Cultural Differences Between Chinese and AmericanBody Languages1.Introduction (2)2. Nonverbal communication (3)2.1 Definition of nonverbal communication (3)2.2 Categories of nonverbal communication (3)2.3 Characteristics of nonverbal communication (5)2.4 Functions of nonverbal communication (6)3. Comparison of body language between China and America (7)3.1 Eye contact (8)3. 2 Gestures (9)3.2.1 Chinese gestures (9)3.2.1.1. Greeting gestures (10)3.2.1.2 Touching gestures (10)3.2.1.3 Beckoning gestures (11)3.2.2 American gestures (11)3.3 Touching (12)3.4 Facial expressions (13)3.4.1 Smiles and laughter (13)3.4.2 Anger (14)3.5 Illustration of the differences between Chinese and American body languages (15)4. Conclusion (17)References (18)1.IntroductionAs a tool of social communication, language is the bond of culture as well as its component. The languages in different nations refract different cultural environments, lifestyles, ideas and points of view, religious rituals, values and thinking habits. Human language communication is the primary means of interaction, but non-verbal communication also has an important communicative function. Body Language is the expression of a person’s silent and authentic language inner world, non-verbal means of the most spectacular. Psychologist and researcher Albert Mehrabian argues that 93 percent of all social meaning in face-to-face communication is conveyed through nonverbal cues, 38 percent is communicated by how people use their voices (rate, pitch, and volume of speech), 55 percent is the result of facial expressions (smiles, eye contacts, and frowns), whereas only a paltry 7 percent is verbal (Gouran, 1992: 109). The social anthropologist Edward T. Hall also claims that 60 percent of all our communication is nonverbal (Translated by Meng Xiaoyun, 1988). The percentages may be disputable, but the point is that nonverbal communication contributes a great deal to sharing meaning.Different people in different countries can communicate with body language. In some cases, body language is enough to express all of the information; language is superfluous. Body Language includes space distance, eye contacts, physical contacts, postures, facial expressions and other nonverbal body signals. With the development of globalization, the collisions between different cultures become increasingly fierce. It is well known that Chinese culture is the typical oriental culture, and the United States is the western world’s mouthpiece. Therefore, with the comparison of body language in the two countries, we can divine the whole from a part.2. Nonverbal communication2.1 Definition of nonverbal communicationCommunication is far more than speech and writing. Most people are rarely aware that they are communicating in many different ways even when they are not speaking. They rarely learn about this mostly nonverbal communication even though it is very important for effective interaction with others. Growing up in a society, they learn how to use gestures, glances, slight changes in tone of voice, and other auxiliary communication devices to alter or emphasize what they say and do. They accompany their speeches with various movements of their bodies, their heads and their hands. In some extreme cases, people can communicate by not doing anything at all, just by silence (Mehrabian, 1970).According to L. A. Malandro (1983), ―nonverbal communication will be defined as the process by which nonverbal behaviors are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context‖. Non-verbal communication is defined as the exchange of messages primarily through non-linguistic means, including: kinesics (body language), facial expressions and eye contact, tactile communication, space and territory, environment, paralanguage (vocal but non-linguistic cues), and the use of silence and time (Hu Wenzhong, Bi Jiwan, 1999). Nonverbal communication is communication without words. It can be viewed as occurring whenever an individual communicates without the use of sounds.2.2 Categories of nonverbal communicationCategories currently exist to provide an idea of the behaviors that constitute nonverbal communication. There are seven classes, also known as codes, of nonverbal signals. Codes are distinct, organized means of expression that consist of both symbols and rules for their use.Although these codes are presented within classes, they occur together and are naturally integrated with verbal expression. The nonverbal codes include (Net.1):kinesics—messages sent by the body, including gestures, facial expression, body movement, posture, gaze, and gait.vocalics (i.e., paralinguistic)—vocal cues other than words, including volume, rate, pitch, pausing, and silence.physical appearance—manipulative cues related to the body, including hairstyle, clothing, cosmetics, and fragrance.haptics—contact cues, such as frequency, intensity, and type of touch.proxemics—spatial cues, including interpersonal distance, territoriality, and other spacing relationships.chronemics—the use of time as a message system, including punctuality, amount of time spent with another and waiting time.artifacts—manipulable objects in the environment that may reflect messages from the designer or user, such as furniture, art, pets, or other possessions.While these categories provide a framework from which to conceptualize nonverbal communication, it is, in reality, a combination of cues and codes that work together to produce a certain meaning. It is inefficient to look at one cue or code for specific meaning.Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contacts, tone of voice, body postures and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep. According to occasions, it can be divided into public and private; based on meaning, it can be divided into friendly and assailable.G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories (Net. 2):Physical: This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.Aesthetic: This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.Signs: This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.Symbolic: This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.2.3 Characteristics of nonverbal communicationMany types of nonverbal communication share some characteristics. Some of these characteristics are similar to verbal, others are different.