管理会计F2(英文版,程六兵)

CHAPTER 9STANDARD COSTING:A MANAGERIAL CONTROL TOOL QUESTIONS FOR WRITING AND DISCUSSION1.Standard costs are essentially budgetedamounts on a per-unit basis. Unit standardsserve as inputs in building budgets.2.Unit standards are used to build flexiblebudgets. Unit standards for variable costsare the variable cost component of a flexiblebudgeting formula.3.The quantity decision is determining howmuch input should be used per unit of out-put. The pricing decision determines howmuch should be paid for the quantity of inputused.4.Historical experience is often a poor choicefor establishing standards because the his-torical amounts may include more inefficien-cy than is desired.5.Engineering studies can serve as importantinput to standard setting. Many feel that thisapproach by itself may produce standardsthat are too rigorous.6.Ideal standards are perfection standards,representing the best possible outcomes.Currently attainable standards are standardsthat are challenging but allow some waste.Currently attainable standards are oftenchosen because many feel they tend to mo-tivate rather than frustrate.7.Standard costing systems improve planningand control and facilitate product costing. 8.By identifying standards and assessing devi-ations from the standards, managers can lo-cate areas where change or corrective be-havior is needed.9.Actual costing assigns actual manufacturingcosts to products. Normal costing assignsactual prime costs and estimated overheadcosts to products. Standard costing assignsestimated manufacturing costs to products.10. A standard cost sheet presents the standardamount of and price for each input and usesthis information to calculate the unit standardcost. 11.Managers generally tend to have more con-trol over the quantity of an input used ratherthan the price paid per unit of input.12. A standard cost variance should be investi-gated if the variance is material and if thebenefit of investigating and correcting thedeviation is greater than the cost.13.Control limits indicate how large a variancemust be before it is judged to be materialand the process is out of control. Control lim-its are usually set by judgment although sta-tistical approaches are occasionally used. 14.The materials price variance is often com-puted at the point of purchase rather than is-suance because it provides control informa-tion sooner.15.Disagree. A materials usage variance canbe caused by factors beyond the control ofthe production manager, e.g., purchase of alower-quality material than normal.16.Disagree. Using higher-priced workers toperform lower-skilled tasks is an example ofan event that will create a rate variance thatis controllable.17.Some possible causes of an unfavorablelabor efficiency variance are inefficient labor,machine downtime, and poor quality mate-rials.18.Part of a variable overhead spending va-riance can be caused by inefficient use ofoverhead resources.19.Agree. This variance, assuming that variableoverhead costs increase as labor usage in-creases, is caused by the efficiency or ineffi-ciency of labor usage.20.Fixed overhead costs are either committedor discretionary. The committed costs willnot differ by their very nature. Discretionarycosts can vary, but the level the companywants to spend on these items is decided atthe beginning and usually will be met unlessthere is a conscious decision to change thepredetermined levels.21.The volume variance is caused by the actualvolume differing from the expected volumeused to compute the predetermined stan-dard fixed overhead rate. If the actual vo-lume is different from the expected, then thecompany has either lost or earned a contri-bution margin. The volume variance signalsthis outcome, and if the variance is large,then the loss or gain is large since the vo-lume variance understates the effect.22.The spending variance is more important.This variance is computed by comparing ac-tual expenditures with budgeted expendi-tures. The volume variance simply tellswhether the actual volume is different fromthe expected volume.EXERCISES 9–11. d2. e3. d4. c5. e6. a9–21. a. The operating personnel of each cost center should be involved in settingstandards. They are the primary source for quantity information. The mate-rials manager and purchasing manager are a source of information for ma-terial prices, and personnel are knowledgeable on wage information. The Accounting Department should be involved in overhead standards and should provide information about past prices and usage. Finally, if infor-mation about absolute efficiency is desired, industrial engineers can pro-vide important input.b. Standards should be attainable; they should include an allowance forwaste, breakdowns, etc. Market prices for materials as well as labor (un-ions) should be a consideration for setting standards. Labor prices should include fringe benefits, and material prices should include freight, taxes, etc.2. In principle, before formal responsibility is assigned, the causes of the va-riances must be known. To be responsible, a manager must have the ability to control or influence the variance. The following assignments of responsi-bility are general in nature and have exceptions:MPV: Purchasing managerMUV: Production managerLRV: Production managerLEV: Production managerOH variances: Departmental managers1. SH = 0.8 ⨯ 95,000 = 76,000 hours2. SQ = 5 ⨯ 95,000 = 475,000 components9–41. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($0.03 – $0.032)6,420,000 = $12,840 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (6,420,000 – 6,400,000)$0.032 = $640 U2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($12.50 – $12.00)2,000 = $1,000 UL EV = (AH – SH)SR= (2,000 – 1,850)$12.00 = $1,800 U9–51. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH2. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOH1. Materials: $60 ⨯ 20,000 = $1,200,000L abor: $21 ⨯ 20,000 = $420,0002. Budgeted Cost VarianceMaterials $1,215,120 $1,200,000 $ 15,120 U Labor 390,000 420,000 30,000 F *$122,000 ⨯ $9.96; 31,200 ⨯ $12.503. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($9.96 – $10)122,000 = $4,880 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (122,000 – 120,000)$10 = $20,000 UAP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQ4. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($12.50 – $14)31,200 = $46,800 FLEV = (AH – SH)SR= (31,200 – 30,000)$14 = $16,800 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH1. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($8.35 – $8.25)114,000 = $11,400 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (112,500 – 115,200)$8.25 = $22,275 F(A three-pronged variance diagram is not shown because MPV is for mate-rials purchased and not materials used.)2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($9.80 – $9.65)37,560 = $5,634 UNote: AR = $368,088/37,560LEV = (AH – SH)SR= (37,560 – 38,400)$9.65 = $8,106 FAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH3. Materials Inventory ................................... 940,500M PV ............................................................ 11,400Accounts Payable ............................... 951,900Work in Process ....................................... 950,400MUV ...................................................... 22,275Materials Inventory .............................. 928,125Work in Process ....................................... 370,560LRV ............................................................ 5,634LEV ....................................................... 8,106Accrued Payroll ................................... 368,0881. Fixed overhead rate = $0.55/(1/2 hr. per unit) = $1.10 per DLHSH = 1,180,000 ⨯ 1/2 = 590,000Applied FOH = $1.10 ⨯ 590,000 = $649,0002. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOH(600,000 expected hours = 1/2 hour ⨯ 1,200,000 units)3. Variable OH rate = ($1,350,000 – $660,000)/600,000= $1.15 per DLH4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH1. Cases needing investigation:Week 2: Exceeds the 10% rule.Week 4: Exceeds the $8,000 rule and the 10% rule.Week 5: Exceeds the 10% rule.2. The purchasing agent. Corrective action would require a return to the pur-chase of the higher-quality material normally used.3. Production engineering is responsible. If the relationship is expected to pers-ist, then the new labor method should be adopted, and standards for mate-rials and labor need to be revised.9–101. Standard fixed overhead rate = $2,160,000/(120,000 ⨯ 6)= $3.00 per DLHStandard variable overhead rate = $1,440,000/720,000= $2.00 per DLH2. Fixed: 119,000 ⨯ 6 ⨯ $3.00 = $2,142,000Variable: 119,000 ⨯ 6 ⨯ $2.00 = $1,428,000Total FOH variance = $2,250,000 – $2,142,000= $108,000 UTotal VOH variance = $1,425,000 – $1,428,000= $3,000 F3. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe spending variance is the difference between planned and actual costs.Each item’s variance should be analyzed to see if these costs can be r e-duced. The volume variance is the incorrect prediction of volume, or alterna-tively, it is a signal of the loss or gain that occurred because of producing at a level different from the expected level.4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHThe variable overhead spending variance is the difference between the actual variable overhead costs and the budgeted costs for the actual hours used.The variable overhead efficiency variance is the savings or extra cost attri-butable to the efficiency of labor usage.9–111. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($6.60 – $6.40)1,488,000= $297,600 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (1,480,000 – 1,400,000)$6.40= $512,000 UNote: There is no three-pronged analysis for materials because materials purchased is different from the materials used. (MPV uses materials pur-chased and MUV uses materials used.)2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($18.10 – $18.00)580,000= $58,000 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (580,000 – 560,000)$18.00= $360,000 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH3. Fixed overhead analysis:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHNote: Practical volume in hours = 2 ⨯ 288,000 = 576,000 hours4. Variable overhead analysis:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOH1. Materials Inventory ................................... 9,523,200MPV ............................................................ 297,600Accounts Payable ............................... 9,820,8002. Work in Process ....................................... 8,960,000MUV ............................................................ 512,000Materials Inventory .............................. 9,472,0003. Work in Process ....................................... 10,080,000LRV ............................................................ 58,000LEV ............................................................. 360,000Accrued Payroll ................................... 10,498,0004. Work in Process ....................................... 3,080,000Fixed Overhead Control...................... 2,240,000Variable Overhead Control ................. 840,0005. Materials and labor:Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 1,227,600MPV ...................................................... 297,600MUV ...................................................... 512,000LRV ....................................................... 58,000LEV ....................................................... 360,000 Overhead disposition:Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 160,000Fixed Overhead Control...................... 160,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 32,000Variable Overhead Control ................. 32,0001. Tom purchased the large quantity to obtain a lower price so that the pricestandard could be met. In all likelihood, given the reaction of Jackie Iverson, encouraging the use of quantity discounts was not an objective of setting price standards. Usually, material price standards are to encourage the pur-chasing agent to search for sources that will supply the quantity and quality of material desired at the lowest price.2. It sounds like the price standard may be out of date. Revising the price stan-dard and implementing a policy concerning quantity purchases would likely prevent this behavior from reoccurring.3. Tom apparently acted in his own self-interest when making the purchase. Hesurely must have known that the quantity approach was not the objective.Yet, the reward structure suggests that there is considerable emphasis placed on meeting standards. His behavior, in part, was induced by the re-ward system of the company. Probably, he should be retained with some ad-ditional training concerning the goals of the company and a change in em-phasis and policy to help encourage the desired behavior.9–14Materials:AP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQLabor:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SH1. Materials Inventory ................................... 47,700MPV ...................................................... 5,700Accounts Payable ............................... 42,0002. Work in Process ....................................... 45,000MUV ............................................................ 2,700Materials Inventory .............................. 47,7003. Work in Process ....................................... 105,000LRV ....................................................... 2,300LEV (700)Accrued Payroll ................................... 102,0004. Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 2,700MUV ...................................................... 2,700MPV ............................................................ 5,700LRV ............................................................ 2,300LEV (700)Cost of Goods Sold ............................. 8,7001. VOH efficiency variance = (AH – SH)SVOR$8,000 = (1.2SH – SH)$2$8,000 = $0.4SHSH = 20,000AH = 1.2SH = 24,000 2. LEV = (AH – SH)SR$20,000 = (24,000 – 20,000)SR$20,000 = 4,000SRSR = $5LRV = (AR – SR)AH$6,000 = (AR – $5)24,000$0.25 = AR – $5AR = $5.253. SH = 4 ⨯ Units produced20,000 = 4 ⨯ Units produced Units produced = 5,000PROBLEMS9–171. Materials:AP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ AQ SP ⨯ SQThe new process saves 0.25 ⨯ 4,000 ⨯ $3 = $3,000. Thus, the net savings attri-butable to the higher-quality material are ($6,000 –$3,000) –$2,300 = $700.Keep the higher-quality material!2. Labor for new process:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHThe new process gains $3,000 in materials (see Requirement 1) but loses $6,000 from the labor effect, giving a net loss of $3,000. If this pattern is ex-pected to persist, then the new process should be abandoned.3. Labor for new process, one week later:AR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHIf this is the pattern, then the new process should be continued. It will save $260,000 per year ($5,000 ⨯52 weeks). The weekly savings of $5,000 is the materials savings of $3,000 plus labor savings of $2,000.9–181. e2. h3. k4. n5. d6. g7. o8. b9. m10. l11. j12. c13. a14. i15. f9–191. Material quantity standards:1.25 feet per cutting board⨯ 67.50 feet for five good cutting boardsUnit standard for lumber = 7.50/5 = 1.50 feetUnit standard for foot pads = 4.0Material price standards:Lumber: $3.00 per footPads: $0.05 per padLabor quantity standards:Cutting: 0.2 hrs. ⨯ 6/5 = 0.24 hours per good unitAttachment: 0.25 hours per good unitUnit labor standard 0.49 hours per good unit Labor rate standard: $8.00 per hourStandard prime cost per unit:Lumber (1.50 ft. @ $3.00) $4.50Pads (4 @ $0.05) 0.20Labor (0.49 hr. @ $8.00) 3.92Unit cost $8.629–19 Concluded2. Standards allow managers to compare planned and actual performance. Thedifference can be broken down into price and efficiency variances to identify the cause of a variance. With this feedback, managers are able to improve productivity as they attempt to produce without cost overruns.3. a. The purchasing manager identifies suppliers and their respective pricesand quality of materials.b. The industrial engineer often conducts time and motion studies to deter-mine the standard direct labor time for a unit of product. They also can de-termine how much material is needed for the product.c. The cost accountant has historical information as well as current informa-tion from the purchasing agent, industrial engineers, and operating per-sonnel. He or she can compile this information to obtain an achievable standard.4. Lumber:MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($3.10 – $3.00)16,000 = $1,600 UMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (16,000 – 15,000)$3 = $3,000 URubber pads:MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($0.048 – $0.05)51,000 = $102 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (51,000 – 40,000)$0.05 = $550 ULabor:LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($8.05 – $8.00)5,550 = $277.50 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (5,550 – 4,900)$8 = $5,200 U9–201. The cumulative average time per unit is an average. It includes the2.5 hoursper unit when 40 units are produced as well as the 1.024 hours per unit when 640 units are produced. As more units are produced, the cumulative average time per unit will decrease.2. The standard should be 0.768 hour per unit as this is the average time takenper unit once efficiency is achieved:[(1.024 ⨯ 640) – (1.28 ⨯ 320)]/(640 – 320)3. Std. Usage Std. CostDirect materials $ 4 25.000 $100.00 Direct labor 15 0.768 11.52 Variable overhead 8 0.768 6.14 Fixed overhead 12 0.768 9.22* Standard cost per unit $126.88* *Rounded4. There would be unfavorable efficiency variances for the first 320 units be-cause the standard hours are much lower than the actual hours at this level.Actual hours would be approximately 409.60 (320 ⨯ 1.28), and standard hours would be 245.76 (320 ⨯ 0.768).9–211. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($4.70 – $5.00)260,000 = $78,000 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SP= (320,000 – 300,000)$5 = $100,000 UThe materials usage variance is viewed as the most controllable because prices for materials are often market-driven and thus not controllable. Re-sponsibility for the variance in this case likely would be assigned to purchas-ing. The lower-quality materials are probably the cause of the extra usage.2. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($13 – $12)82,000 = $82,000 ULEV = (AH – SH)SR= (82,000 – 80,000)$12 = $24,000 UAR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ AH SR ⨯ SHProduction is usually responsible for labor efficiency. In this case, efficiency may have been affected by the lower-quality materials, and purchasing, thus, may have significant responsibility for the outcome. Other possible causes are less demand than expected, poor supervision, lack of proper training, and lack of experience.3. Variable overhead variances:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHFormula approach:VOH spending variance = Actual VOH – (SVOR ⨯ AH)= $860,000 – ($10 ⨯ 82,000)= $40,000 UVOH efficiency variance = (AH – SH)SVOR= (82,000 – 80,000)$10= $20,000 U4. Fixed overhead variances:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe volume variance is a measure of unused capacity. This cost is reduced as production increases. Thus, selling more goods is the key to reducing this variance (at least in the short run).5. Four variances are potentially affected by material quality:MPV $ 78,000 FMUV 100,000 ULEV 24,000 UVOH efficiency 20,000 U$ 66,000 UIf the variance outcomes are largely attributable to the lower-quality mate-rials, then the company should discontinue using this material.6. (Appendix required)Materials Inventory ................................... 1,300,000MPV ...................................................... 78,000Accounts Payable ............................... 1,222,000Work in Process ....................................... 1,500,000MUV ............................................................ 100,000Materials Inventory .............................. 1,600,0009–21 ConcludedWork in Process ....................................... 960,000LRV ............................................................ 82,000LEV ............................................................. 24,000Accrued Payroll ................................... 1,066,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 206,000MUV ...................................................... 100,000LRV ....................................................... 82,000LEV ....................................................... 24,000MPV ............................................................ 78,000Cost of Goods Sold ............................. 78,000VOH Control .............................................. 860,000Various Credits .................................... 860,000FOH Control .............................................. 556,000Various Credits .................................... 556,000Work in Process ....................................... 800,000VOH Control ......................................... 800,000Work in Process ....................................... 480,000FOH Control ......................................... 480,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 60,000VOH Control ......................................... 60,000Cost of Goods Sold .................................. 76,000FOH Control ......................................... 76,0009–221. Fixed overhead rate = $2,400,000/600,000 hours*= $4 per hour*Standard hours allowed = 2 ⨯ 300,000 units2. Little Rock plant:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHAthens plant:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHThe spending variance is almost certainly caused by supervisor’s salaries (for example, an unexpected midyear increase due to union pressures). It is unlikely that the lease payments or depreciation would be greater than bud-geted. Changing the terms on a 10-year lease in the first year would be un-usual (unless there is some sort of special clause permitting increased pay-ments for something like unexpected inflation). Also, the depreciation should be on target (unless more equipment was purchased or the depreciation budget was set before the price of the equipment was known with certainty).The volume variance is easy to explain. The Little Rock plant produced less than expected, and so there was an unused capacity cost: $4 ⨯ 120,000 hours = $480,000. The Athens plant had no unused capacity.9–22 Concluded3. It appears that the 120,000 hours of unused capacity (60,000 subassemblies)is permanent for the Little Rock plant. This plant has 10 supervisors, each making $50,000. Supervision is a step-cost driven by the number of produc-tion lines. Unused capacity of 120,000 hours means that two lines can be shut down, saving the salaries of two supervisors ($100,000 at the original salary level). The equipment for the two lines is owned. If it could be sold, then the money could be reinvested, and the depreciation charge would be reduced by20 percent (two lines shut down out of 10). There is no way to directly reducethe lease payments for the building. Perhaps the company could use the space to establish production lines for a different product. Or perhaps the space could be subleased. Another possibility is to keep the supervisors and equipment and try to fill the unused capacity with special orders orders for the subassembly below the regular selling price from a market not normally served. If the selling price is sufficient to cover the variable costs and cover at least the salaries and depreciation for the two lines, then the special order option may be a possibility. This option, however, is fraught with risks, e.g., the risk of finding enough orders to justify keeping the supervisors and equipment, the risk of alienating regular customers who pay full price, and the risk of violating price discrimination laws. Note:You may wish to point out the value of the resource usage model in answering this question (see Chapter 3).4. For each plant, the standard fixed overhead rate is $4 per direct labor hour.Since each subassembly should use two hours, the fixed overhead cost per unit is $8, regardless of where they are produced. Should they differ? Some may argue that the rate for the Little Rock plant needs to be recalculated. For example, one possibility is to use expected actual capacity, instead of prac-tical capacity. In this case, the Little Rock plant would have a fixed overhead rate of $2,400,000/480,000 hours = $5 per hour and a cost per subassembly of $10. The question is: Should the subassemblies be charged for the cost of the unused capacity? ABC suggests a negative response. Products should be charged for the resources they use, and the cost of unused capacity should be reported as a separate item—to draw management’s att ention to the need to manage this unused capacity.9–231. Normal Patient Day:Standard Standard StandardPrice Usage Cost Direct materials $10.00 8.00 lb. $ 80.00 Direct labor 16.00 2 hr. 32.00 Variable overhead 30.00 2 hr. 60.00 Fixed overhead 40.00 2 hr. 80.00 Unit cost $252.00 Cesarean Patient Day:Standard Standard StandardPrice Usage Cost Direct materials $10.00 20.00 lb. $200.00 Direct labor 16.00 4 hr. 64.00 Variable overhead 30.00 4 hr. 120.00 Fixed overhead 40.00 4 hr. 160.00 Unit cost $544.00 2. MPV = (AP – SP)AQ= ($9.50 – $10.00)172,000 = $86,000 FMUV = (AQ – SQ)SPMUV (Normal) = [30,000 – (8 ⨯ 3,500)]$10 = $20,000 UMUV (Cesarean) = [142,000 – (20 ⨯ 7,000)]$10 = $20,000 UMaterials .................................................... 1,720,000MPV ...................................................... 86,000Accounts Payable ............................... 1,634,000Work in Process ....................................... 1,680,000M UV ........................................................... 40,000Materials .............................................. 1,720,000MPV ............................................................ 86,000MUV ............................................................ 40,000Cost of Services Sold ......................... 126,0003. LRV = (AR – SR)AH= ($15.90 – $16.00)36,500 = $3,650 FLEV = (AH – SH)SRLEV (Normal) = [7,200 – (2 ⨯ 3,500)]$16 = $3,200 ULEV (Cesarean) = [29,300 – (4 ⨯ 7,000)]$16 = $20,800 UWork in Process ....................................... 560,000*LEV ............................................................. 24,000LRV ....................................................... 3,650Accrued Payroll ................................... 580,350 *[(2 ⨯ 3,500) + (4 ⨯ 7,000)] ⨯ $16 = $560,000Cost of Services Sold ............................... 20,350LRV ............................................................ 3,650LEV ....................................................... 24,0004. Variable overhead variances:Actual VOH Budgeted VOH Applied VOHFixed overhead variances:Actual FOH Budgeted FOH Applied FOHNote: SH = (2 ⨯ 3,500) + (4 ⨯ 7,000) = 35,000。

