手时，一国的制造商在一种特定产品的比较优势将随时间的推移而最终消失。
1.What factors explain why the world’s trading nations have become increasingly interdependent,from an economic and political view ,during the post- Wold-War-2?经过第二次世界大战，世界经济体系陷入瘫痪状况，因此，战后各国的依存度也大大提高较之之前，分别从经济和政治两个角度体现。
政治方面，因为冷战的结束，各国关注焦点逐渐从政治转向经济，更加加紧了经济联系发展；经济角度体现在三个方面，分别是贸易，货物，服务，原材料，能量等方面的流通交换；财政方面，表现在如外债，外国资金投入，和外汇比率等方面；以及商业的跨国化生产，多边合作，全球分工生产等方面。
2.identify the major fallacies of international trade关于经济全球化的谬论有三个，1.贸易0和，反对者们认为全球市场份额是固定的，一方收益，一方必支出，实际不然，贸易是正合的；2.进口不好，出口不好，这也是错误的，如果一味的像他国出口产品而不进口产品，逐渐的国家财富会发生转移，他国将没有钱再继续购买商品；关税和出口配额拯救就业，错误的，虽然短期看关税和出口配额可以帮助挽回一定的国内被进口品竞争产业的就业，但是长期讲不利于一国的出口以及相应影响的进口品加工产业。
1.how did smith’s view on international trade differ from those of the mercantilists重商主义学说观点是静态的，而亚当的学说是动态的，这就是最大的不同，重商主义认为世界经济的市场大小是固定的，一国的贸易收益来自于其贸易伙伴的损失，并不是所有国家都能从贸易中获益，然而事实并非如此，亚当认为世界经济大小并不固定，国际贸易允许各国间进行专业化生产可以提高劳动生产率，而生产率的提高，则可以使各国均从中获利。
第一章练习与思考参考答案1．答：生产可能性曲线相同且为直线。
在自给自足经济下，各国将在生产可能性曲线与其社会无差异曲线的切点，EA 和EB上达到均衡。
需求条件的不同导致了各国在自给自足经济下的生产与消费的不同选择，但这些不同并不会引起两国之间相对价格的差异，两国的国内价格水平是相同的。
因此，不存在着贸易的基础。
2．答：因为，相对价格使得国际贸易成了物物交换的世界，消除了货币幻觉。
3．答：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
小国福利改善程度更明显些。
4．答：（1）在没有国际贸易的情况下，均衡要求国内需求数量与国内供给数量相等。
设两个方程相等，我们可以求出没有贸易情况下的均衡价格。
无贸易情况下的均衡价格为100，均衡数量为300。
（2）当价格为120时，A国的需求数量为290，它的供给数量为400。
在自由贸易条件下，A国将出口110个单位的产品。
（3）A国的消费者剩余将减少。
在无贸易情况下，由需求曲线与数值为100的价格线围成的是一个更大的三角形。
在自由贸易情况下，由需求曲线与数值为120的价格线围成的是一个更小的三角形。
A国的生产者剩余将增加。
在无贸易情况下，由供给曲线与数值为100的价格线围成的是一个更小的小三角形。
在自由贸易情况下，由供给曲线与数值为120的价格线围成的是一个更大的三角形。
整个国家从贸易中获得的净收益为生产者剩余的增加量与消费者剩余的减少量之差。
这一收益的大小等于一个三角形的面积：它的底边是产品贸易数量（110），它的高是价格的变化量（120-100=20）。
因此，总收益为1100。
5．答：他们的损失为，继续在国内销售480亿立方米木材价值的损失，加上少销售的40亿立方米木材价值总量的损失。
两者相加，共损失25亿美元。
6．答：（1）在自由贸易及每桶18美元价格下，国内生产数量QS 为18=+6QS，或QS=29亿桶。
国内消费数量18=42-4QD ，或QD=60亿桶。
第18章第十八章浮动汇率制下的内外平衡1．浮动汇率下的政策环境和目标与固定汇率下有什么区别？答案提示：不同于固定汇率下的情况，浮动汇率可自动调节国际收支，使一国经济达到对外平衡，这样汇率调节就完成了固定汇率下政府必须考虑的内外均衡两个任务中的一个。
现在，只剩对内平衡一个目标需要考虑。
在浮动汇率制度下，政府的政策目标将只有一个，即通过宏观经济政策的实施达到充分就业和物价稳定。
2．比较固定汇率和浮动汇率下的各种宏观经济政策的效果，并对之加以解释。
答案提示：在资本具有完全流动性的情况下，如果实行固定汇率制度，财政政策有效，而货币政策完全无效；如果实行浮动汇率制度，财政政策完全无效，而货币政策是有效的，即一国货币当局在浮动汇率下可以实行独立的货币政策。
3．试解释浮动汇率下的财政政策的“挤出效用”。
答案提示：参考本章第二节。
4．假设A国和B国经济联系紧密，均实行浮动汇率制度，A国遭遇严重失业问题，遂采取放松银根政策，B国是否会受到影响？答案提示：B国会受到影响。
A国实行宽松的货币政策，将导致物价上升和货币贬值，随着A国出口的增加，B国国内市场将相对减小，不利于B国的就业和生产的增加。
5．试分析在资本完全不流动的情况下，财政政策和货币政策的作用。
答案提示：通过画图进行分析，此时BP曲线为垂直的。
6*.试讨论资本不完全流动下的财政政策和货币政策的作用，与资本完全流动下的作用效果有何差异？答案提示：在这种情况下，汇率的变化会引起BP曲线的移动。
7．在资本完全流动情况下，试分析在下列两种情形下，固定汇率与浮动汇率对国内经济的稳定作用。
（1）国内货币供给突然自发增加；（2）外国资本突然大量流入。
答案提示：（1）固定汇率下，国内货币供给突然自发增加，本国货币的利率下降，本国货币利率下降导致资本大量外流、存在国际收支逆差，这样对国内货币产生贬值压力，中央银行必须干预市场，抛出外汇，收回本币，使汇率保持固定，与此同时国内货币供给减少，直到重新达到原来的均衡点为止。
第一章国际贸易理论的微观基础一、名词解释1、国际贸易的交换利益：是指如果个人或国家之间拥有不同的商品禀赋或不同的偏好，那么通过互相之间的商品交易，他们均可改善各自的福利。
2、国际贸易的专业化利益：是指个体或国家之间可以通过专门从事其效率相对最高的生产来获得额外的利益。
3、国际均衡价格：是指一国的过剩需求等于一国的过剩供给时，对应的相对价格。
4、生产可能性边界：是指在一定的技术条件下，一国的全部资源所能生产的各种物品或劳务的最大产量。
5、开放经济：是指一国经济与世界经济存在着广泛的联系。
6、封闭经济：是指一国经济与世界经济没有任何的经济往来关系7、贸易条件：是出口商品价格指数与进口商品价格指数之比。
二、是非判断题1、国际经济学是研究稀缺资源在世界范围内的有效分配，以及在此过程中发生的经济活动和经济关系的科学。
（正确）2、国际经济学是经济学的分支学科，是建立在微观经济学和宏观经济学基础上的。
（正确）3、国际经济学经历了重商主义、自由贸易和现代国际经济学理论多层面发展的三个阶段。
它是伴随着国际经济活动的不断增加而逐渐完善起来的。
（正确）4、与一般经济学的研究方法相同，国际贸易理论在分析上也分为实证分析和规范分析两种。
（正确）5、国际贸易理论分析不涉及货币因素，考虑各国货币制度的差异与关系的影响。
（错误）6、大多数国际贸易理论都是一种静态或比较静态分析，时间因素在国际贸易理论中较多体现。
（错误）7、没有贸易价格差的存在，就不会发生国际贸易。
（正确）三、单项选择题1、国际经济学在研究资源配置时，作为划分界限的基本经济单位是（D ）A、企业B、个人C、政府D、国家2、从国际经济资源流动的难度看，最容易流动的要素是（B ）A、商品B、资本C、人员D、技术3、若贸易的开展导致社会无差异曲线向远离坐标原点的方向移动，则判定贸易对该国是（ A ）A、有益B、有害C、不变D、不能判断4、消费点在同一条社会无差异曲线上移动，表示整个国家的福利水平（C ）A、增加B、减少C、不变D、不能判断5、在封闭经济条件下，下列不属于一国经济一般均衡的条件的是（ D ）A、生产达到均衡B、消费达到均衡C、市场出清D、货币市场达到均衡6、国际贸易建立的基础是（ B ）A、绝对价格B、相对价格C、不变价格D、以上三种都不是7、在封闭经济条件下，A国X商品的相对价格低于B国X商品的相对价格，我们称A国在X商品上具有( B )A、绝对优势B、比较优势C、没有优势D、以上三种都不是8、一国从国际贸易中所获利益的多寡取决于（ D ）A、市场占有率B、技术优势C、竞争优势D、贸易条件四、简述题：1、试用图形分析国际贸易的交换利益和专业化利益。
