HANDBOOK OF SNOW
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HANDBOOK OF SNOW
PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, MANAGEMENT & USE
Edited by D. M. Gray D. H. Male
Division of Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
Conteபைடு நூலகம்ts
Evolution of the snowcover The role of free energy in the metamorphism of snow Classification of the Crystalline Nature of the Snowpack Properties of Dry Snow Metamorphism and bulk properties Thermal properties Mechanical properties Frictional properties Constitutive equations for snowand the prediction of failure Electrical, electromagnetic and optical properties Properties of Wet Snow Effects of liquid water in the snowpack Thermal, mechanical and electrical properties Contamination of the Snowpack Literature Cited 8 SNOW DRIFTING - R.J. KIND Introduction Characteristics of the Wind Near the Earth's Surface Basic wind structure Wind structure near surface features Relationships Between Wind and Snow Movement Threshold conditions Modes of transport of blowing snow Wind velocity profiles in blowing-snow conditions Rate of transport of snow by wind Snowdrift formation Principles of drift-control devices Model Simulation of Snow Drifting : Literature Cited
Contents
Comparison of Point Snowfall Measurement Techniques Limitation of ruler measurements Comparison of snow gauge measurements Effect of wind on gauge catch Areal Measurement of Snowfall Precipitation network design Point Measurements of Snowcover Depth Measurement of Snow Water Equivalent Gravimetric measurement Snow pillows Radioisotope snow gauges Natural gamma radiation: terrestrial survey Snow Surveying Purpose of snow surveys Snow course selection and network design Snow survey measurement techniques Comparison of Ground Based Snowcover Measurement Techniques Remote Sensing of Snowcover Aerial markers, snowline flights, aerial surveys 1 Natural gamma radiation: airborne survey Microwave sensing of snowcover from aircraft Satellite observations of snoWcover _ Data Analysis Data sources Data quality . Consistency Errors Representativeness of measurement area Frequency distributions Variability in time Areal variability Estimation Design values Presentation of data Literature Cited 7 PHYSICS AND PROPERTIES OF SNOWCOVER E.J. LANGHAM Physics Snow deposition
vi
Contents
Snow and irrigation in various climatic regions The value of irrigation Snow.and water quality Snow and Floods Snow and Dryland Crops Water requirements Summerfallow soil water from snow Water from snow for dryland crops Snow management in dryland areas Snow management practices Snow and the Crop Environment Heat transfer Soil temperature Snow and crop survival Snow and Livestock Snowstorms and livestock on pasture and ränge Livestock shelters and feedlots Snow and Mechanical Damage Literature Cited
143 144 146 146 147 147 149 151
153 153 154 154 154 159 160 165 168 168 173 182 183 183 187
.
6 MEASUREMENT AND DATA ANALYSIS - B.E. GOODISON, H.L. FERGUSON and G.A. McKAY 191 Introduction Point Snowfall Measurement Snow ruler, snow boards Limited capacity, non-recording snow gauges Weighing-type precipitation gauges Precipitation storage gauges Visibility attenuation Telemetry of point precipitation measurements 191 192 192 192 195 198 199 199
127
129 129 130 130 130 131 133 134 134 136 137 138 139 142 142 143
Contents
vii
Classification of snow crystals Sizes, masses, densities, terminal velocities and concentration of snow crystals Physical Characteristics of Snowflakes Role of Snow in the Removal of Particulate Matter from the Atmosphere Areal Distribution of Snowfall Relationship between atmospheric processes and occurrence of snow Effects of moisture and precipitation mechanisms on snowfall distribution Literature Cited 5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF SNOWCOVER - G.A. McKAY and D.M. GRAY Introduction Factors Controlling Snowcover Distribution and Characteristics T.emperature Wind Energy and moisture transfer Physiography Vegetative cover Snowcover Patterns Global Zonal Simulation and Synthesis Physical modeis Mathematical, empirical and other approaches Literature Cited
67 69 70 74 75 75 79 81 83 87 99 100 101 107 111 111 112 113 116
PART II SNOWFALL AND SNOWCOVER
4 SNOWFALL FORMATION - R.S. SCHEMENAUER, M.O. BERRY and J.B. MAXWELL Introduction General Principles of the Meteorology of Precipitation Moisture sources Atmospheric moisture distribution Vertical motion Synoptic weather Systems Topographie and orographic factors Cloud and precipitation patterns The Formation of Snow Ice nucleation Growth of crystals by vapor deposition Riming of snow crystals Aggregation of snow crystals Artificial modification of snowfall Physical Characteristics of Snow Crystals