第04章 综合费用的归集与分配4.1 辅助生产费用的归集与分配（上）4.2 辅助生产费用的归集与分配（下）4.3 制造费用的归集与分配4.4 生产损失的核算4.3 制造费用的归集与分配•4.3.1 制造费用的归集•4.3.2 制造费用的分配12掌握制造费用实际分配率方法，并能够灵活运用。

学习目标了解制造费用的归集程序与方法，理解制造费用分配方法的主要分类。

3掌握制造费用预算分配率方法，并能够灵活运用。

4.3.1 制造费用的归集•制造费用是用来核算企业生产车间（部门）为生产产品和提供劳务而发生的各项间接费用。

•制造费用包括：管理人员职工薪酬；生产车间计提的折旧费；生产车间支付的办公费、水电费、生产车间发生的机物料消耗、季节性的停工损失等。

“制造费用”账户的设置•制造费用的核算需要设置“制造费用”账户。

•从经济性质来看，“制造费用”账户属于成本类；•从用途和结构来看，“制造费用”账户属于集合分配类。

“制造费用”账户的设置•该账户的借方登记实际发生的各项制造费用；•该账户的贷方登记转入“生产成本”账户借方，分配计入产品成本的制造费用；•期末在费用结转后该账户一般无余额。

•该账户应该按照不同的生产车间、部门设置明细账，账内按照费用项目设立专栏或专户进行明细分类核算。

4.3 制造费用的归集与分配•4.3.1 制造费用的归集•4.3.2 制造费用的分配是根据当月实际发生的制造费用及其分配标准，来分配制造费用的方法。

是在产品完工时一次性分配其应负担的全部制造费用的一种方法。

是以企业制造费用预算和各种产品的定额工时为标准，来分配制造费用的一种方法。

实际分配率累计分配率预算分配率制造费用的分配方法1生产工时比例法3机器工时比例法2直接工资比例法制造费用分配的实际分配率法联合分配法4生产工时比例法步骤概念应用评价生产工时比例法的概念•生产工时比例法是以各种产品的实际工时或定额工时为标准，分配制造费用的一种方法。