*CHAPTER 4(Core Chapter)THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN AND OTHER TRADE THEORIESOUTLINE4.1 Introduction4.2 Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.3 The Formal Heckscher-Ohlin ModelCase Study 4-1 The Revealed Comparative Advantage of Various Countries and Regions4.4 Factor-Price Equalization and Income DistributionCase Study 4-2 Has International Trade Increased U.S. Wage Inequalities?4.5 Empirical Tests of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.6 Economies of Scale and International TradeCase Study 4-3 The New International Economies of Scale4.7 Trade Based on Product DifferentiationCase Study 4-4 Growth of Intra-Industry Trade4.8 Technological Gap and Product Cycle ModelsCase Study 4-5: The United States as the Most Competitive Economy in the World4.9 Transportation Costs and International Trade4.10 Environmental Standards and International TradeAppendix The Specific-Factors Model and Intra-Industry Trade ModelsA4.1 The Specific-Factors ModelA4.2 A Model of Intra-Industry TradeKey TermsInternationalofscaleeconomies pricesRelativefactorproducts Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) theory DifferentiatedtradeIntra-industryHeckscher–Ohlintheorem(H–O)Factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory Technological gap modelcyclemodelProductFactor–price equalization theoremcostsTransportationStolper-Samuelsontheoremmodel Nontraded goods and services Specific-factorsparadox Environmental standardsLeontiefMonopolisticcompetitionscalereturnsIncreasingtoLecture Guide1. This is one of the most important and difficult chapters in the book. It is also a long chapter andrequires four lectures to cover adequately.2. In the first lecture, I would cover sections 1-3. Section 3 is one of the most important sections inthe book because it presents the H-O model. I would proceed slowly and carefully in explaining Figure 4.1 and compare it to the standard trade model of Figure 3.4.3. In the second lecture, I would cover sections 4 and 5. Section 4 on the factor-price equalizationtheorem and income distribution is a difficult section. Case Study 4-2 should be of great interest to the students and give rise to a great deal of class discussion.4. In third lecture, I would cover sections sections 6-7, paying a great deal of attention to section 7on trade in differentiated products.5. In fourth lecture, I would cover the rest of the chapter.Answers to Review Questions and Problems1. a. The Heckscher–Ohlin (H-0) theorem postulates that a nation will export those commodi- ties whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodities whose production requires the intensive useof the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. In short, the relatively labor-richnation exports relatively labor-intensive commodities and imports the relativelycapital-intensive commodities.b. Heckscher and Ohlin identify the relative difference in factor endowments amongnations as the basic determinant of comparative advantage and international trade.c. The H-O Theory represent an extension of the standard trade model because it explains the basis for comparative advantage (classical economists, such as Ricardo had assumed it) and examines the effect of international trade on factor prices and income distribution (which classical economists had left unanswered).2. See Figure 1 on the next page.3. a. The factor–price equalization theorem postulates that international trade will bring about the equalization