PRINCIPLES, PROCESSES, MANAGEMENT & USE
Edited by D. M. Gray D. H. Male
Division of Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
Conteபைடு நூலகம்ts
Evolution of the snowcover The role of free energy in the metamorphism of snow Classification of the Crystalline Nature of the Snowpack Properties of Dry Snow Metamorphism and bulk properties Thermal properties Mechanical properties Frictional properties Constitutive equations for snowand the prediction of failure Electrical, electromagnetic and optical properties Properties of Wet Snow Effects of liquid water in the snowpack Thermal, mechanical and electrical properties Contamination of the Snowpack Literature Cited 8 SNOW DRIFTING - R.J. KIND Introduction Characteristics of the Wind Near the Earth's Surface Basic wind structure Wind structure near surface features Relationships Between Wind and Snow Movement Threshold conditions Modes of transport of blowing snow Wind velocity profiles in blowing-snow conditions Rate of transport of snow by wind Snowdrift formation Principles of drift-control devices Model Simulation of Snow Drifting : Literature Cited
Contents
Comparison of Point Snowfall Measurement Techniques Limitation of ruler measurements Comparison of snow gauge measurements Effect of wind on gauge catch Areal Measurement of Snowfall Precipitation network design Point Measurements of Snowcover Depth Measurement of Snow Water Equivalent Gravimetric measurement Snow pillows Radioisotope snow gauges Natural gamma radiation: terrestrial survey Snow Surveying Purpose of snow surveys Snow course selection and network design Snow survey measurement techniques Comparison of Ground Based Snowcover Measurement Techniques Remote Sensing of Snowcover Aerial markers, snowline flights, aerial surveys 1 Natural gamma radiation: airborne survey Microwave sensing of snowcover from aircraft Satellite observations of snoWcover _ Data Analysis Data sources Data quality . Consistency Errors Representativeness of measurement area Frequency distributions Variability in time Areal variability Estimation Design values Presentation of data Literature Cited 7 PHYSICS AND PROPERTIES OF SNOWCOVER E.J. LANGHAM Physics Snow deposition
vi
Contents
Snow and irrigation in various climatic regions The value of irrigation Snow.and water quality Snow and Floods Snow and Dryland Crops Water requirements Summerfallow soil water from snow Water from snow for dryland crops Snow management in dryland areas Snow management practices Snow and the Crop Environment Heat transfer Soil temperature Snow and crop survival Snow and Livestock Snowstorms and livestock on pasture and ränge Livestock shelters and feedlots Snow and Mechanical Damage Literature Cited
143 144 146 146 147 147 149 151
153 153 154 154 154 159 160 165 168 168 173 182 183 183 187
.
6 MEASUREMENT AND DATA ANALYSIS - B.E. GOODISON, H.L. FERGUSON and G.A. McKAY 191 Introduction Point Snowfall Measurement Snow ruler, snow boards Limited capacity, non-recording snow gauges Weighing-type precipitation gauges Precipitation storage gauges Visibility attenuation Telemetry of point precipitation measurements 191 192 192 192 195 198 199 199
127
129 129 130 130 130 131 133 134 134 136 137 138 139 142 142 143
Contents
vii
Classification of snow crystals Sizes, masses, densities, terminal velocities and concentration of snow crystals Physical Characteristics of Snowflakes Role of Snow in the Removal of Particulate Matter from the Atmosphere Areal Distribution of Snowfall Relationship between atmospheric processes and occurrence of snow Effects of moisture and precipitation mechanisms on snowfall distribution Literature Cited 5 THE DISTRIBUTION OF SNOWCOVER - G.A. McKAY and D.M. GRAY Introduction Factors Controlling Snowcover Distribution and Characteristics T.emperature Wind Energy and moisture transfer Physiography Vegetative cover Snowcover Patterns Global Zonal Simulation and Synthesis Physical modeis Mathematical, empirical and other approaches Literature Cited
67 69 70 74 75 75 79 81 83 87 99 100 101 107 111 111 112 113 116
PART II SNOWFALL AND SNOWCOVER
4 SNOWFALL FORMATION - R.S. SCHEMENAUER, M.O. BERRY and J.B. MAXWELL Introduction General Principles of the Meteorology of Precipitation Moisture sources Atmospheric moisture distribution Vertical motion Synoptic weather Systems Topographie and orographic factors Cloud and precipitation patterns The Formation of Snow Ice nucleation Growth of crystals by vapor deposition Riming of snow crystals Aggregation of snow crystals Artificial modification of snowfall Physical Characteristics of Snow Crystals