生产工时比例法的步骤步骤1•确定分配标准。

管理会计（高等教育出版社）于增彪（清华大学）改编余绪缨（厦门大学）审校CHAPTER 19INVENTORY MANAGEMENTQUESTIONS FOR WRITING AND DISCUSSION1.Ordering costs are the costs of placing andreceiving an order. Examples include clerical costs, documents, insurance, and unloading.2.Setup costs are the costs of preparingequipment and facilities so that they can be used for producing a product or component.Examples include wages of idled production workers, lost income, and the costs of test runs.3.Carrying costs are the costs of carrying in-ventory. Examples include insurance, taxes, handling costs, and the opportunity cost of capital tied up in inventory.4.Stockout costs are the costs of insufficientinventory (e.g., lost sales and interrupted production).5.As ordering costs decrease, fewer and larg-er orders must be placed. This, in turn, in-creases the units in inventory and, thus, in-creases carrying costs.6.Reasons for carrying inventory include thefollowing: (a) to balance setup and carrying costs; (b) to satisfy customer demand; (c) to avoid shutting down manufacturing facilities;(d) to take advantage of discounts; and (e)to hedge against future price increases.7.The economic order quantity is the amountthat should be ordered so as to minimize the sum of ordering and carrying costs.8.Reorder point = 3 12 = 36 units; Safetystock = 3(15 – 12) = 9 units9.Safety stock is simply the difference be-tween maximum demand and average de-mand, multiplied by the lead time. By reor-dering whenever the inventory level hits thesafety stock point, a company is ensured ofalways having sufficient inventory on hand tomeet demand.10.JIT minimizes carrying costs by driving in-ventories to insignificant levels. Orderingcosts are minimized by entering into long-term contracts with suppliers (or driving se-tup times to zero).11.JIT manufacturing is a demand-pull ap-proach to manufacturing. It differs from tradi-tional manufacturing by significantly reducingreliance on inventories, forming manufactur-ing cells, using interdisciplinary labor, decen-tralizing services, and adopting a philosophyof total quality control.12.Manufacturing cells are collections of ma-chines and labor dedicated to the productionof a single product or subassembly. Eachcell is capable of performing a variety of op-erations. This differs from the departmentalorganization where a collection of the samemachines is used to perform the same oper-ation on multiple products.13.By forming manufacturing cells that arededicated to a single product, all costs asso-ciated with the cell are traceable to the prod-uct. Machinery and services that formerlybelonged to several products now belongonly to a single product. For example, de-preciation, material handling, and mainten-ance become direct product costs.14.JIT hedges against future price increasesand obtains lower input prices (better usuallythan quantity discounts) by the use of long-term contractual relationships with suppliers.Suppliers are willing to give these breaks sothat they can reduce the uncertainty in thedemand for their products.15.EDI, or electronic data interchange, allowssuppliers to have access to a buyer’s dat a-base. Information on the buyer’s database isused to determine when supplies should bedelivered. When supplies arrive, their receiptis noted electronically, and payment is in-itiated. No paperwork is involved. Conti-nuous replenishment is where suppliers aregiven responsibility to replenish the buyer’sinventory stock. EDI facilitates this by provid-ing information (electronically) needed by thesupplier to make replenishment decisions. 16.Shutdowns in a JIT environment are avoidedby practicing total preventive maintenanceand total quality control and by developingclose relationships with suppliers to ensureon-time delivery of materials. Internally, aKanban system is used to ensure the timelyflow of materials and components.17.The Kanban system is used to ensure thatparts or materials are available whenneeded (just in time). The flow of materials iscontrolled through the use of markers orcards that signal production of the necessaryquantities at the necessary time.18.Constraints represent limited resources ordemand. Internal constraints are limiting fac-tors found within the firm. External con-straints are limiting factors imposed on thefirm from external sources.19.Loose constraints are those where the prod-uct mix chosen does not consume all theavailable resources. A binding constraint isone where the product mix uses all the li-mited resource.20.Following are three measures of organiza-tional performance used by the theory ofconstraints: throughput—the rate at whichan organization generates money; invento-ry—the money an organization spends inturning materials into throughput; and oper-ating expenses—the money the organiza-tion spends in turning inventories intothroughput. The objective is to maximizethroughput and minimize inventory and op-erating expenses.21.Lower inventories mean that a companymust pay attention to higher quality—it can-not afford to have production go down be-cause of defective parts or products. It alsomeans that improvements can reach thecustomer sooner. Lower inventories meanless space, less overtime, less equipment—in short, lower costs of production and, thus,lower prices are possible. Lower inventoriesalso mean (usually) shorter lead times andbetter ability then to respond to customer re-quests.22.Following are the five steps that TOC usesto improve organizational performance: (1)identify constraints, (2) exploit binding con-straints, (3) subordinate everything else todecisions made in Step 2, (4) elevate bind-ing constraints, and (5) repeat process.23.The drum is the binding constraint that setsthe production rate in the factory. The ropesimply means that the release of materials tothe first process is tied to the rate of thedrummer constraint. The buffer is an amountof inventory placed in front of the drummerprocess to protect throughput.EXERCISES19–11. Annual ordering cost = PD/Q= $500 ⨯ 96,000/6,000= $8,0002. Annual carrying cost = CQ/2= $6 ⨯ 6,000/2= $18,0003. Cost of current inventory policy = Ordering cost + Carrying cost= $8,000 + $18,000= $26,00019–21. EOQ = 2PD/C= 96,000)/6500⨯(2⨯= 16,000,000= 4,0002. Ordering cost = PD/Q= $500 ⨯ 96,000/4,000= $12,000Carrying cost = CQ/2= $6 ⨯ 4,000/2= $12,000Total cost = $6,000 + $6,000= $24,0003. Savings = $26,000 – $24,000 = $2,0001. EOQ = 2PD/C= /0.10⨯(2⨯1,440,000)45= 0001,296,000,= 36,0002. Carrying cost = CQ/2= $0.10 ⨯ 36,000/2= $1,800Ordering cost = PD/Q= $45 ⨯ 1,440,000/36,000= $1,80019–41. Reorder point = Average rate of usage ⨯ Lead time= 8,000 ⨯ 3= 24,000 pounds2. Maximum usage 12,000Average usage 8,000Difference 4,000Lead time ⨯ 3Safety stock 12,000Reorder point = (Average rate of usage ⨯ Lead time) + Safety stock= (8,000 ⨯ 3) + 12,000= 36,000 pounds1. EOQ = 2PD/C= 324,000)/2⨯4,000(2⨯= 000= 36,000 (batch size for lawn mower engines) 2. Setup cost = PD/Q= $4,000 ⨯ 324,000/36,000= $36,000Carrying cost = CQ/2= $2 ⨯ 36,000/2= $36,000Total cost = $72,000 ($36,000 + $36,000)3. ROP = Average daily sales ⨯ Lead timeROP = 1,296 ⨯ 11 = 14,256 lawn mower engines4. EOQ = 2PD/C= 750,000)/3⨯7,200(2⨯= 0003,600,000,= 60,000 (batch size for jet ski engines) Setup cost = $7,200 ⨯ 750,000/60,000= $90,000Carrying cost = $3 ⨯ 60,000/2= $90,000Total cost = $180,000 ($90,000 + $90,000)ROP = 1,500 ⨯ 12 = 18,000 jet ski engines19–5 Concluded5. Lawn mowers require 9 batches per year (324,000/36,000). Jet ski engines re-quire 12.5 batches per year (750,000/60,000). The lead time for the lawn mow-er engines is 11 days and that of the jet ski engines is 12 days. Thus, the total work days needed to produce the annual demand is 249 [(11 ⨯9) + (12 ⨯12.5)]. Since there are 250 work days available each year, it is possible tomeet the annual demand. Given the initial inventory levels of each product, the daily and annual demand, and the lead times, Shields must build a sche-dule that coordinates production, inventory usage, and sales. This is a push system because production and inventory use anticipated demand rather than current demand.19–61. EOQ = 1,000)/2⨯(2⨯324,000= 0324,000,00= 18,000 lawn mower enginesEOQ = 100)/2⨯(2⨯324,000= 32,400,000≈ 5,692 lawn mower engines2. The batch size decreases as the setup time and cost decrease. If the setuptime is 0.05 day (about 1 hour), then the firm can produce 4,000 ⨯ 0.95 = 3,800 units per day, sufficient to meet the combined daily demand for the two en-gines. This implies the ability to produce on demand and eliminates the need to carry finished goods inventory, a JIT objective.19–7Maximum daily usage 1,750Average daily usage 1,500Difference 250Lead time ⨯ 5Safety stock 1,250Reorder point = (Average rate of usage ⨯ Lead time) + Safety stock= (1,500 ⨯ 5) + 1,250= 8,750 units1. a. JIT does not accept setup (or ordering) costs as a given; rather, JIT at-tempts to drive these costs to zero through reducing the time it takes to set up and by developing long-term contracts with suppliers. Carrying costs are minimized by reducing inventories to insignificant levels.b. JIT reduces lead times, which increases a firm’s ability to meet requesteddelivery dates. This is accomplished by (1) reduction of setup times, (2) improved quality, and (3) cellular manufacturing.c. The problems that usually cause shutdowns are (1) machine failure, (2) de-fective material or subassembly, and (3) unavailability of a material or subassembly, or (4) late delivery of parts. JIT attempts to solve each of the four problems by emphasizing total preventive maintenance and total quality control (strives for zero defects) and building the right kind of rela-tionship with suppliers.d. Unreliable production processes are addressed by total quality man-agement. As fewer and fewer defective units are produced, there is less and less need for inventory to replace nonconforming units.e. The objective of taking advantage of discounts is to lower the cost of in-ventory. JIT accomplishes the same objective by negotiating long-term contracts with a few chosen suppliers and establishing more extensive supplier involvement.f. JIT emphasizes long-term contracts that stipulate prices and acceptablequality levels.2. JIT has the policy of stopping production if a problem is detected so that theproblem can be corrected (of course, the problem may also cause production to stop, independent of a policy or practice of stopping so that the source of the problem can be corrected). Since JIT produces on demand, any interrup-tion of production means that throughput is lost. TOC uses a time buffer lo-cated in front of the binding constraint to protect throughput. The time buffer is designed to keep the constrained resource busy for a specified period of time, a time long enough to overcome most disruptions in production.1. The withdrawal Kanban controls movement of work among the manufactur-ing processes. It specifies the quantity that a subsequent process should withdraw from the preceding process.2. The production Kanban also controls movement of work among the manufac-turing processes. It specifies the quantity that the preceding process should produce.3. The vendor Kanban controls movement of parts between the processes andoutside suppliers. It is used to notify suppliers to deliver more parts.19–10The phrase ―implementing JIT‖ conveys to many the notion that one day a co m-pany is conventional and the next day it is JIT with all of the benefits that are typ-ically assigned to JIT. In reality, changing to a JIT environment takes time and pa-tience. It is more of an evolutionary process than a revolutionary process. It takes time to build a ―partners-in-profits‖ relationship with su ppliers. Many firms at-tempt to force the JIT practices with suppliers by dictating terms, but this ap-proach really runs counter to the notion of developing close relationships, some-thing that is vital for the JIT purchasing side to work. There must be trust and mutual benefits, not unilateral benefits, for JIT purchasing to become a success. Also, management should be aware of the disequilibrium that workers may expe-rience with JIT. Many workers may view JIT methodology as simply a way of ex-tracting more and more work out of them with no compensating benefits. Others may see JIT as a threat to their job security as the nonvalue-added activities they perform are eliminated or reduced. Furthermore, management should be ready and willing to place some current sales at risk with the hope of ensuring stronger future sales, or with the hope of reducing inventory and operating costs to im-prove overall profitability. How else can you justify lost sales due to production stoppages that are designed to improve quality and efficiency?1. e2. a3. d4. e5. c19–121. Before JIT unit cost: $247,100/100,000 = $2.471After JIT unit cost: $232,100/100,000 = $2.321JIT costing is more accurate because there are more costs that are traceable to each product.2. Direct materials: DirectDirect labor: DirectMaintenance: DirectPower: DirectDepreciation: Direct (on cell equipment)Material handling: DirectEngineering: Driver tracingSetups: DirectBuilding and grounds: Allocated (driver tracing using square feet for