of the returns to homogeneous or identical factors across nations.b. The Stopler-Samuelson theorem postulates that free international trade reduces the realincome of the nation’s relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor.Fig 4.1Fig 4.2XXb. The specific-factors model postulates that the opening of trade (1) benefits the specific factorused in the production of the nation’s export commodity, (2) harms the specific factor used in the production of the nation’s import-competing industry, and (3) leads to an ambiguouseffect (i.e., it may benefit or harm) the mobile factor.c. Trade acts as a substitute for the international mobility of factors of production in itseffect on factor prices. With perfect mobility, labor would migrate from the low-wagenation to the high-wage nation until wages in the two nations are equalized. Similarly,capital would move from the low-interest to the high-interest nation until the rate ofinterest was equalized in the two nations.4. a. The Leontief paradox refers to the original Leontief’s finding that U.S. import substituteswere more K-intensive than U.S. exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O theorempostulated.b. The Leontief paradox was resolved by including human capital into the calculations andexcluding industries based on natural resources. Recent research using data on many sectors, for many countries, over many years, and considering that countries could specialize in aparticular subset or group of commodities that were best suited to their specific factorendowments, provides strong support for the H-O theorem.c. The Hecksher-Olhin theory remains the centerpiece of modern trade theory for explaininginternational trade today. To be sure, there are other forces (such as economies of scale,product differentiation, and technological differences across countries) that provide additional reasons and explanations for some international trade not explained by the basic H-O model.These other trade theories complement the basic H-O model in explaining the pattern ofinternational trade in the world today.5. International trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing economies (NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing the demand for unskilledworkers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive manufactures and, indirectly, byspeeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations, which further reduced the U.S.demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however, was only a small cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important cause was technological change.6. a. Economies of scale refer to the production situation where output grows proportionatelymore than the increase in inputs or factors of production. For example, output may morethan double with a doubling of inputs.b. Even if two nations were identical in every respect, there is still a basis for mutually bene-ficial trade based on economies of scale. When each nation specializes in the production of one commodity, the combined total world output of both commodities will be greater thanthan without specialization when economies of scale are present. With trade, each nationthen shares in these gains.c. The new international economies of scale refers to the increase in productivity resultingfrom firms purchasing parts and components from nations where they are made cheaperand better, and by establishing production facilities abroad-26-7. a. Product differentiation refers to products that are similar, but not identical. Intra-industrytrade refers to trade in differentiated