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语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds The definition of phonetics & phonology Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages. Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order. Ⅰ How speech sounds are made? A. Speech organs 1. 3 cavities pharynx oral cavity nasal cavity 2. vocal folds apart: voiceless Close: voiced Close tightly: glottal stop 3. uvula B. The IPA The The first first first version version version of of of the the the International International International Phonetic Phonetic Phonetic Alphabet Alphabet （the the IP A IP A chart chart ）was was published published published in in August,1888. Ⅱ Consonants and vowels 1. Definition Consonants Consonants are are are produced produced produced ““by by a a a closure closure closure in in in the the the vocal vocal vocal tract, tract, tract, or or or by by by a a a narrowing narrowing narrowing which which which is is is so so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ”. A vowel is produced without such “stricture stricture”” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. 2. Three factors to describe the features of consonants 1) V oicing: voiced & voiceless 2) Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. Classification according to manners of articulation stop/ plosive fricative lateral tap/ flap nasal approximant trill affricate3) place place of of of articulation: articulation: articulation: It It It refers refers refers to to to the the the point point point where where where a a a consonant consonant consonant is is is made. made. made. Practically Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold. Classification according to place of articulation bilabial dental post alveolar palatal uvular glottal labiodental alveolar retroflex velar pharyngea3. V owels 1) cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are are a a a set set set of of of vowel vowel vowel qualities qualities qualities arbitrarily arbitrarily arbitrarily defined, defined, defined, fixed fixed fixed and and and unchanging, unchanging, unchanging, intended intended intended to to provide provide a a a frame frame frame of of of reference reference reference for for for the the the description description description of of of the the the actual actual actual vowels vowels vowels of of of existing existing languages. 2) Classification of vowels the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short) lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded) Ⅲ From phonetics to phonology1. Coarticulation: Coarticulation: When When When simultaneous simultaneous simultaneous or or or overlapping overlapping overlapping articulations articulations articulations are are are involved, involved, involved, we we we call call call the the process coarticulation. Two types of coarticulation 1) Anticipatory coarticulation If If the the the sound sound sound becomes becomes becomes more more more like like like the the the following following following sound, sound, sound, it it it is is is known known known as as as anticipatory anticipatory coarticulation. 2) Perseverative coarticulation If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation. 2. Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones. Phoneme: It ’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair. Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. Ⅳ Phonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features1. Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of a neighboring sound. Two possibilities of assimilation 1) regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. 2) Progressive Progressive assimilation: assimilation: assimilation: It It It is is is the the the converse converse converse process process process in in in which which which a a a preceding preceding preceding sound sound sound is is influencing a following sound. 2. Distinctive Features The idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s. Ⅴ SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation. 1. Syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda 2. MOP(maximal onset principle) When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 3. Stress It refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. 4. Intonation Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. 5. Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words Supplement articulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds. acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. 。
第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。
H.D.Brown《语言学习与语言教学的原则》（第3版）笔记和课后习题详解完整版-精研学习䋞提供免费试用20％资料全国547所院校视频及题库考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试第1章语言，语言学习和语言教学1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition of language语言的定义2.The Grammar Translation Method语法翻译法本章考点：1.语言的定义；2.学习和教学的定义；3.课堂教学：语法翻译法。
本章内容索引：Ⅰ.LanguageⅡ.Learning and teaching1.Learning2.TeachingⅢ.The Grammar Translation MethodⅠ.Language（语言的定义）A consolidation of the definitions of language yields the following composite definitions.nguage is systematic and generative.nguage is a set of arbitrary symbols.3.Those symbols are primarily vocal,but may also be visual.4.The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer.nguage is used for communication.nguage operates in a speech community or culture.nguage is essentially human,although possibly not limited to humans.nguage is acquired by all people in much the same way-language and language learning both have universal characteristics.语言的定义可以从以下8个方面来理解：1.语言是系统的、生成的；2.语言是一套任意的符号；3.这些符号主要是声音的，但也可能是视觉的；4.符号有特定的含义；5.语言用于交际；6.语言在语言社区或文化中起作用；7.语言从根本上来说是人类语言，尽管语言可能不只限于人类世界；8.人们学习语言的方式大体相似，语言和语言学习具有普遍特征。