the building costs may be a reasonable possibility)Supplies: DirectSupervision (plant): AllocatedCell supervision: Direct19–131. Type I Type II Type IIIPrice $40.00 $60.00 $75.00 Variable cost 20.00 44.00 34.00 Contribution margin $20.00 $16.00 $41.00 ÷ Machine hours ÷0.50 ÷0.20 ÷1.50 Contribution margin per machine hour $40.00 $80.00 $27.33 The company should sell only the Type II rod with contribution margin per machine hour of $80. Lavel can produce 100,000 (30,000/0.2) Type II rods per year. These 100,000 units, multiplied by the $16 contribution margin per unit, would yield a total contribution margin of $1,600,000.2. Produce and sell 75,000 Type II rods, which would use 15,000 machine hours.Then, produce and sell 10,000 Type I rods, which would use the remaining 5,000 machine hours.Total contribution margin = ($16 ⨯ 75,000) + ($20 ⨯ 10,000)= $1,400,00019–141. The production rate is 600 regular bows per day and 200 deluxe bows perday. The rate is set by the molding process. It is the drummer process since it is the only one with a buffer inventory in front of it.2. Goicoechea has 0.5 day of buffer inventory (400 bows/800 bows per day).This time buffer is determined by how long it takes the plant to correct prob-lems that create production interruptions.3. A is the rope, B is the time buffer, and C is the drummer constraint. The ropeties the production rate of the drummer constraint to the release of raw mate-rials to the first process. The time buffer is used to protect throughput. Suffi-cient inventory is needed to keep the bottleneck operating if the first process goes down. The drummer sets the production rate.PROBLEMS 19–151. Ordering cost = PD/Q= $40 ⨯ 14,000/400= $1,400Carrying cost = CQ/2= $1.75* ⨯ 400/2= $350*10 percent of purchase price or 0.10 ⨯ $17.50 Total cost = $1,400 + $350 = $1,7502. EOQ = 2PD/C= 75/),(⨯⨯402.000114= 000640,= 800Ordering cost = PD/Q= $40 ⨯ 14,000/800= $700Carrying cost = CQ/2= $1.75 ⨯ 800/2= $700Total cost = $700 + $700 = $1,400Savings = $1,750 – $1,400 = $35019–15 Concluded3. Rate of usage = 7 ⨯ 50 = 350 days= 14,000/350 = 40 blocks per dayReorder point = Average rate of usage ⨯ Lead time= 40 ⨯ 5= 200This coincides with the current reorder policy.4. The order quantity would have to be 600 instead of 800 (the EOQ). If so, thefollowing inventory costs would be incurred:Ordering cost = $40 ⨯ 14,000/600= $933Carrying cost = $1.75 ⨯ 600/2= $525Total cost = $933 + $525= $1,458This restriction would mean an additional cost of only $58 ($1,458 – $1,400) over the cost of using the EOQ.5. The most cheese that should be kept on hand given the 10-day constraint is400 blocks (40 ⨯10). Reorder would occur when inventory dropped to 200 units.1. EOQ = 2PD/C= 65,/)⨯2.(⨯3903007= 000360,= 600Reorder point = Average rate of usage ⨯ Lead time= 20 ⨯ 4= 80Ordering cost = PD/Q= $90 ⨯ 7,300/600= $1,095Carrying cost = CQ/2= $3.65 ⨯ 600/2= $1,095Total cost = $1,095 + $1,095= $2,1902. Maximum usage 30Average usage 20Difference 10Lead time ⨯ 4Safety stock 40Ordering cost = PD/Q= $90 ⨯ 7,300/600= $1,095Carrying cost = CQ/2= $3.65 ⨯ [(40 + 600)/2]= $1,168Total cost = $1,095 + $1,168= $2,263New reorder point = (Average usage ⨯ Lead time) + Safety stock= (20 ⨯ 4) + 40= 1201. EOQ = 2PD/C= 3,⨯,(⨯6000360002/)= 000000,144,= 12,000 (batch size)Geneva’s response was correct given its current production environment.The setup time is two working days. The production rate possible is 750 units per day after setup. Thus, the time required to produce the additional 9,000 units would be 14 working days [2 + (9,000/750)].2. To have met the order’s requirements, Geneva could have produced 3,750units within the 7-work-day window [(7 – 2)750] and would have needed 8,250 units in stock—5,250 more than available. Solving delivery problems like the one described would likely require much more inventory than is currently car-ried. If the maximum demand is predictable, then safety stock could be used.The demand can be as much as 9,000 units per year above the expected de-mand. If it is common for all of this extra demand to occur from one or a few large orders, then protecting against lost sales could demand a sizable in-crease in inventory, an approach that could be quite costly. Perhaps some safety stock with expediting and overtime would be more practical. Or, per-haps Geneva should explore alternative inventory management approaches such as those associated with JIT or TOC.3. EOQ = 2PD/C= 3(⨯,⨯362/)00094= 000,2562,≈ 1,502 (batch size)The new lead time = (1.5 hours) + [(1,502/2,000) ⨯ 8 hours]≈ 7.5 hours, or about one work day19–17 ConcludedAt a production rate of 2,000 units per day, Geneva could have satisfied the customer’s time requirements in less than seven days, even without any f i-nished goods inventory. This illustrates very forcefully that inventory may not be the solution to meeting customer needs or dealing with demand uncertain-ty. Perhaps paying attention to setup, moving, and waiting activities offers more benefits. JIT tends to produce smaller batches and shorter cycle times than conventional manufacturing environments. As the EOQ batch size com-putation revealed, by focusing on improving the way production is done, the batch size could be reduced to about 12.5 percent of what it was before the improvements.4. EOQ = 2PD/C= 3(⨯⨯2/),1000036= 000240,≈ 490 (batch size)This further reduction in setup time and cost reduces the batch size even more. As the setup time is reduced to even lower levels and the cost is re-duced, the batch size becomes even smaller.If the cost is $0.864, the batch size is 144:EOQ = 2PD/C= 3,2/)(⨯⨯.00036864= 73620,= 144 (batch size)Furthermore, with the ability to produce 2,000 units per day or 250 units per hour, the day’s demand (36,000/250 = 144) can b e produced in less than an hour. This provides the ability to produce on demand. The key to this out-come was the decrease in setup time and the reduction of wait and move time—all nonvalue-added activities. This illustrates what is meant by refer-ring to inventory management as an ancillary benefit of JIT.19–181. a. The expected demand for the RJ47 battery during the lead time is calcu-lated as the sum of the demand during the lead time times the demand probability for all demand points:Expected demand = (100 ⨯ 0.03) + (200 ⨯ 0.05) + (300 ⨯ 0.20) + (400 ⨯ 0.40)+ (500 ⨯ 0.25) + (600 ⨯ 0.07)= 400b. The reorder point to minimize stockouts would be the maximum demandduring lead time, or 600 units.2. The probability of a stockout at a special reorder point is the sum of theprobabilities for demand greater than the reorder point of 400 units: Probability of 500 units 0.25Probability of 600 units 0.07Total 0.3219–191. KEVCO can expect the following effects:Planning:∙Production planning will change from a centralized batch function process to a more decentralized activity. In some cases, production teams will be responsible for the entire production process of a product.∙The method and timing of how the company prepares its production sche-dules (including capacity requirements) will change to parallel the demand pull approach as opposed to the push approach.∙The Purchasing Department will need production to have high-quality, reli-able, and flexible suppliers who can quickly deliver orders of varying sizes as needed.19–19 ConcludedOperations:∙Setup time changes will reduce lead times significantly.∙ A Kanban system will need to be implemented. A triggering device such asa Kanban card is necessary so that the department or cell knows when tobegin production.∙Greater employee participation will result from cell production team ar-rangements.2. At least five benefits:∙Less rework and fewer defective units because of cell-level accountability and control and product solving at the cell level.∙ A lower cash investment in inventory and plant space. Handling, storage, insurance, breakage, and obsolescence will all be lower.∙More satisfied customers should result because of shorter lead times and higher quality.∙Improved labor productivity as a result of rearranging the production process and the creation of manufacturing cell teams.∙ A reduction of the number of suppliers leading to improved relationships and communication.∙More accurate product costing because direct tracing increases.3. Behavioral effects:∙Higher team morale and motivation, since each cell team is responsible for all cell production and will, therefore, have more control over its work and an increased sense of ownership.∙Higher individual satisfaction, development, and motivation, as manage-ment will encourage participation, training, and input on how to improve the product and production process.∙ A possible resistance to change by those employees who may feel inse-cure or threatened by the change.∙ A sense of partnership with management in achieving the goals and objec-tives of the organization resulting in goal congruence.1. The entire Kanban cycle begins with the need to produce a final product—aproduct demanded by a customer. The demand for a product to be assembled is known from the production schedule. Assume that a final product is needed. The withdrawal Kanban controls movement of work between the as-sembly process and the manufacturing processes. It specifies the quantity that a subsequent process should withdraw from the preceding process. The assembly process uses withdrawal Kanbans to notify the first process that more subassemblies are needed. This is done by having an assembly worker remove the withdrawal Kanban from the container in the withdrawal store and place it on the withdrawal post. This W-Kanban signals that the assembly process is using one unit of Subassembly A and that a replacement for it is needed. The replacement activity is initiated by a carrier who removes the production Kanban from the container of subassemblies in the SB stores area and places this P-Kanban on the production post. The container in the SB stores area is then moved to the withdrawal stores area with the W-Kanban attached (taken from the withdrawal post). The production Kanban tells the workers in the Subassembly A cell to begin producing another unit.The production Kanban is removed and goes with the unit produced (which goes to the SB stores area). This Kanban system ensures that the second process withdraws subassemblies from the first process in the necessary quantity at the necessary time. The Kanban system also controls the first process by allowing it to produce only the quantities withdrawn by the second process. In this way, inventories are kept at a minimum, and the components arrive just in time to be used.2. The second process uses a vendor Kanban to signal the supplier that anotherorder is needed. The process is similar to the internal flow described in Re-quirement 1. However, for the process to work with suppliers, the suppliers must be willing to make frequent and small deliveries. It also means that the supply activity works best if the supplier is located in close proximity to the buyer. The subassemblies must be delivered just in time for use. This calls for a close working relationship with the supplier. The inventory function on the materials side is largely assumed by the supplier. To bear this cost, there must be some compensating benefits for the supplier. Long-term contracts and the reduction of demand uncertainty are significant benefits for the sup-plier. EDI can facilitate the entire arrangement. If the supplier has access to the buyer’s on-line database, then the supplier can use the buyer’s produ c-tion schedule to determine its own production and delivery schedule, making it easier to deliver parts just in time. In effect, the supplier and buyer almost operate as one company.1. ImmuneBoost: CM per machine hour = ($4.00 – $2.40)/1.60= $1.00MentaGrowth: CM per machine hour = ($4.80 – $3.60)/0.80= $1.50Since MentaGrowth provides the greatest contribution per machine hour, the company should produce 800,000 bottles of MentaGrowth (640,000/0.8) and zero bottles of ImmuneBoost. The total contribution margin is 800,000 ⨯ $1.50 = $1,200,000.2. First, the company should produce 480,000 bottles of MentaGrowth. Thisuses up 384,000 machine hours (480,000 ⨯ 0.8). The remaining hours can then be used to produce 160,000 bottles of ImmuneBoost (256,000/1.6). Thus, the optimal mix is 160,000 bottles of ImmuneBoost and 480,000 bottles of Menta-Growth. The maximum total contribution margin is $832,000 [($1.60 ⨯ 160,000) + ($1.20 ⨯ 480,000)].19–221. Dept. B Dept. C TotalC omponent 12-L (1,000 units)Test hours a2,000 3,000 3,000 8,000 Machine hours b1,000 1,000 2,000 4,000C omponent 14-M (800 units)Test hours c800 1,600 —2,400 Machine hours d800 800 —1,600 Component 40-S (2,000 units)Test hours e4,000 4,000 4,000 12,000 Machine hours f4,000 4,000 2,000 10,000 Total test hours 6,800 8,600 7,000 22,400 Total machine hours 5,800 5,800 4,000 15,600 a2 ⨯ 1,000; 3 ⨯ 1,000; 3 ⨯ 1,000 d1 ⨯ 800; 1 ⨯ 800b1 ⨯ 1,000; 1 ⨯ 1,000; 2 ⨯ 1,000 e2 ⨯ 2,000; 2 ⨯ 2,000; 2 ⨯ 2,000c1 ⨯ 800; 2 ⨯ 800 f2 ⨯ 2,000; 2 ⨯ 2,000; 1 ⨯ 2,000The demand can be met in all departments except for Department C. Produc-tion requires 7,000 test hours in Department C, but only 5,500 hours are avail-able.。