products, as opposed to inter-industry trade incompletely different products.b. Intra-industry trade arises in order to take advantage of important economies of scale inproduction. That is, with intra-industry trade each firm or plant in industrial countries canspecialize in the production of only one, or at most a few, varieties and styles of the sameproduct rather than many different varieties and styles of a product and achieve economies of scale.c. With few varieties and styles, more specialized and faster machinery can be developedfor a continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports othervarieties and styles from other nations. Intra-industry trade benefits consumers because ofthe wider range of choices (i.e., the greater variety of differentiated products) available atthe lower prices made possible by economies of scale in production.8. a. According to the technological gap model, a firm exports a new product until imitators incountries take away its market. In the meantime, the innovating firm will have introduced a new product or process.b. The criticism of the technological gap model are that it does not explain the size of techno- logical gaps and does not explore the reason for technological gaps arising in the first place, or exactly how they are eliminated over time.c. The five stages of the product cycle model are: the introduction of the product, expansion of production for export, standardization and beginning of production abroad through imitation, foreign imitators underselling the nation in third markets, and foreigners underselling theinnovating firms in their home market as well.9. See Figure 2 on page 25.10. A nation with lower environmental standards can use the environment as a resource endow-ment or as a factor of production in attracting polluting firms from abroad and achieving acomparative advantage in the production of polluting goods and services. This can lead totrade disputes with nations with more stringent environmental standards.-27-Multiple-Choice Questions1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:a. explaining the basis for comparative advantageb. examining the effect of trade on factor prices*c. both a and bd. neither a nor b2. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:a. greater absolute amount of Kb. smaller absolute amount of Lc. higher L/K ratio*d. lower price of K in relation to the price of L3. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a difference in:a. technologyb. factor endowmentsc. tastes*d. all of the above4. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:a. technology*b. factor endowmentsc. economies of scaled. tastes5. According to the H-O theory, trade reduces international differences in:a. commodity pricesb. in factor prices*c. both commodity and factor pricesd. neither relative nor absolute factor prices6. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, international trade leads toa. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor*b. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factorc. increase in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factord. none of the above7. Which of the following is false with regard to the specific factors theorem, international trade *a. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s export commodities or sectorsb. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s import-competing commoditiesc. has an ambiguous effect on the nation’s mobile factorsd. may benefit or harm the nation’s mobile factors8. Perfect international mobility of factors of productiona. leads to a reduction in international differences in the returns to homogenous factorsb. acts as a substitute for international trade in its effects on factor pricesc. operates on the supply of factors in affecting factor prices*d. all of the above9. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.*a. import substitutes were more K-intensive than exportsb. exports were more L-intensive than importsc. exports were more K-intensive than import substitutesd. all of the above10. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:a. must be rejectedb. must be accepted without reservations*c. can generally be acceptedd. explains all international trade11. International trade can be based on economies of scale even if both nations have identical:a. factor endowmentsb. tastesc. technology*d. all of the above12. A great deal of international trade:a. is intra-industry tradeb. involves differentiated productsc. is based on monopolistic competition*d. all of the above13. Intra-industry trade takes place:a. because products are homogeneous*b. in order to take advantage of economies of scalec. because perfect competition is the prevalent form of market organizationd. all of the above14. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the product-cycle theory?a. it depends on differences in technological changes over time among countriesb. it depends on the opening and the closing of technological gaps among countriesc. it postulates that industrial countries export more advanced products to lessadvanced countries*d. all of the above15. Transport costs:a. increase the price in the importing countryb. reduces the price in the exporting countryc. falls less heavily on the nation with the more elastic demand and supply curves of the traded commodity*d. all of the above-30-ADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART ONE1. Assume that both the United States and Germany produce beef and computer chips with the following costs:United States Germany(dollars) (marks)Unit cost of beef (B) 2 8Unit cost of computer chips (C) 1 2(a) What is the opportunity cost of beef (B) and computer chips (C) in each country?(b) In which commodity does the United States have a comparative cost advantage?What about Germany?(c) What is the range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germanyfor each computer chip traded?(b) How much would the United States and Germany gain if 1 unit of beef is exchangedfor 3 chips?Answ. (a) In the United States:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 2 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/2 unit of beef.In Germany:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 4 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/4 unit of beef.(b) The United States has a comparative cost advantage in beef with respect to Germany,while Germany has a comparative cost advantage in computer chips.(c) The range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germany foreach unit of beef that the United States exports is2C < 1B < 4C(d) Both the United States and Germany would gain 1 chip for each unit of beef traded.2. Given: (1) two nations (1 and 2) which have the same technology but different factor costs conditions, and (3) no transportation costs, tariffs, or other obstructions to trade.Prove geometrically that mutually advantageous trade between the two nations is possible.Note: Your answer should show the autarky (no-trade) and free-trade points of production and consumption for each nation, the gains from trade of each nation, and express the equilibrium condition that should prevail when trade stops expanding.)Ans.: See the figure below.Fig 4.3Fig 4.4Nations 1 and 2 have different production possibilities curves and different community indifference maps. With these, they will usually end up with different relative commodity prices in autarky, thus making mutually beneficial trade possible.In the figure, Nation 1 produces and consumes at point A and Px/Py=P A in autarky, while Nation 2 produces and consumes at point A' and Px/Py=P A'. Since P A < P A', Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation 2 in Y. Specialization in production proceeds until point B in Nation 1 and point B' in Nation 2, at which P B =P B' and the quantity supplied for export of each commodity exactly equals the quantity demanded for import.Thus, Nation 1 starts at point A in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B in production, and by exchanging BC of X for CE of Y reaches point E in consumption. E > A since it involves more of both X and Y and lies on a higher community indifference curve.Nation 2 starts at A' in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B' in production, and by exchanging B'C' of Y for C'E' of X reaches point E'in consumption (which exceeds A').At Px/Py=P B =P B', Nation 1 wants to export BC of X for CE of Y, while Nation 2 wants to export B'C' (=CE) of Y for C'E' (=BC) of X. Thus, P B =P B' is the equilibrium relative commodity price because it clears both (the X and Y) markets.3. (a) Identify the conditions that may give rise to trade between two nations. (b) What aresome of the assumptions on which the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is based? (c) What does this theory say about the pattern of trade and effect of trade on factor prices?Ans. (a) Trade can be based on a difference in factor endowments, technology, or tastesbetween two nations. A difference either in factor endowments or technology results in a different production possibilities frontier for each nation, which, unlessneutralized by a difference in tastes, leads to a difference in relative commodity price and mutually beneficial trade. If two nations face increasing costs and have identical production possibilities frontiers but different tastes, there will also be a differencein relative commodity prices and the basis for mutually beneficial trade between the two nations. The difference in relative commodity prices is then translated into adifference in absolute commodity prices between the two nations, which is the immediate cause of trade.(b) The Heckscher-Ohlin theory (sometimes referred to as the modern theory – asopposed to the classical theory - of international trade) assumes that nations have the same tastes, use the same technology, face constant returns to scale (i.e., a givenpercentage increase in all inputs increases output by the same percentage) but differ widely in factor endowments. It also says that in the face of identical tastes or demand conditions, this difference in factor endowments will result in a difference in relative factor prices between nations, which in turn leads to a difference in relativecommodity prices and trade. Thus, in the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the internationaldifference in supply conditions alone determines the pattern of trade. To be noted is that the two nations need not be identical in other respects in order for internationaltrade to be based primarily on the difference in their factor endowments.