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程课堂笔记第一章导论一、性质、对象、任务语言学的性质：既古老又年轻的学科,介于自然科学与社会科学之间的学科。
语言学的研究对象：人类自然语言语言学的任务：⑴“描写—解释”层次。
从宏观、微观两个方面描写和解释语言现象、语言的结构规律和应用方式。
使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
宏观上：把语言作为一个整体对象来研究,研究它的起源、发展、本质、功能,它和思维、意识的关系等等。
微观上：对语言内部结构进行研究,研究语言内部的结构规律,各要素的关系及发展、演变等。
⑵“认知—思维”层次。
探索人类语言符号行为的奥秘,语言是怎样组织意义的,语言是怎样划分世界从而把现实符号化的,人是怎样在思维和交际中运用语言符号的,语言和心灵的关系是怎样的,语言和文化的关系是怎样的。
⑶“技术—实用层次。
积极地为计算机对语言文字进行信息处理等工程技术服务,为言语矫治等语言病理的治疗工作服务,或者为语言教学、外语教学等服务。
二、语言学的分类⑴根据研究性质、范畴和对象,可分为理论语言学和应用语言学A、理论语言学：是语言学的主体,是研究语言的功能和结构的一般理论。
B、应用语言学：研究语言应用的一切学科,包括语言教学、机器翻译、失语症治疗、语言规划。
⑵从研究对象的范围上分,语言学可分为具体语言学和普通语言学。
三、语言学发展简史⑴传统语言学【语文学（语言文字学）】时期1、时间与特征：一般讲19世纪历史比较语言学产生以前的时期称为“传统语言学时期”、“古典语文学时期”。
这一时期,语言研究处于附庸地位。
还没有发展为独立的学科。
主要是为经典作注解。
2、传统语言学的三大发源地：古希腊—罗马、古印度和古代中国3、传统语言学的作用⑵索绪尔语言学理论1、区分语言（language）和言语（parole）语言：从言语中概括出来为社会公认的词语和规则的总和。
言语：个人说或写的行为和结果2、区别组合关系和聚合关系3、语言和言语的关系：A、一般和个别B、抽象和具体四、语言学的功能（为什么要学语言学概论）1、便与从事与语言相关的工作2、有利于语言规划、信息处理等语言应用3、便于观察语言现象、发现并解释语言规律4、便于提高发现、分析与解决问题的能力5、在语言理论的指导下,透过语言使用我们可以洞悉人类心理的奥秘,为更好地掌握和利用心智打下基础五、怎样学习语言学概论1、勤观察,培养对语言现象的敏锐洞察力2、多思考,培养强烈的问题求解意识3、三个充分：观察充分、描写充分、解释充分第二章语言的本质与起源一、语言的本质（什么是语言？）1、①（为什么）语言是人类特有的、②（为什么是）最重要的全民交际工具。
Chapter 2 Speech SoundsThe definition of phonetics & phonologyPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages.Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.ⅠHow speech sounds are made?A.Speech organs1. 3 cavities pharynxoral cavitynasal cavity2. vocal folds apart: voicelessClose: voicedClose tightly: glottal stop3. uvulaB.The IPAThe first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet（the IPA chart）was published in August,1888.ⅡConsonants and vowels1.DefinitionConsonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”.A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpededway through the mouth or nose”.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.Three factors to describe the features of consonants1)Voicing: voiced & voiceless2)Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a)the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b)they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of thetract by approaching each other.Classification according to manners of articulationstop/ plosive fricative lateraltap/ flap nasal approximant trill affricate3)place of articulation: It refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practicallyconsonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold.Classification according to place of articulationbilabial dentalpost alveolar palatal uvular glottal labiodental alveolar retroflex velar pharyngea3.V owels1)cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart,are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended toprovide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existinglanguages.2)Classification of vowelsthe height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short)lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded)ⅢFrom phonetics to phonology1.Coarticulation: When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call theprocess coarticulation.Two types of coarticulation1)Anticipatory coarticulationIf the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.2)Perseverative coarticulationIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation.2.Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones.Phoneme: It’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes.Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair.Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme.ⅣPhonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features1.Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of aneighboring sound.Two possibilities of assimilation1)regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call itregressive assimilation.2)Progressive assimilation: It is the converse process in which a preceding sound isinfluencing a following sound.2.Distinctive FeaturesThe idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s.ⅤSuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.1.Syllable onsetrhyme nucleuscoda2.MOP(maximal onset principle)When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.3.StressIt refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.4.IntonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.5.Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual wordsSupplementarticulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds.acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.。
Chapter 3 LexiconⅠWhat is word?1. 3 senses of word1) a physically definable unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.2)word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as a specific items (boy and boys are two words).3) a grammatical unitThe work rank is located between morpheme and word group.2.Identification of words1)StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.2)relative uninterruptibilityNew elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.3) a minimum free formWord is the smallest unit that can be used by itself.3.Classification of wods1)Variable and invariable wordsVariable words may have inflective changes. The same word may have differentgrammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable words refer to those words that do not have inflective endings.2)grammatical words and lexical wordsThose which mainly work for constructing group are grammatical words, such as, conj., prep., art., and pron., are grammatical words also known as function words.Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as n., v., adj.and adv., are lexical words, also known as content words.3)closed-class words and open-class wordsThe closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pron., prep., conj., art., and others.