ACCA考试回顾，《F2管理会计》讲义辅导(33)本文由高顿ACCA整理发布，转载请注明出处8.2 Losses in process costingNormal loss is the amount of loss expected from the operation of a process. This expectation is based on past experience, and this loss is considered to be unavoidable.Abnormal loss is then extra loss resulting when actual loss is greater than normal or expected loss, and it is given a cost.Abnormal gain is the gain resulting when actual loss is less than the normal or expected loss, and its is given a “negative cost”。

Example 1Input to a process is 1000 units at a cost of $4500Normal loss is 10%There is no opening or closing stocks（1）output = 860 units（2）output = 920 unitsSolution:（1）output = 860 unitsStep 1: determine output and lossesunitsActual Loss 1000 units-860 units140Normal Loss 1000 units x 10%100Abnormal loss40Step 2: calculate cost per unit of output and lossesCost incurred =$4,500 = $5 per unitExpected output1000 units x 90%The cost per unit of output and the cost per units of abnormal loss are based on expected output.Step 3: calculate total cost of output and lossesCalculate total cost of output and losses; normal loss is not assigned any cost.Simply, total cost of output = total cost of input$Cost of output 860 units x $54,300Normal loss 0Abnormal loss 40 units x $5200Total cost4500Step 4: complete accountsProcess accountUnit$Unit$Cost incurred10004500Normal loss100Output（finished goods a/c）860 x $54300Abnormal loss40 x $520010004500Abnormal loss accountUnit$Unit$Process account40200Profit/loss account4020040200402002012年ACCA考试《F2管理会计》讲义辅导（33）（2）output = 920 unitsStep 1: determine output and losses$Actual loss 1000 units – 920 units80Normal loss 1000 units x 10% 100 Abnormal gain20Step 2: calculate cost per unit of output and lossesCosts incurred = $4,500 = $5 per unit Expected output900 unitsStep 3: calculate total cost of output and losses $Cost of output 920 units x $54600 Normal loss 0Less: abnormal gain 20 units x $5（100）Total cost4500Step 4: complete accountsProcess accountUnit$Unit$Cost incurred10004500Normal loss100Abnormal gain20 x $5100Output（finished goods a/c）920 x $546001000460010004600Abnormal gain accountUnit$Unit$Profit/loss account20100Process account201002010020100Example 2:Period 1: costs of input to a process = $29070 Inputs = 1000 unitsOutputs = 850 unitsNormal loss = 10%Period 2: costs of input = $29070Inputs = 1000 unitsOutput = 950 unitsThere are no units of opening or closing inventory Solution:Step 1: determine output and lossesPeriod 1:UnitsInput1000Actual output850Actual loss150Normal loss100 1000 units x 10% Abnormal loss50Period 2:UnitsInput1000Actual output950Actual loss50Normal loss100 1000 units x 10% Abnormal gain50Step 2: calculate cost per unit of output and losses Cost incurred = $29,070 = $32.30 per unit Expected output900 unitsStep 3: calculate total cost of output and losses Period 1:$Cost of output 850 units x $32.5027455Normal loss0Abnormal loss 50 units x $32.301615Total cost29070Period 2:$Cost of output 950 units x $32.3030685 Normal loss0Less: Abnormal gain 50 units x $32.30 （1615）Total cost29070 Process accountUnit$Unit$Period 1Normal loss100Cost of input100029070Output（finished goods a/c）850 x $32.3027455Abnormal loss50 x $32.301615100029070100029070Unit$Unit$Period 2Normal loss100Cost of input100029070Output（finished goods a/c）950 x $32.3030685Abnormal gain50 x $32.301615105030685105030685Abnormal loss or gain account Unit$Unit$Abnormal loss1615Abnormal gain161516151615更多ACCA资讯请关注高顿ACCA官网：当我被上帝造出来时，上帝问我想在人间当一个怎样的人，我不假思索的说，我要做一个伟大的世人皆知的人。