(c) The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem postulates that each nation will export the commodityintensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodityintensive in its relatively scarce and expensive factor. As an important corollary, itadds that under highly restrictive assumptions, trade will completely eliminate thepretrade relative and absolute differences in the price of homogeneous factors amongnations. Under less restrictive and more usual conditions, however, trade will reduce, but not eliminate, the pretrade differences in relative and absolute factor prices among nations. In any event, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory does say something very useful onhow trade affects factor prices and the distribution of income in each nation. Classical economists were practically silent on this point.-33-4. Suppose that tastes change in Nation 1 (the L-abundant and L-cheap nation) so that consumers demand more of commodity X (the L-intensive commodity) and less of commodity Y (the K- intensive commodity). Suppose that Nation 1 is India, commodity X is textiles, and commodi- ty Y is food. Starting from the no-trade equilibrium position and using the Heckscher-Ohlinmodel, trace the effect of this change in tastes on India's (a) relative commodity prices anddemand for food and textiles, (b) production of both commodities and factor prices, and(c) comparative advantage and volume of trade. (d) Do you expect international trade to leadto the complete equalization of relative commodity and factor prices between India and theUnited States? Why?Ans. (a) The change in tastes can be visualized by a shift toward the textile axis in India'sindifference map in such a way that an indifference curve is tangent to the steepersegment of India's production frontier (because of increasing opportunity costs) after the increase in demand for textiles. This will cause the pretrade relative commodity price of textiles to rise in India.(b) The increase in the relative price of textiles will lead domestic producers in India toshift labor and capital from the production of food to the production of textiles. Since textiles are L-intensive in relation to food, the demand for labor and therefore the wage rate will rise in India. At the same time, as the demand for food falls, thedemand for and thus the price of capital will fall. With labor becoming relative more expensive, producers in India will substitute capital for labor in the production of both textiles and food.(c) Even with the rise in relative wages and in the relative price of textiles, India stillremains the L-abundant and low-wage nation with respect to a nation such as theUnited States. However, the pretrade difference in the relative price of textilesbetween India and the United States is now somewhat smaller than before the change in tastes in India. As a result the volume of trade required to equalize relativecommodity prices and hence factor prices is smaller than before. That is, India need now export a smaller quantity of textiles and import less food than before for therelative price of textiles in India and the United States to be equalized. Similarly, the gap between real wages and between India and the United States is now smaller and can be more quickly and easily closed (i.e., with a smaller volume of trade).(d) Since many of the assumptions required for the complete equalization of relativecommodity and factor prices do not hold in the real world, great differences can be expected and do in fact remain between real wages in India and the United States.Nevertheless, trade would tend to reduce these differences, and the H-O model does identify the forces that must be considered to analyze the effect of trade on thedifferences in the relative and absolute commodity and factor prices between Indiaand the United States.