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as n.,v., adj., and many adv..4)word class: particle, auxiliaries, pro-form, determinersⅡThe formation of wordMorpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.1.classification of morpheme1)free morpheme: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words bythemselves, are free morpheme.bound morpheme: Those that cannot occur alone, must appear with at last another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes,2)root: Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroyingits meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.affix: Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.stem: Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3) inflectional affix n. ----s n. ----`sv. ----ed v. ----ing w. ----ed/enadj./adv. ----er adj./adv. ----estderivational affixDifferences:1^ Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are vey productive in making new words.2^ Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3^ Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.4^ Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.2.word formation1)inflection: It indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes; and wheninflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the terms (to which they are attached) will not change.2)compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single form. It can be further divided into two kinds, the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.3.Sememe Vs. Morpheme and Phoneme Vs. Morpheme1)sememe Vs. morpheme1^ one morpheme Vs. one sememe2^ one morpheme Vs. more than one sememe3^ one sememe Vs. more than one morpheme4^ morphemes that have no specific sememe5^ function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change2)morpheme Vs. phoneme1^ a single phoneme Vs. a single morpheme2^ a single morpheme Vs. multiple phoneme3^ allomorph4^ morphemic conditionsⅢLexical change1.lexical change proper1)invention2)blendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.3)abbreviation4)acronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5)back-formationBack-formation refers to an usually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.6)analogical creation7)borrowing1^ loanwords2^ loanblend3^ loanshift4^ loan translation2.morpho-syntactical change1)morphological changeThe present section is on the inflectional side, i.e. the form of inflectional affixes.2)syntactical changeEnglish speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth century’s double.3.semantic change1)broadingBroading is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)narrowingNarrowing is contrary to broading: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3)meaning shiftWhat makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.4)class shift5)folk etymologyIt refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.4.phonological change1)loss2)addition3)metathesis4)assimilation5. orthographie change。
《语言学教程》第三版胡壮麟主编配套笔记Stella 整理Chapter 1 What is language?重点：design features of language ;Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:① The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.② The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③ The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西② Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Creativity（创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.)④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.The above 6 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字② Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤ Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?重点：some important distinctions in linguistics[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.Process of linguistic study: observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. [B] The scope of linguistics普通语言学General linguistics: the study of language as a whole语音学Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)音韵学Phonology:is essentially the description of the systems and patterns语音of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)形态学Morphology:the study of the way in which are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form句法学Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 语义学Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 抽象语用学Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use使用情境社会语言学Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveThey represent two different types of linguistic study.规定式Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used. （how they ought to be）描写式Descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.（how things are）② Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‘state’ of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development–for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological音韵学的, grammatical语法的and semantic语义学terms.T he description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; thedescription of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. Most grammars are synchronic. That is, they try to give a description of how a language is used at the present day. Diachronic study may recall to us the changes a language has undergone, for example, what phonological, grammatical and semantic changes have taken place from Old English period to the present day English.③ Speech and writing语言和言语Spoken language is primary, not the written1)Historically, speech is prior to writing.2)Genetically, children learn to speak before they are able to write.3）Functionally, spoken form is more important than written form in language use. ④ Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)--“father of modern linguistics”.现代语言学之父现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语。