管理会计（高等教育出版社）于增彪（清华大学）改编余绪缨（厦门大学）审校CHAPTER 18CAPITAL INVESTMENT DECISIONSQUESTIONS FOR WRITING AND DISCUSSION1.Independent projects are such that the ac-ceptance of one does not preclude the ac-ceptance of another. With mutually exclusive projects, acceptance of one precludes the acceptance of others.2.The timing and quantity of cash flows deter-mine the present value of a project. The present value is critical for assessing wheth-er a project is acceptable or not.3.By ignoring the time value of money, goodprojects can be rejected and bad projects accepted.4.The payback period is the time required torecover the initial investment. Payback = $80,000/$30,000 = 2.67 years5.(a) A measure of risk. Roughly, projects withshorter paybacks are less risky. (b) Obso-lescence. If the risk of obsolescence is high, firms will want to recover funds quickly. (c) Self-interest. Managers want quick paybacks so that short-run performance measures are affected positively, enhancing chances for bonuses and promotion.6.The accounting rate of return is the averageincome divided by original or average in-vestment. ARR = $100,000/$300,000 =33.33%7.Agree. Essentially, net present value is ameasure of the return in excess of the in-vestment and its cost of capital.8.NPV measures the increase in firm valuefrom a project.9.The cost of capital is the cost of investmentfunds and is usually viewed as the weightedaverage of the costs of funds from allsources. It should serve as the discount ratefor calculating net present value or thebenchmark for IRR analysis.10.For NPV, the required rate of return is thediscount rate. For IRR, the required rate ofreturn is the benchmark against which theIRR is compared to determine whether aninvestment is acceptable or not.11.If NPV > 0, then the investment is accepta-ble. If NPV < 0, then the investment shouldbe rejected.12.Disagree. Only if the funds received eachperiod from the investment are reinvested toearn the IRR will the IRR be the actual rateof return.13.Postaudits help managers determine if re-sources are being used wisely. Additionalresources or corrective action may beneeded. Postaudits also serve to encouragemanagers to make good capital investmentdecisions. They also provide feedback thatmay help improve future decisions.14.NPV signals which investment maximizesfirm value; IRR may provide misleading sig-nals. IRR may be popular because it pro-vides the correct signal most of the time andmanagers are accustomed to working withrates of return.15.Often, investments must be made in assetsthat do not directly produce revenues. In thiscase, choosing the asset with the least cost(as measured by NPV) makes sense.16.NPV analysis is only as good as the accura-cy of the cash flows. If projections of cashflows are not accurate, then incorrect in-vestment decisions may be made.17.The quality and reliability of the cash flowprojections are directly related to the as-sumptions and methods used for forecast-ing. If the assumptions and methods arefaulty, then the forecasts will be wrong, andincorrect decisions may be made.18.The principal tax implications that should beconsidered in Year 0 are gains and losseson the sale of existing assets.19.The MACRS method provides more shiel-ding effect in earlier years than the straight-line method does. As a consequence, thepresent value of the shielding benefit isgreater for the MACRS method. 20.The half-year convention assumes that anasset is in service for only a half year in theyear of acquisition. Thus, only half of the firstyear’s depreciation can be claimed, regar d-less of the date on which use of the assetactually began. It increases the length oftime depreciation is recognized by one yearover the indicated class life.21.Intangible and indirect benefits are of muchgreater importance in the advanced manu-facturing environment. Greater quality, morereliability, improved delivery, and the abilityto maintain or increase market share areexamples of intangible benefits. Reduction insupport labor in such areas as schedulingand stores are indirect benefits.22.Sensitivity analysis changes the assump-tions on which the capital investment analy-sis is based. Even with sound assumptions,there is still the element of uncertainty. Noone can predict the future with certainty. Bychanging the assumptions, managers cangain insight into the effects of uncertain fu-ture events.EXERCISES 18–11. c2. e3. e4. a5. b6. e7. c8. d18–21. Payback period = $480,000/$144,000 = 3.33 years2. F = (1.05)3($128,000) = $148,1763. NPV = P – I= (5.650 ⨯ $208,000) – $1,088,000= $87,200The system should be purchased.4. df = Investment/Annual cash flow= $200,000/$32,200 = 6.21118IRR ≈ 6%The decision is neither good nor bad. The outcome just covers the cost of capital.1. Payback period = Original investment/Annual cash inflow= $1,680,000/($2,730,000 – $2,100,000)= $1,680,000/$630,000= 2.67 years2. a. Initial investment (Average depreciation = $336,000):Accounting rate of return = Average accounting income/Investment= ($630,000 – $336,000)/$1,680,000= 17.5%b. Average investment:Accounting rate of return = ($630,000 – $336,000)/[($1,680,000 + $0)/2]= $294,000/$840,000= 35%3. Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(1,680,000) 1.000 $ (1,680,000)1 630,000 0.909 572,6702 630,000 0.826 520,3803 630,000 0.751 473,1304 630,000 0.683 430,2905 630,000 0.621 391,230NPV $ 707,700 4. P = CF(df) = I for the IRR, thus,df = Investment/Annual cash flow= $1,680,000/$630,000= 2.67For five years and a discount factor of 2.67, the IRR is between 24% and 26%.1. Payback period:Project A:$ 18,000 1.00 year24,000 1.00 year18,000 0.60 year$ 60,000 2.60 yearsProject B:$ 18,000 1.00 year24,000 1.00 year18,000 0.50 year$ 60,000 2.50 yearsBoth projects have about the same payback so the most profitable should be chosen (ProjectA).2. Accounting rate of return (ARR):Project A: ARR = ($38,400 – $12,000)/$60,000 = 44%Project B: ARR = ($22,800 – $12,000)/$60,000 = 18%Project A should be chosen.3. P = 9.818 ⨯ $48,000 = $471,264Eileen should take the annuity.4. NPV = P – I= (4.623 ⨯ $9,000) – $30,000 = $11,607Yes, he should make the investment.5. df = $391,200/$75,000 = 5.216IRR = 14%Yes, the equipment should be acquired.1. X-Ray Equipment:YearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $ (500,000)1 300,000 0.893 267,9002 150,000 0.797 119,5503 200,000 0.712 142,4004 100,000 0.636 63,6005 50,000 0.567 28,350NPV $ 121,800Blood Analysis Equipment:YearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $ (500,000)1 50,000 0.893 44,6502 50,000 0.797 39,8503 300,000 0.712 213,6004 400,000 0.636 254,4005 450,000 0.567 255,150NPV $ 307,6502. X-Ray Equipment:Payback period = $ 300,000 1.00 year150,000 1.00 year50,000 0.25 year2.25 yearsBlood Analysis Equipment:Payback period = $ 50,000 1.00 year50,000 1.00 year300,000 1.00 year0.25 year$ 500,000 3.25 yearsThis might be a reasonable strategy because payback is a rough measure of risk. The as-sumption is that the longer it takes a project to pay for itself, the riskier the project is. Also, the firm might have liquidity problems, the cash flows might be risky, or there might be a high risk of obsolescence.18–5 Concluded3. X-Ray Equipment:a. Initial investment:Average cash flow = ($300,000 + $150,000 + $200,000 + $100,000 + $50,000)/5= $160,000Average depreciation = $500,000/5 = $100,000Average net income = $160,000 – $100,000= $60,000Accounting rate of return = Average accounting income/Investment= $60,000/$500,000= 12%b. Average investment:Accounting rate of return = $60,000/($500,000/2)= $60,000/$250,000= 24%Blood Analysis Equipment:a. Initial investment:Average cash flow = ($50,000 + $50,000 + $300,000 + $400,000 + $450,000)/5= $250,000Accounting rate of return = ($250,000 – $100,000)/$500,000= $150,000/$500,000= 30%b. Average investment:Accounting rate of return = $150,000/($500,000/2)= $150,000/$250,000= 60%1. a. Return of the original investment $8,000,000b. Cost of capital ($8,000,000 ⨯ 10%) 800,000c. Profit earned on the investment($9,240,000 – $8,800,000) 440,000Present value of profit:P = F ⨯ Discount factor= $440,000 ⨯ 0.909= $399,9602. Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(8,000,000) 1.000 $ (8,000,000)1 9,240,000 0.909 8,399,160Net present value $ 399,160Net present value gives the present value of future profits (the slight difference is due to rounding error in the discount factor).18–71. Bond cost = $6,000/$120,000 = 0.05Cost of capital = 0.05(0.6) + 0.175(0.4)= 0.03 + 0.07= 0.102. YearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(200,000) 1.000 $ (200,000)1 100,000 0.909 90,9002 100,000 0.826 82,6003 100,000 0.751 75,100Net present value $ 48,600It is not necessary to subtract the interest payments and the dividend payments because the se are associated with the cost of capital and are included in the firm’s cost of capital of 10 percent.1. P = I = df ⨯ CF2.914* ⨯ CF = $120,000CF = $41,181*From Exhibit 18B-2, 14 percent for four years2. For IRR (discount factors from Exhibit 18B-2):I = df ⨯ CF= 2.402 ⨯ CF (1)For NPV:NPV = df ⨯ CF – I= 2.577 ⨯ CF – I (2)Substituting equation (1) into equation (2):NPV = (2.577 ⨯ CF) – (2.402 ⨯ CF)$1,750 = 0.175 ⨯ CFCF = $1,750/0.175= $10,000 in savings each yearSubstituting CF = $10,000 into equation (1):I = 2.402 ⨯ $10,000= $24,020 original investment3. For IRR:I = df ⨯ CF$60,096 = df ⨯ $12,000df = $60,096/$12,000= 5.008From Exhibit 18B-2, 18 percent column, the year corresponding to df = 5.008 is 14. Thus, the lathe must last 14 years.18–8 Concluded4. X = Cash flow in Year 4Investment = 2XYearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $ (2X) 1.000 $ (2X)1 10,000 0.909 9,0902 12,000 0.826 9,9123 15,000 0.751 11,2654 X 0.683 0.683XNPV $ 3,927–2X + $9,090 + $9,912 + $11,265 + 0.683X = $3,927–1.317X + $30,267 = $3,927–1.317X = ($26,340)X = $20,000Cash flow in Year 4 = X = $20,000Cost of project = 2X = $40,0001. NPV:Project IYearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(100,000) 1.000 $(100,000)1 ———2 134,560 0.826 111,147NPV $ 11,147Project IIYearCash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(100,000) 1.000 $(100,000)1 63,857 0.909 58,0462 63,857 0.826 52,746NPV $ 10,792Project I should be chosen using NPV.IRR:Project II = df CF$100,000 = $134,560/(1 + i)2(1 + i)2= $134,560/$100,000= 1.34561 + I = 1.16IRR = 16%Project IIdf = I/CF= $100,000/$63,857= 1.566From Exhibit 18B-2, IRR = 18 percent.Project II should be chosen using IRR.2. NPV is an absolute profitability measure and reveals how much the value of the firm willchange for each project; IRR gives a measure of relative profitability. Thus, since NPV reveals the total wealth change attributable to each project, it is preferred to the IRR measure.Project A:CF = NI + Noncash expenses= $36,000 + $30,000= $66,000Project B:CF = –[(1 – t) ⨯ Cash expenses] + [t ⨯ Noncash expenses]= –(0.6 ⨯ $60,000) + (0.4 ⨯ $10,000)= –$32,00018–111. YearDepreciation tNC df Present Value1 $2,000 $ 800 0.893 $ 7142 4,000 1,600 0.797 1,2753 4,000 1,600 0.712 1,1394 2,000 800 0.636 509NPV $3,6372. YearDepreciation tNC df Present Value1 $4,000 $1,600 0.893 $1,4292 5,334 2,134 0.797 1,7013 1,777 711 0.712 5064 889 356 0.636 226NPV $3,8623. MACRS increases the present value of tax shielding by increasing the amount of depreciationin the earlier years.Purchase (assumes MACRS depreciation):Year (1 – t)C tNC CF df P0 ——$(30,000) 1.000 $(30,000)1 $(3,000)a$2,400b(600) 0.909 (545)2 (3,000) 3,840c840 0.826 6943 (3,000) 2,304d(696) 0.751 (523)4 (3,000) 1,382e(1,618) 0.683 (1,105)5 (3,000) 1,382e(1,618) 0.621 (1,005) NPV $(32,484)a$5,000 ⨯ 0.6b$30,000 ⨯ 0.2 ⨯ 0.4c$30,000 ⨯ 0.32 ⨯ 0.4d$30,000 ⨯ 0.192 ⨯ 0.4e$30,000 ⨯ 0.1152 ⨯ 0.4Lease:Year (1 – t)C CF df P0 $(1,000) 1.000 $ (1,000)1–5 $(7,500)* (7,500) 3.791 (28,433)5 1,000 0.621 621NPV $ (28,812)*$12,500 ⨯ 0.6The car should be leased because leasing has a lower cost.1. Standard equipment (Rate = 18%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $(500,000)1 300,000 0.847 254,1002 200,000 0.718 143,6003–10 100,000 2.928 292,800 NPV $ 190,500CAM equipment (Rate = 18%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(2,000,000) 1.000 $(2,000,000)1 100,000 0.847 84,7002 200,000 0.718 143,6003 300,000 0.609 182,7004–6 400,000 1.323 529,2007 500,000 0.314 157,0008–10 1,000,000 0.682 682,000 NPV $ (220,800)2. Standard equipment (Rate = 10%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $(500,000)1 300,000 0.909 272,7002 200,000 0.826 165,2003–10 100,000 4.409 440,900 NPV $ 378,800CAM equipment (Rate = 10%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(2,000,000) 1.000 $(2,000,000)1 100,000 0.909 90,9002 200,000 0.826 165,2003 300,000 0.751 225,3004–6 400,000 1.868 747,2007 500,000 0.513 256,5008–10 1,000,000 1.277 1,277,000 NPV $ 762,10018–13 Concluded3. Notice how the cash flows using a 10 percent rate in Years 8–10 are weighted compared tothe 18 percent rate. The difference in present value is significant. Using an excessive dis-count rate works against those projects that promise large cash flows later in their lives. The best course of action for a firm is to use its cost of capital as the discount rate. Otherwise, some very attractive and essential investments could be overlooked.18–141. Standard equipment (Rate = 14%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $(500,000)1 300,000 0.877 263,1002 200,000 0.769 153,8003–10 100,000 3.571 357,100NPV $ 274,000CAM equipment (Rate = 14%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(2,000,000) 1.000 $(2,000,000)1 100,000 0.877 87,7002 200,000 0.769 153,8003 300,000 0.675 202,5004–6 400,000 1.567 626,8007 500,000 0.400 200,0008–10 1,000,000 0.929 929,000NPV $ 199,8002. Standard equipment (Rate = 14%):Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(500,000) 1.000 $(500,000)1 300,000 0.877 263,1002 200,000 0.769 153,8003–10 50,000 3.571 178,550NPV $ 95,450The decision reverses—the CAM system is now preferable. This reversal is attributable to the intangible benefit of maintaining market share. To remain competitive, managers must make good decisions, and this exercise emphasizes how intangible benefits can affect decisions.PROBLEMS18–151. A ccounting rate of return.