(1) Continuity of nonverbal communicationVerbal expressions can segment into several parts, but nonverbal cues come continuously. All these nonverbal signals are used as a foundation for understanding verbal expressions. Nonverbal cues can be expressed slowly or quickly, while verbal expressions will become distorted if spoken too slowly or too rapidly. Nonverbal messages are given and received in an uninterrupted and persistent flow.(2) Necessity of nonverbal communicationThe necessity of communicating nonverbally is extremely significant because it means that each of us is a kind of transmitter that cannot be shut off. No matter what we do, we give out messages that say something about ourselves.The fact that we are all constantly giving out nonverbal clues is important because it means that we have a constant source of information available about ourselves and others. If we are aware of these signals, we will be able to respond better to their behavior.(3) Ambiguity of nonverbal communicationAll nonverbal communication must be evaluated or interpreted within the context in which it occurs. We cannot ―read‖ a person like read a book, not can others always ―read‖ us. We should realize that those we interact with will attribute meaning to our behavior and make important judgments and decisions based on their observations.We can not assume that a woman with her arms folded in front of her is closed-minded and rigid—she may simply feel cold. We must be careful in interpreting nonverbal cues because they can be confusing.2.4 Functions of nonverbal communicationNonverbal communication encompasses more than one activity, and it is not limited to one set of message. The multidimensional aspect of our nonverbal behavior also carries over to the many uses and functions of this form of communication. There are five of these uses: repeating, regulating, substituting, complementing and contradicting (许力生, 2006: 227). (1) RepeatingNonverbal behavior can repeat a verbal message. In the United States, people often use nonverbal messages to repeat a point they are trying to make. If someone asks the way to the hospital, they would say ―g o south and then turn left‖. And then let their instructions nonverbally by pointing south. This kind of repetition is especially useful when we describe an idea with a visual dimension, such as size, shape, or direction.(2) RegulatingWe often regulate and manage communication by using some form of nonverbal behavior: we nod our heads to indicate to our communication partner that we agree with him or her, or we remain silent for a moment and let the silence send the message that we are ready to beginour speech, or we have direct eye contact with someone to let him or her know the channels are open. In short, our nonverbal behavior helps us control the situation.(3) SubstitutingNonverbal messages may also substitute for verbal ones. Instead of saying ―go south and then turn left‖, we could point south and add ―turn left‖. If one meets a very good friend, he will give his friend big smile and open his arms as a greeting, which substitutes for all the words.(4) ComplementingSome nonverbal messages are consistent with accompanying verbal messages, and they are added to strengthen or clarify the meaning of verbal messages. For example, if one says to his lover ―I love you‖, the message will be well received. However, when one is saying it, they are seated together and accompanied by a warm hug, the message is certainly even stronger. (5) ContradictingNonverbal behavior can often contradict the spoken words. Expressions such as ―you say one thing and then do another‖ or ―y ou talk out of both sides of your mouth‖ are attempts to describe this behavior.3. Comparison of body language between China and AmericaBody language is an important part of nonverbal communication. People communicate with each other by their body movements in the ways of nodding, waving, eye contacting, shrugging and so on. Body language, like verbal language, is also a part of culture. But in different cultures body language means different things. Different people have different waysof making nonverbal communication, and different countries have different cultures, so the comprehension of body language will not be the same. If people do not understand cultural connotation, they will not interact properly. Sometimes they will make themselves or others embarrassed.3.1 Eye contactEye behaviors are often considered the most important in the human communication process. With our eyes we can love, hate, attack, or insult our fellow human being without uttering a word. Much of the emotional information is conveyed by eye behaviors. English dramatist Shakespeare said ―there is language in her eye, her cheek, and her lip‖, the Chinese saying goes ―t he eye is the window of the soul‖. From these two sentences, people can see that eye contact is quite important in their interaction.In the aspect of eye contact, there are many differences between China and English-speaking countries. In two–person conversations, Americans require the person who they are interacting with to look at them in the eye during a conversation. They see eye contact as a sign of honesty and a lack of eye contact or shifty eyes as a sign of untruthfulness, contempt, fear, indifference, guilt or absence of mind. And people in America are told ―not to trust anyone who won’t look you in the eye‖. But Chinese would avoid long direct eye contact during the conversation to show respect, or obedience, or politeness. In China, children are taught at an early age to respect others, so they try to avoid direct eye contact to show compliance. Chinese do not maintain eye contact as much as Americans. Chinese only feel comfortable with mutual gaze