-34-5. (a) Explain why the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended. (b) Indicate in what important ways the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model can be extended. (c) Explain what ismeant by differentiated products and intra-industry trade.Ans. (a) The Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended because, while generallycorrect, it fails to explain a significant portion of international trade, particularly the trade in manufactured products among industrial nations.(b) The international trade left unexplained by the basic Heckscher-Ohlin trade model canbe explained by (1) economies of scale, (2) intra-industry trade, and (3) trade based on imitation gaps and product differentiation.(c) Differentiated products refer to similar, but not identical, products (such as cars,typewriters, cigarettes, soaps, and so on) produced by the same industry or broadproduct group. Intra-industry trade refers to the international trade in differentiated products.-35-。
课后习题第一章绪论(一) 选择题1.国际经济学在研究资源配置时，是以（）作为基本的经济单位来划分的。
A. 企业B.个人C.政府D.国家2.国际经济学研究的对象是（）A国际商品流动B世界范围内的稀缺资源的最优配置C国际收支平衡D各国之间的经济活动和经济关系3.从国际间经济资源流动的难易度看，（）流动最容易A商品B资本C人员D技术答案提示：1.D 2. B D 3.C（二）问答题1．试述国际经济学和国内经济学的关系。
答案提示：（1）联系：国际经济学与国内经济学研究的经济活动是相似的，面临的主要问题也是相似的；（2）最主要的区别是国际经济的民族国家性。
第二章古典的国际贸易理论（一）选择题本国生产A、B、C、D四种产品的单位劳动投入分别为1、2、4、15，外国生产这四种产品的单位劳动投入分别为12、18、24、30，根据李嘉图模型，本国在哪种产品上拥有最大比较优势？在哪种产品上拥有最大比较劣势？（ ）（ａ）Ｄ、Ａ （ｂ）Ｃ、Ｂ （ｃ）Ａ、Ｄ （ｄ）Ｂ、Ｃ答案：Ｃ （二）问答题1．亚当·斯密对国际贸易理论的主要贡献有哪些？答案提示：亚当·斯密的主要贡献是：（1）抨击了重商主义；（2）提出了绝对优势之一概念；（3）强调国际分工是使国民财富增加的最重要手段。
2．绝对优势理论和比较优势理论的区别是什么？答案提示：（1）绝对优势理论强调，国与国之间劳动生产率的绝对差异导致的技术水平的差异是产生国际贸易的主要原因；（2）比较优势理论强调，劳动生产率的相对差异导致的技术水平的差异是产生国际贸易的主要原因。
（三）计算题1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
表1 X、Y的单位产出所需的劳动投入A国 B国X Y 621512表2 X、Y的单位产出所需的劳动投入 A国 B国X Y 10455答案提示：首先将劳动投入转化为劳动生产率，然后应用与本章正文中一样的方法进行比较。
《国际经济学》作业参考答案一、判断题１．F２．F ３．T ４．F ５．T ６．T ７．T ８．T ９．F １０．F １１．F １２．T１３．T １４．T １５．F １６．F １７．T １８．F １９．T ２０．F ２１．F ２２．T２３．F ２４．F二、选择题１．c ２．d ３．b ４．b ５．c ６．d ７．d ８．c ９．a １０．c １１．b １２．d １３．A １４．A １５．B １６．D １７．D １８．B １９．C ２０．D ２１．D ２２．A ２３．C ２４．C ２５．c ２６．b ２７．d ２８．d ２９．c ３０．c ３１．d ３２．b ３３．d ３４．b ３５．D３６．c ３７．a ３８．d ３９．a ４０．d ４１．d ４２．d ４３．b ４４．d ４５．c ４６．b三、概念解释１．罗伯津斯基定理：在商品相对价格不变的前提下，某一要素的增加会导致密集使用该要素部门的生产增加，而另一部门的生产则下降。
２．幼稚产业理论：是从动态角度提出了保护那些具有潜在优势的新兴产业的观点，但这种保护是一种暂时性的。
判别幼稚产业的标准主要有三种：其中穆勒标准强调将来的竞争优势，而巴斯塔布尔标准认为幼稚产业不仅强调将来的竞争优势，而且将来的预期收益的现值应能抵消现有的保护成本，坎普标准则更为注重外部规模京的重要性。
３．战略性贸易政策：该政策是针对一种特殊的不完全竞争市场结构---寡头垄断市场结构提出的。
在寡头垄断市场结构下，政府对贸易活动进行干预目的是改变市场结构或环境，以提高本国企业的国际竞争力，使本国企业获得更多的垄断利润或租金。
战略性贸易政策最为强调的政策主张有两种：一是出口补贴，而是进口保护以促进出口。
４．一国所拥有的两种生产要素的相对比例。
这是一个相对概念，与一国所拥有的生产要素的绝对数量无关。
５．斯托帕－萨谬尔森定理:无论两种要素的所有者倾向于消费哪种商品，国际贸易将提高一国出口产品中密集是用要素（即本国较丰裕的要素）的收益，而降低其进口产品中密集使用要素（即本国较稀缺的要素）的收益。
冯德连主编-人民大学出版社《国际经济学》第二版课后习题答案内消费数量18=42-4Q D ，或Q D =60亿桶。
见下图。
（2）在无进口时，国内供给数量必须在国内均衡价格P 处等于国内需求数量（两者都等于Q E ）：42-4Q E =0.6+6Q E ，或Q E =41.4亿桶（生产和消费的数量）。
利用其中一个等式，我们可以计算出，国内价格为每桶25.44美元。
（3）国内石油生产者将获益。
他们得到了以图中面积a 代表的生产者剩余。
国内石油消费者将受到损失，即由图中面积a+b+c 代表的消费者剩余。
7．答：一个没有贸易的假想世界有5个条件：（1）两国相同商品的生产函数相同；（2）O 数量（10亿桶） 18 D S P O 25.44 a b D S 数量（10亿桶）c 18 2.9 6.0 2.9 6.0 4.14两国的相对要素禀赋相同；（3）两国的消费偏好相同；（4）规模收益不变；（5）两国的商品市场和要素市场都是完全竞争市场。
如果5个条件同时成立，那么，两国在封闭条件下的相对价格完全相同，因此，在这些条件下国际贸易是不可能发生的。
第二章练习与思考参考答案1．答：（1）2000045=+YX。
（2）封闭条件下，此国生产可能性边界的斜率是-5/4=PX /PY。
因为X的国际相对价格为2，所以此国出口X进口Y。
出口1000个单位的X 可以换得2000个单位的Y。
贸易三角形即可划出。
2．答：古典学派认为国际贸易发生的原因在于生产成本上的差异，古典学派假设劳动是惟一的生产要素，因而，古典学派的生产函数一般形式可写成如下形式：Q=F（L）因生产函数规模收益不变，故根据规模收益不变的定义，对任意的常数λ>0，则有：F（λL）= λF（L）由于λ可任意取值，不妨令λ=1/L，则：F（1）=（1／L）F（L）上式左边是一常数，它表示单位劳动投入的产出，而右边则表示平均劳动产出，即平均劳动生产率。
由等式可知，平均劳动生产率是固定不变的。