∙Merits: The ARR method is relatively simple to use and easy to understand. It considers the profitability of the projects under consideration.∙Limitations: It ignores cash flows and the time value of money.Internal rate of return.∙Merits: It considers the time value of money. It measures the true rate of return of the project and productivity of the capital invested. Furthermore, managers are accustomed to working with rates of return.∙Limitations: It is stated as a percentage rather than a dollar amount. It assumes that cash flows are reinvested at the IRR of the project. It may not select the project that maximizes firm value.Net present value method.∙Merits: It considers the time value of money and the size of the investment. It measures the true economic return of the project, the productivity of the capital, and the change in wealth of the shareholders.∙Limitations: It does not calculate a project’s rate of return, and it assumes that all the cash flows are reinvested at the required rate of return.Payback method.∙Merits: It provides a measure of the liquidity and risk of a project.∙Limitations: It ignores the time value of money. It ignores cash flows beyond the payback period and, thus, ignores the profitability of a project.2. Nathan Skousen and Jake Murray are basing their judgment on the results of the net presentvalue and internal rate of return calculations. These are both considered better measures be-cause they include cash flows, the time value of money, and the project’s profitability. ProjectB is better than Project A for both of these measures.18–15 Concluded3. At least three qualitative considerations that should generally be considered in capital bud-geting evaluations include:∙Quicker response to market changes and flexibility in production capacity.∙Strategic fit and long-term competitive improvement from the project, or the negative im-pact to the company’s competitiveness or image if it does not make the investment.∙Risks inherent in the project, business, or country for the investment.18–161. Schedule of cash flows:Year Item Cash Flow0 Equipment $(450,000)Working capital (45,000) 1–7 Cost savings $ 202,500Equipment operating costs (90,000) 112,5005 Overhaul (45,000)7 Salvage value 36,000Recovery of working capital 45,0002. NPV:Year Cash Flow df Present Value0 $(495,000) 1.000 $ (495,000)1–7 112,500 4.868 547,6505 (45,000) 0.621 (27,945)7 81,000 0.513 41,553NPV $ 66,258Yes, the new process design should be accepted.18–171. a2. e3. e*4. a**5. d***6. eSupporting calculations:*$90,000 + $6,000 + $9,000**[0.6 ⨯ ($500 - $450)2,000] + (0.4 ⨯ $105,000/5)***[0.6 ⨯ ($500 - $450)2,000] + (0.6 ⨯ $5,000)18–181. df = Investment/Annual cash flow= $386,640/$80,000= 4.833The IRR is 16 percent. The company should acquire the new system.2. Since I = P for the IRR:I = df ⨯ CF$386,640 = 6.145* ⨯ CF6.145 ⨯ CF = $386,640CF = $62,920*Discount factor at 10 percent (cost of capital) for 10 years18–18 Concluded3. For a life of eight years:df = I/CF= $386,640/$80,000= 4.833The IRR is between 12 percent and 14 percent—greater than the 10 percent cost of capital.The company should still acquire the new system.Minimum cash flow at 10 percent for eight years:I = df ⨯ CF$386,640 = 5.335 ⨯ CF5.335 ⨯ CF = $386,640CF = $72,4734. Requirement 2 reveals that the estimates for cash savings can be off by as much $17,080(over 20 percent) without affecting the viability of the new system. Requirement 3 reveals that the life of the new system can be two years less than expected and the project is still viable.In the latter case, the cash flows can also decrease by almost 10 percent as well without changing the outcome. Thus, the sensitivity analysis should strengthen the case for buying the new system.18–191. The IRR using the best estimates:Selling price $10Unit variable cost 4Unit contribution margin $ 6Total contribution margin ($6 ⨯ 1,000,000 annual sales volume) $ 6,000,000 Less: Fixed costs 2,000,000 Annual cash flow $ 4,000,000Discount factor = $12,000,000/$4,000,000 = 3.00Five years and a discount factor of 3.00 implies a rate of approximately 20 percent.2. a. If the per-unit selling price is reduced 10 percent, the adjusted IRR is 8 percent, as calcu-lated below:Per unit90% of selling price $9Unit variable cost 4Contribution marginTotal contribution margin ($5 ⨯ 1,000,000 annual sales volume) $5,000,000 Less: Fixed costs 2,000,000 Annual cash flowDiscount factor = $12,000,000/$3,000,000 = 4.00, which implies an IRR that is approximate-ly 8 percent.18–19 Concludedb. If the per-unit sales volume is reduced 10 percent, the adjusted IRR is 13 percent, as cal-culated below:Selling price $10Unit variable cost 4Contribution margin $ 6Total contribution margin ($6 ⨯ 900,000 annual sales volume) $5,400,000 Less: Fixed costs 2,000,000 Annual cash flow $3,400,000Discount factor = $12,000,000/$3,400,000 = 3.53, which implies an IRR that is approximate-ly 13 percent (IRR between 12 and 14 percent).c. If the per-unit variable cost is reduced 10 percent, the adjusted IRR is 24 percent, as cal-culated below:Selling price $10.00Unit variable cost 3.60Contribution margin $ 6.40Total contribution margin($6.40 ⨯ 1,000,000 annual sales volume) $6,400,000 L ess: Fixed costs 2,000,000 Annual cash flowDiscount factor = $12,000,000/$4,400,000 = 2.73, which implies an IRR that is approximate-ly 24 percent.3. Sensitivity analysis determines the impact certain changes in assumption have on IRR or NPVas appropriate. It helps management identify key variables and know whether additional in-formation is needed. It also helps determine the volatility of the project. Sensitivity analysis is limited because it provides no information about probability and uncertainty. The range of values possible with their probability of occurrence are important information. It also ignores the fact that assumptions are dynamic and can interact with each other.18–201. First, calculate the expected cash flows:Days of operation each year: 365 – 15 = 350Revenue per day: $200 ⨯ 2 ⨯ 150 = $60,000Annual revenue: $60,000 ⨯ 350 = $21,000,000Annual cash flow = Revenues – Operating costs= $21,000,000 – $2,500,000= $18,500,000NPV = P – I= (6.623 ⨯ $18,500,000) – $100,000,000= $122,525,500 – $100,000,000= $22,525,500Yes, the aircraft should be purchased.2. Revised cash flow = (0.80 ⨯ $21,000,000) – $2,500,000= $14,300,000NPV = P – I= (6.623 ⨯ $14,300,000) – $100,000,000= $(5,291,100)No, the aircraft should not be purchased.3. N PV = (6.623)CF – $100,000,000 = 0CF = $100,000,000/6.623= $15,098,898Annual revenue = $15,098,898 + $2,500,000= $17,598,898Daily revenue = $17,598,898/350= $50,283Seats to be sold = $50,283/$400= 126 seats (each way)Seating rate needed = 126/150 = 84%4. Seats to be sold = $50,283/$440 = 115 (rounded up)Seating rate = 115/150 = 77%This seating rate is less than the most likely and above the least likely rate of 70 percent.There is some risk, since it is possible that the actual rate could be below 77 percent. Howev-er, the interval is 20 percent (70 percent to 90 percent), and the 77 percent rate is only 35 per-cent of the way into the interval, suggesting a high probability of a positive NPV.18–211. 1.00 year $16,8001.00 year 24,0001.00 year 29,4000.13 year* 3,8003.13 years $74,000*$3,800/$29,400Note: Cash flow = Increased revenue less cash expenses of $3,0002. Accounting rate of return using original investment:Average cash flow = ($16,800 + $24,000 + $29,400 + $29,400)/4= $24,900Average depreciation = ($74,000 – $6,000)/4 = $17,000Accounting rate of return = ($24,900 – $17,000)/$74,000= $7,900/$74,000= 10.7%Accounting rate of return using average investment:Accounting rate of return = $7,900/$40,000*= 19.8%*Average investment = (Investment + Salvage)/2= ($74,000 + $6,000)/23. Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(74,000) 1.000 $(74,000)1 16,800 0.893 15,0022 24,000 0.797 19,1283 29,400 0.712 20,9334 35,400* 0.636 22,514NPV $ 3,577*Includes $6,000 salvage valueIRR (by trial and error):Using 14 percent as the first guess:Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(74,000) 1.000 $(74,000)1 16,800 0.877 14,7342 24,000 0.769 18,4563 29,400 0.675 19,8454 35,400 0.592 20,957NPV $ (8)The IRR is about 14 percent.The equipment should be purchased. (The NPV is positive and the IRR is larger than the cost of capital.) Dr. Avard should not be concerned about the accounting rate of return in making this decision. The payback, however, may be of some interest, particularly if cash flow is of concern to Dr. Avard.4. Year Cash Flow Discount Factor Present Value0 $(74,000) 1.000 $(74,000)1 11,200 0.893 10,0022 16,000 0.797 12,7523 19,600 0.712 13,9554 25,600 0.636 16,282NPV $(21,009)For Years 1–4, the cash flows are 2/3 of the original cash flow increases. Year 4 also includes $6,000 salvage value.Given the new information, Dr. Avard should not buy the equipment.18–22Keep old computer:Year (1 – t)R a–(1 – t)C b tNC c CF df Present Value0 ——————1 —$(60,000) $32,000 $(28,000) 0.893 $ (25,004)2 —(60,000) 32,000 (28,000) 0.797 (22,316)3 —(60,000) 16,000 (44,000) 0.712 (31,328)4 —(60,000) —(60,000) 0.636 (38,160)5 $6,000 (60,000) —(54,000) 0.567 (30,618) NPV $(147,426)a(0.60) ⨯ $10,000b(0.60) ⨯ $100,000c Years 1 and 2: 0.40 ⨯ $80,000; Year 3: 0.40 ⨯ $40,000. The class life has two years remaining; thus, there are three years of depreciation to claim, with the last year being only half. Let X = annual depreciation. Then X + X + X/2 = $200,000 and X = $80,000.Buy new computer:Present Yr. (1 – t)R a–(1 – t)C b tNC c Other d CF df Value0 $60,000 $(450,000) $(390,000) 1.000 $(390,000)1 (30,000) 40,000 10,000 0.893 8,9302 (30,000) 64,000 34,000 0.797 27,0983 (30,000) 38,400 8,400 0.712 5,9814 (30,000) 23,040 (6,960) 0.636 (4,427)5 $42,720 (30,000) 23,040 28,800 64,560 0.567 36,606 NPV $(315,812)a(0.60) ⨯ ($100,000 – Book value), where book value = $500,000 – $471,200b(0.60) ⨯ $50,000c Year 0: Tax savings from loss on sale of asset: 0.40 ⨯ $150,000 (The loss on the sale of the old computer is $200,000 – $50,000.)Years 1–5: Tax savings from MACRS depreciation: $500,000 ⨯ 0.20 ⨯ 0.40; $500,000 ⨯ 0.32 ⨯ 0.40; $500,000 ⨯0.192 ⨯0.40; $500,000 ⨯0.1152 ⨯0.40; $500,000 ⨯ 0.1152 ⨯ 0.40.Note: The asset is disposed of at the end of the fifth year—the end of its class life—so the asset is held for its entire class life, and the full amount of depreciation can be claimed in Year 5.d Purchase cost $500,000 less proceeds of $50,000; recovery of capital from sale of machine, end of Year 5, is the book value of $28,800 (original cost less accumulated depreciation).The old computer should be kept since it has a lower cost.18–231. Purchase:Year (1 – t)R a–(1 – t)C b tNC c Cash Flow0 $(100,000)1 $33,000$(12,000) $5,716 26,7162 33,000(12,000) 9,796 30,7963 33,000(12,000) 6,996 27,9964 33,000(12,000) 4,996 25,9965 33,000(12,000) 3,572 24,5726 33,000(12,000) 3,568 24,5687 33,000(12,000) 3,572 24,5728 33,000(12,000) 1,784 22,7849 33,000(12,000) 21,00010 45,000d(12,000) 33,000 a0.60 ⨯ $55,000b0.60 ⨯ $20,000c0.40 ⨯ 0.1429 ⨯ $100,000, 0.40 ⨯ 0.2449 ⨯ $100,000, etc.d Includes salvage value as a gain.Lease—with service contract:Year (1 – t)R –(1 – t)C a tNC b Cash Flow0 $(12,420) $(47,420)c1 $33,000 (18,420) $1,200 15,7802 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7803 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7804 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7805 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7806 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7807 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7808 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,7809 33,000 (18,420) 1,200 15,78010 33,000 (6,000) 1,200 33,200da Year 0: 0.60 ⨯ $20,700; Years 1–9: 0.60 ⨯ $30,700; Year 10: 0.60 ⨯ $10,000b0.40 ⨯ $3,000c Includes deposit of $5,000 and purchase of contract of $30,000d Includes the refund of the $5,000 deposit。