in relationships of strong mutual reliance. This indicates thatAmericans not familiar with the Chinese conventions related to eye contact may consider Chinese who do not maintain eye contact unfriendly, disrespectful, and impolite.In conversations with people who know each other, however, American customs demand that there should be eye contact. This applies to both the speakers and the listeners. The speaker looks at the listeners to see whether they are interested in what he or she is saying and then decides to go on or make a change. The listeners show that they are listening by looking at the speaker. At the same time they may nod their heads or make sounds like ―h mm‖. ―Umm‖ is to indicate their agreement and slant their heads to one side, raise eyebrows or have a quizzical look to signal their disagreement or reservations. In contrast with this, Chinese speakers bury their noses in their manuscripts to read a speech instead of looking at their audience. This habit would be regarded as inconsiderate and impolite by Americans. Accordingly, it is not surprising to see Chinese listeners simply listen to the speaker just with their ears, paying no attention to the speaker at all.3. 2 GesturesIn a general sense, we use gestures to reinforce an idea or to help describe something. When we say ―t hat’s an English book‖, at the same time we are pointing to the book. If someone asks us the way to the library, we point to the right, adding a little information about it, which will be more concrete. We like to use our hands to indicate the dimensions when someone asks us to describe the size or shape.3.2.1 Chinese gesturesThere are many gestures only existing in China. In Chinese culture, to express respect, people should take something to their guests or others with two hands. And when others pour tea or wine for them, they should hold the cups with both hands to expres s ―t hank you‖ or tapthe tabletop with the forefinger to indicate ―i t’s enough‖. Touching or pointing to the tip of one’s own nose with raised forefinger means ―i t’s me‖ or ―I’m the one‖. Upraised forefinger of each hand coming together in front of the body until the two touches means a good match. These gestures are unique in China.3.2.1.1. Greeting gesturesBusiness cards are often exchanged. It is more respectful to present your card (or a gift or any other article) with both hands.The Chinese are enthusiastic applauders. One may be greeted with group clapping, even by small children. When a person is applauded in this fashion, it is the custom for him to return the applause with a ―thank you‖.In public places, direct eye contact and staring is uncommon in larger cities, especially in those areas accustomed to foreign visitors. However, in smaller communities, visitors may be the subject of much curiosity and therefore they may notice some stares.3.2.1.2 Touching gesturesGenerally speaking, the Chinese are not a touch-oriented society (especially true for visitors). So they avoid touching or any prolonged form of body contact.Public displays of affection are very rare. On the other hand, one may notice people of the same sex walk hand-in-hand, which is simply a gesture of friendship.Personal space is much less in China. The Chinese will stand much closer than the westerners.3.2.1.3 Beckoning gesturesTo beckon someone, the palm faces downward and the fingers are moved in a scratching motion. Avoid using the index finger, palm up and toward someone, in a back forth curling motion toward his body. That gesture is used only for animals and can be considered rude.The open hand is used for pointing (not just one or two fingers).Also, avoid using your feet to gesture or to move or touch other objects, because the feet are considered lowly and dirty.3.2.2 American gesturesFrom the following table, we can understand some of the American gestures (Net.3):Gestures comprise a major form of nonverbal communication. The above examples tell us how Americans use gestures when greeting, touching and beckoning others. There are many gestures only existing in one culture without equivalent in other cultures. For example, the American gesture, which means ―n o, don’t do that‖ by moving the index finger from side to side with the forefinger up and others closed, is not used in China. To express doubt, helplessness or baffle, people who live in America often shrug their shoulders. However, this gesture is seldom used in China.3.3 TouchingPhysical contact is a spatial behavior. Even a handshake tells much about an individual’s character. In general, the meaning of touching depends on the situations, cultures, sex, and age. Research in the area of touching behavior suggests that use of touch carries very strong overtones of emotion in most cultures. However, the types of touch which are permissible or even encouraged in one culture can be totally unacceptable in another culture.For example, Chinese would think it is normal for two male friends or female friends to hold hands or walk arm-in-arm. And when two close classmates, colleagues or friends meet after a period of absence, if they are female, they would hold hands and greet each other affectionately; if they are male, they would shake hands and pat on shoulders as well as greet. In addition, Chinese have been accustomed to short time and slight touch. But Americans avoid physical contact in conversations among acquaintances except shaking hands. When Americans reach their teenage, they hardly hold hands or walk arm-in-arm, because thisbehavior indicates homosexuality and it has become a taboo for Americans. Even in the crowded elevator, physical contact is also not allowed. If one touches another person accidentally, he or she usually utters an apology such as ―s orry‖, ―e xcuse me‖, ―o h, I’m very sorry‖. If he or she does not say sorry, such touch may cause an unpleasant reaction. So Americans always try to avoid physical contact in public places.Kissing and hugging are two kinds of physical contact. They are not very common among Chinese people. However, it’s a different