《管理会计》(双语)教学大纲课程名称：《管理会计》(双语)课程编码：B0421004适用专业及层次：会计学专业本科层次课程总学时：48学时课程总学分：3学分理论学时：48学时实践学时：0学时先修课程：会计学原理、成本会计等一、课程的性质、目的与任务管理会计是会计、财管专业的专业基础课。

通过本课程的教学，使学生了解现代管理会计学在会计学科体系中的地位和作用，掌握管理会计的基本内容和基本理论，学会如何在社会主义市场经济条件下和现代企业制度环境中，进一步加工和运用企业内部财务信息，预测经济前景、参与经营决策、规划经营方针、控制经营过程和考评责任业绩的基本程序、操作技能和基本方法。

二、教学内容、教学要求及教学重难点CHAPTER 1 The Role, History, and Direction of Management Accounting【教学内容】Chapter 1 provides an overview of management accounting. This chapter also is anopportunity to discuss ethical behavior.【教学要求】1. Learning the role of management accountants in an organization, and could provide a briefhistorical description of management accounting;2. Mastering the differences between management accounting and financial accounting;3. Understanding the current focus of management accounting，and the importance of ethicalbehavior for managers and management accountants【教学重难点】1. Mastering the differences between management accounting and financial accounting;2. Understanding the current focus of management accounting.CHAPTER 2 Basic Management Accounting Concepts【教学内容】This chapter introduces basic terminology that is used throughout the text. Accounting issometimes called the language of business. Learning the accounting terminology in Chapter 2 is similar to learning a foreign language. Understanding the accounting terminology in Chapter 2 is crucial to students understanding topics covered later.【教学要求】1. Learning tangible and intangible products and explain why there are different product costdefinitions;2. Mastering could prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations;3. Understanding the cost assignment process, and the differences between functional-based andactivity-based management accounting systems.【教学重难点】1. Mastering could prepare income statements for manufacturing and service organizations;2. Learning tangible and intangible products and explain why there are different product costdefinitions;CHAPTER 3 Activity Cost Behavior【教学内容】This chapter expands the discussion of cost behavior in Chapter 2; more specifically, it focuses on activity cost behavior. In addition, the resource usage model is presented. This chapter is an important foundation for the activity-based costing system discussed in the next chapter. In addition, several methods to estimate and evaluate the cost equation are discussed.【教学要求】1. Learning cost behavior for fixed, variable, and mixed costs , and the role of multipleregression in assessing cost behavior ;2.Mastering how to separate mixed costs into their fixed and variable components using thehigh-low method, the scatter plot method, and the method of least squares ;3. Understanding the role of the resource usage model in understanding cost behavior, and theuse of managerial judgment in determining cost behavior.【教学重难点】1. Mastering how to separate mixed costs into their fixed and variable components using thehigh-low method, the scatter plot method, and the method of least squares ;2. Understanding the role of the resource usage model in understanding cost behavior, and theuse of managerial judgment in determining cost behavior.CHAPTER 4 Activity-Based Costing【教学内容】Technological changes in manufacturing have made the traditional costing method obsolete in many firms. Unit-based cost systems often are no longer adequate in measuring product costs because overhead costs have increased while direct labor costs have decreased. This chapter introduces an approach that can improve product costing in many firms.【教学要求】1. Learning the importance of unit costs, a detailed description of how activities can be grouped intohomogeneous sets to reduce the number of activity rates2. Mastering how an activity-based costing system works, activity-based customer and suppliercosting;3. Understanding functional-based costing approaches, and why functional-based costingapproaches may produce distorted costs.【教学重难点】1. Mastering how an activity-based costing system works, activity-based customer and suppliercosting;2. Understanding functional-based costing approaches, and why functional-based costingapproaches may produce distorted costs.CHAPTER 5 Job-Order Costing【教学内容】Product costing plays a critical role in the new manufacturing environment and has become a significant factor in the service industries with the impact of deregulation. Nonaccounting majors should realize that understanding the basics of product costing is an important topic covered in the course. This chapter introduces students to the important topic of job-order costing.【教学要求】1. Mastering the differences between job-order costing and process costing, and identify the types offirms that would use each method, and the cost flows associated with job-order costing;2. Understanding how to identify and set up the source documents used in job-order costing.【教学重难点】Mastering the differences between job-order costing and process costing, and identify the typesof firms that would use each method, and the cost flows associated with job-order costing; CHAPTER 6 Process Costing【教学内容】If time permits, coverage of process costing is recommended. It exposes students to a different method of determining costs for products and provides useful insights in later chapters. The material in this chapter is generally difficult for the students because of the amount of detail. If you wish to cover this lightly, I suggest you focus on the weighted average approach.【教学要求】1. Learning the basic characteristics and cost flows associated with process manufacturing, and equivalent units and explain their role in process costing2. Mastering the differences between the weighted average method and the FIFO method ofaccounting for process costs, and prepare a departmental production report using the weighted average method;3. Understanding how to how process costing is affected by nonuniform application of manufacturinginputs and the existence of multiple processing departments.【教学重难点】1. Mastering the differences between the weighted average method and the FIFO method ofaccounting for process costs, and prepare a departmental production report using the weightedaverage method;2. Understanding how to how process costing is affected by nonuniform application of manufacturinginputs and the existence of multiple processing departments.CHAPTER 7 Support Department Cost Allocation【教学内容】Allocation of support-department costs is an important topic for product costing. In recent years the issue of accurate product costing has assumed considerable importance, and managers need to be fully aware of how products are costed and the limitations associated with those assignments. The introductory scenario discusses a copying department in a large regional public accounting firm.【教学要求】1. Mastering how to calculate single charging rates for a support department, and allocatesupport-department costs to producing departments using the direct, sequential, and reciprocalmethods, and calculate departmental overhead rate;2. Understanding the difference between support departments and producing departments..【教学重难点】1. Mastering how to calculate single charging rates for a support department, and allocatesupport-department costs to producing departments using the direct, sequential, and reciprocalmethods, and calculate departmental overhead rate;CHAPTER 8 Functional and Activity-Based Budgeting【教学内容】Budgeting is one topic that most students can relate to since they are involved with their own personal budgets. Students may benefit by reading the scenario at the beginning of the chapter.【教学要求】1. Learning budgeting and discuss its role in planning, control, and decision making;2. Mastering the master budget, identify its major components, and explain the interrelationships of thevarious components, and flexible budgeting and identify the features that a budgetary system should have to encourage managers to engage in goal-congruent behavior.3. Understanding activity-based budgeting.【教学重难点】1.Mastering the master budget, identify its major components, and explain the interrelationships of the various components, and flexible budgeting and identify the features that a budgetary system should have to encourage managers to engage in goal-congruent behavior.2. Understanding activity-based budgeting.CHAPTER 9 Standard Costing: A Managerial Control Tool【教学内容】This chapter covers standard costing and variances.【教学要求】1. Learning how unit standards are set and why standard cost systems are adopted, and the purpose of a standard cost sheet.2. Mastering how to compute the materials and labor variances and explain how they are used forcontrol, and the variable and fixed overhead variances and explain their meanings;3. Understanding the basic concepts underlying variance analysis and explain when variances should beInvestigated.【教学重难点】1. Mastering how to compute the materials and labor variances and explain how they are used forcontrol, and the variable and fixed overhead variances and explain their meanings;2. Understanding the basic concepts underlying variance analysis and explain when variances should beInvestigated.CHAPTER 10 Activity- and Strategic-Based Responsibility Accounting【教学内容】Activity-based management is a fairly new topic in management accounting textbooks. This chapter is important in order to understand the new environment in management accounting. The scenario to Chap- ter 10 is a good place for students to start. In addition, students should be comfortable with the topics from Chapters 3 and 4.【教学要求】1. Learning the difference among functional-based, activity-based, and strategic-based responsibilityaccounting systems.2. Mastering the basic features of the Balanced Scorecard;3. Understanding process value analysis and activity performance measurement.【教学重难点】1. Mastering the basic features of the Balanced Scorecard;2. Understanding process value analysis and activity performance measurement.CHAPTER 11 Quality Costs and Productivity: Measurement, Reporting, and Control【教学内容】This chapter focuses on the measurement and control of quality costs, and does a good job of discussing a topic that is not presented in most first-level management accounting textbooks. It provides an excellent bridge to understanding the new manufacturing environment of a world-class manufacturer. The opening scenario provides an interesting discussion of quality issues.【教学要求】1. Learning the four types of quality costs;2. Mastering how to prepare a quality cost report and explain the difference between the conventionalview of acceptable quality level and the view espoused by total quality control and why quality cost information is needed and how it is used;3. Understanding what productivity is and calculate the impact of productivity changes on profits.【教学重难点】1.Mastering how to prepare a quality cost report and explain the difference between theconventional view of acceptable quality level and the view espoused by total quality control and why quality cost information is needed and how it is used;2. Understanding what productivity is and calculate the impact of productivity changes on profits. CHAPTER 12 Environmental Cost Management【教学内容】In this chapter, Hansen and Mowen discuss environmental and life-cycle costs. These issues are presented in the scenario at the beginning of the chapter.【教学要求】1. Learning the importance of measuring environmental costs;2. Mastering how environmental costs are assigned to products and processes;3. Understanding the life-cycle cost assessment model, and activity- and strategic-based environmentalcontrol.【教学重难点】1. Mastering how environmental costs are assigned to products and processes;2. Understanding the life-cycle cost assessment model, and activity- and strategic-based environmentalcontrol.CHAPTER 13 Performance Evaluation in the Decentralized Firm【教学内容】The scenario in this chapter illustrates some of the issues faced by firms selling abroad. This chapter is relevant because of global competition faced by many firms.【教学要求】1. Learning responsibility accounting and four types of responsibility centers;2. Mastering how to compute and explain return on investment (ROI) and economic value added(EVA);3. Understanding why firms choose to decentralize, and methods of evaluating and rewarding managerial performance, the role of transfer pricing in a decentralized firm.【教学重难点】Mastering how to compute and explain return on investment (ROI) and economic value added(EVA);CHAPTER 14 International Issues in Management Accounting【教学内容】The scenario in this chapter illustrates some of the issues faced by firms selling abroad. This chapter is relevant because of global competition faced by many firms.【教学要求】1. Learning the role of the management accountant in the international environment, and the varying levels of involvement that firms can undertake in international trade;2. Mastering the ways management accountants can manage foreign currency risk,3. Understanding why multinational firms choose to decentralize, and how environmental factors can affect performance evaluation in the multinational firm, and the role of transfer pricing in the multinational firm.【教学重难点】1. Mastering the ways management accountants can manage foreign currency risk;2. Understanding why multinational firms choose to decentralize, and how environmental factors canaffect performance evaluation in the multinational firm, and the role of transfer pricing in themultinational firm.CHAPTER 15 Segmented Reporting and Performance Evaluation【教学内容】Coverage of this chapter expands on material outlined briefly in Chapter 2. Here we use thevariable-costing income statement as a way to organize information on cost behavior. A variety of management decision-making applications are presented.【教学要求】1. Learning the differences between variable and absorption costing;2. Mastering how variable costing is useful in evaluating the performance of managers, and how to prepare a segmented income statement based on a variable-costing approach and explain how this format can be used with activity-based costing to assess customer profitability.3. Understanding why multinational firms choose to decentralize, and how environmental factors can affect performance evaluation in the multinational firm, and the role of transfer pricing in the multinational firm.【教学重难点】1. Mastering how variable costing is useful in evaluating the performance of managers, and how to prepare a segmented income statement based on a variable-costing approach and explain how this format can be used with activity-based costing to assess customer profitability.2. Understanding why multinational firms choose to decentralize, and how environmental factors can affect performance evaluation in the multinational firm, and the role of transfer pricing in the multinational firm.CHAPTER 16 Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis: A Managerial Planning Tool【教学内容】Cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis can be used to illustrate how managers use accounting data for planning and decision making. Students who enjoy solving puzzles will probably enjoy the discussion of CVP. A more complete analysis of the subject material can be taught by using simple algebra.【教学要求】1. Learning the impact of activity-based costing on cost-volume-profit analysis;2. Mastering the number of units that must be sold to break even or to earn a targeted profit., the amount of revenue required to break even or to earn a targeted profit, and apply cost-volume-profit analysis in a multiple-product setting;3.Understanding a profit-volume graph and a cost-volume-profit graph and explain themeaning of each, and the impact of risk, uncertainty, and changing variables on cost-volume-profit analysis.【教学重难点】Mastering the number of units that must be sold to break even or to earn a targeted profit., theamount of revenue required to break even or to earn a targeted profit, and apply cost-volume-profit analysis in a multiple-product setting;CHAPTER 17 Tactical Decision Making【教学内容】This chapter deals with relevant information and how it is used in short-run decisions.【教学要求】1. Learning the tactical decision-making model;2. Mastering how the activity resource usage model is used in assessing relevancy, and how to apply the tactical decision-making concepts in a variety of business situations.3.Understanding the impact of cost on pricing decisions.【教学重难点】Mastering how the activity resource usage model is used in assessing relevancy, and how to apply the tactical decision-making concepts in a variety of business situations.CHAPTER 18 Capital Investment Decisions【教学内容】This chapter covers the basic capital budgeting models. Taxes are considered later in the chapter. The focus of the chapter is on learning how to apply the models.【教学要求】1. Learning what a capital investment decision is and distinguish between independent and mutually exclusive capital investment decisions;2. Mastering how to compute the payback period and accounting rate of return for a proposed investment and explain their roles in capital investment decisions, and use net present value analysis for capital investment decisions involving independent projects, and use the internal rate of return to assess the acceptability of independent projects.3. Understanding the role and value of postaudits, and why NPV is better than IRR for capitalinvestment decisions involving mutually exclusive projects.【教学重难点】Mastering how to compute the payback period and accounting rate of return for a proposed investmentand explain their roles in capital investment decisions, and use net present value analysis for capital investment decisions involving independent projects, and use the internal rate of return to assess the acceptability of independent projects.CHAPTER 19 Inventory Management【教学内容】The material in this chapter tends to be more quantitative than in previous chapters. While thematerial is very important to many management accountants, the discussion of these topics is often delayed until the second managerial/cost accounting class.【教学要求】1. Learning the traditional inventory management model, and the theory of constraints and explain how it can be used to manage inventory.2. Understanding JIT inventory management, and long-term contracts, continuous replenishment, electronic data interchange, and JIT II.【教学重难点】Understanding JIT inventory management, and long-term contracts, continuous replenishment, electronic data interchange, and JIT II.三、教学章节及学时分配（一）总体学时分配四、教学方法与教学手段说明教学方法式是以普通理论课堂教学和案例教学为主要形式，注重培养学生活学活用的能力。

2014年ACCA考试F2管理会计总汇12本文由高顿ACCA整理发布，转载请注明出处Main contents:1. Holding costs2. Ordering costs3. Re-ordering quantity (EOQ, EBQ)4. Re-order levelPurchase cycleThe inventory control should include the function of inventory purchase cycle.The ordering of inventoryThe purchase of inventoryThe receipt of goods into store StorageThe issue of inventory and maintenance of inventory at the most appropriate levelEvery movement of material in a business should be documented using the following as appropriate:Purchase requisition notePurchase order noteGoods received notes (GRN)Material requisition noteMaterial transfer note and materials returned noteThe storage of inventoryMaterials held in stores are coded and classified in order to be identified easily.Bin cards and stores ledger accounts are used to record inventory movements in order to maintain accurate records of current inventory levels.Perpetual inventory refers to an inventory recording system whereby the records (bin cards and stores ledger accounts) are updated for each receipt and issue of inventory as it occurs.Free inventory balance = available for future useMaterials in inventory+ Materials on order from suppliers- Materials requisitioned, not yet issued= Free inventory balanceInventory valuationFirst in First Out – FIFO assumes that materials are issued out of stock in the order in which they were delivered into inventory.Weighted average cost – AVCO values all items of inventory and issues at an average price. They average price is calculated after each receipt of goods.Periodic stocktaking is a process whereby all inventory items are physically counted and valued at a set point in time, usually at the end of an accounting period.Continuous stocktaking is counting and valuing selected items at different times on a rotating basis, usually each day. Valuable items or items with a high turnover could be checked more frequently.How much to order?The total costs associated with stocks include the following costs:Purchase costsOrdering cost:- Documentation- Telephone calls- Payment of invoices- Receiving goods into storesHolding cost- Cost of storage and stores operations- Interest charges- Insurance costs- Risk of obsolescence and deteriorationCost of running out of inventory (stock out costs)- Lost of contribution from lost sales- Loss of future sales- Loss of customer goodwill- Cost of production stoppages- Labour frustration over stoppages- Extra costs of urgent, small quantity, replenishment orders更多ACCA资讯请关注高顿ACCA官网：。