matter for adults to kiss or hug their beloved children. In China, couples rarely kiss or hug each other in the face of others. But Americans usually kiss or hug their intimate friends or members of families.3.4 Facial expressionsThe major reason that the facial area is important in human communication is because it is always visible during face-to-face interaction. Facial expressions usually communicate emotions. The expressions tell the attitudes of the communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our emotional state better than others. Mehrabian (1981) believes that verbal cues provide 7 percent of a message’s meaning, vocal cues (tone of voice) provide 38 percent, and facial expressions provide 55 percent. This means that the receiver of a message can rely heavily on the facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind the message than his words.3.4.1 Smiles and laughterSmiles and laughter usually convey friendliness, approval, satisfaction, pleasure, joy and merriment. This is generally true in China as well as the English-speaking countries. However, there are situations when some Chinese laugh, but that will cause negative reactions by thewesterners. Here is an excerpt from a letter by an American to a Chinese friend on nonverbal gestures that often cause cross-cultural misunderstanding:“…One is the different meaning of laughter in China and America. When an American is parking his bicycle, for example, and the bicycle accidentally falls over, he feels embarrassed at his awkwardness, and is quite angry and humiliated when Chinese onlookers laugh. I have seen the same thing happen in the dining room, when a foreigner drops a plate quite by accident and feels badly and Chinese onlookers laugh, compounding his discomfort and causing anger an d bad feeling.‖Such laughter, of course, is not at the person or his misfortune—whether he is a foreigner or a Chinese. However, for people unaware of this attitude, the reaction to such laughter is usually quite unpleasant and often generates ill feeling.3.4.2 AngerThe expression of anger also varies from culture to culture both in terms of intensity and types of expression. In addition, older people, men, and people in authority may show anger more readily than younger people, women, and subordinates. The boss may get angry at the subordinate, whereas the subordinate is well advised not to react in the same kind. The result is that the interpretation and the display of anger are influenced by culture.One of the milder forms of showing anger in American culture, for example, is frowning. Depending on the context, frowning can indicate anger, doubt, questioning of authority, suspicion, or disagreement. I n Chinese culture where the open expression of one’s feelings is not appreciated, frowning may be much more subdued. Chinese culture tends to restrict the range of facial expressions by American standards. As a result, anger is not openly expressed.3.5 Illustration of the differences between Chinese and American body languagesDeng Yanchang and Liu runqing (1989) provide examples of some of the body languages differences between Chinese and American cultures. These examples can illustrate the diversity of body language between Chinese and American cultures, and show the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with that culture.ASame Body Language in Two Cultures,o BCBody Language and Meaning in One Culture;No Equivalent in Other Culture4. ConclusionIn cross-cultural communication, people must realize the relationship between nonverbal communication and cultures. And body language is the silent and authentic language that can express one’s inner emotions. It is the most distinctive kind of interact ion in nonverbal communication. So body language is dependent on cultures.Moreover, body language has international characters. People who live in different countries and speak different languages can communicate through body language. Sometimes body language can be used alone, but sometimes it must be used together with verbal language. If one does not use body language properly, he can not achieve communicative purpose well, and he will make others unhappy or make himself embarrassed. Nevertheless, if one can use body language aptly, he can achieve communicative purpose well. So it is very important for foreign language learners to know the sense of body language, to learn the cultures of English-speaking countries, and to eliminate cultural interference and diminish cultural clash.Body language bears relations with cultures. It is also the carrier of cultures. It varies from culture to culture. Therefore, the aim of studying and researching body language in nonverbal communication is to help foreign language learners and communicators exclude the interference of cultural differences. It is hoped that further study will be made in this field because it is of great significance for developing nonverbal communicative competence in intercultural communication.ReferencesGouran, D. S. Mastering Communication. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1992.Mehrabian. Kinesics and Context. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970. Malandro, L. A. & Barker, L. L. Nonverbal Communication. New York: Random House, 1983.Mehrabian, A. Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes.Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1981.邓炎昌, 刘润清. 语言与文化. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1989.胡文仲,毕继万. 跨文化非语言交际. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社，1999.孟小云译. 体态与交际. 北京: 北京语言学院出版社，1988.许力生. 跨文化交际英语教程. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2006.Net.1. Angela Hein Ciccia, Mary Step, and Lyn Turkstra: Nonverbal Communication Theory and Application./about/publications/leader-online/archives/2003/q4/f031216a.htm, 2003-10-8.Net.2. Tags: Non-verbal Communication./business/management/non-verbal-communication.html, 2007-6-14.Net.3. Gary Imai: Gestures: Body Language and Nonverbal Communication./~tassi/gestures.htm#american, 1997-3-12.。
