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英美文化概况之英国篇英国早期人文历史常识（一）英国东邻北海，西、北面对大西洋，南面是英吉利海峡（the English Channel），与法国隔海相望。
地理上，这里被称为“不列颠群岛”（British Isles），由大不列颠岛（Great Britain）和爱尔兰岛（Ireland）这两大岛屿，以及其它几百个小岛组成。
大不列颠岛上分布着英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士（England,Scotland and Wales）三个区域，而爱尔兰岛则分成北爱尔兰和爱尔兰共和国（Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland）两块。
政治上，大不列颠和北爱尔兰共同组成联合王国（the United Kingdom），而爱尔兰共和国则是独立于联合王国而存在的独立的国家。
我们通常所说的英国，则是指联合王国。
联合王国的首都是伦敦（London）；而爱尔兰共和国的首都是都柏林（Dublin）。
大不列颠岛在政治上被划分成英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士三个区域，其中英格兰面积最大、人口最多，总的来说也最为富裕。
因此很多人通常会用“英格兰人”（English）指代“不列颠人”（British），这点当然会引起苏格兰人和威尔士人（Scots and Welsh）的不满。
不列颠在大约一百年前曾统治着世界上四分之一的人口和土地，其殖民地遍布全球各大洲。
二战之后，随着不列颠国力衰退，各殖民地纷纷独立，不列颠帝国（the British Empire）在1931年起被英联邦所取代。
英联邦（the Commonwealth of Nations）是由英国和已经独立的前英国殖民地或附属国组成的联合体。
英国作为英联邦元首并无政治实权；各国在一定协议上相互进行政治、主要是经济方面的磋商和合作；各成员国也有权利选择退出英联邦。
（二）英国地势西北高、东南低。
其西北地区主要地形是高原；而东部和东南部则主要是低地，他们是整个欧洲平原（the Great European Plain）的组成部分。
英国概况英国的正式名称是“联合王国”，全称是“大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国（the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland）”。
英国国旗呈横长方形，长与宽比为2∶1国旗：“米”字旗，由深蓝底色和红、白色“米”字组成。
旗中带白边的红色正十字代表英格兰守护神圣乔治，白色交叉十字代表苏格兰守护神圣安德鲁，红色交叉十字代表爱尔兰守护神圣帕特里克。
此旗产生于1801年，是由原英格兰的白地红色正十旗、苏格兰的蓝地白色交叉十字旗和爱尔兰的白地红色交叉十字旗重叠而成。
国徽：即英王徽。
中心图案为一枚盾徽，盾面左上角和右下角为红地上三只金狮，象征英格兰；右上角为金地上半站立的红狮，象征苏格兰；左下角为蓝地上金黄色竖琴，象征爱尔兰。
盾徽两侧各由一只头戴王冠、代表英格兰的狮子和一只代表苏格兰的独角兽支扶着。
盾徽周围用法文写着一句格言，意为“恶有恶报”；下端悬挂着嘉德勋章，饰带上写着“天有上帝，我有权利”。
盾徽上端为镶有珠宝的金银色头盔、帝国王冠和头戴王冠的狮子。
盾徽周围用法文写着一句格言，意为“恶有恶报”；下端悬挂着嘉德勋章，饰带上写着“天有上帝，我有权利”。
语言：官方和通用语均为英语。
威尔士北部还使用威尔士语，苏格兰西北高地及北爱尔兰部分地区仍使用盖尔语。
地理位置：英国是一个位于欧洲西部的岛国，由大不列颠岛、爱尔兰岛东北部和一些小岛组成, 隔北海、多佛尔海峡、英吉利海峡与欧洲大陆相望，陆界与爱尔兰共和国接壤。
全国面积24.4万平方公里，海岸线总长11450公里；全境分为四部分：英格兰东南部平原、中西部山区、苏格兰山区、北爱尔兰高原和山区；主要河流有塞文河（354公里）和泰晤士河（346公里），北爱尔兰的讷湖（396平方公里）面积居全国之首。
国歌：god save thequeen《上帝保佑女王》（如在位的是男性君主，国歌改为god save the king）国花：玫瑰花国鸟：红胸鸽国石：钻石国都：伦敦国庆：每年6月第二周的星期四气候：属海洋性温带阔叶林气候，终年温和湿润。
简要地介绍英国分类:外语/出国 >> 留学问题描述:我们上地理课，老师要求我们介绍一下英国。
我想问一下大家，如何介绍才能吸引人，而且简短呢？解析:大不列颠及北爱兰联合王国简称英国。
位于欧洲西部、大西洋中的大不列颠群岛上, 东、南隔北海、多佛尔海峡、英吉利海峡与欧洲大陆相望。
面积242,000平方千米。
相当于我国江苏和安徽两省的大小，人口约5，880万。
人口由英格兰人(占人口80%)、苏格兰人、威尔士人和爱尔兰人等组成。
英国是个君主立宪制国家。
国王(现为伊丽莎白二世女王)为国 ... 首，但统而不治。
立法权由议会掌握，行政权由议会多数派即执政党掌握。
议会分上、下两院。
下院又叫平民院，由600多人组成，握有通过法律、选举首相的权力。
上院亦称贵族院,立法权很少，最多只能将下院通过的议案拖延一年生效而已，但上院却拥有最高司法权。
操纵行政大权的机构是内阁。
由首相主持。
多年来，一直由保守党和工党轮流执政。
英国国旗一般称Union Jack。
Jack是海 ... 语，指悬挂在舰首的旗帜，英国军舰舰首都悬挂国旗，因而得名。
UnionFlag是英国国旗的正式名称，意为“联合旗帜”。
它是深蓝底色的红白米字旗。
该旗帜由英格兰的白底红色正十字旗，苏格兰的蓝底白色斜十字旗和爱尔兰的白底红色斜标旗十合一而成。
后来爱尔兰岛上的一部分脱离了英国，但国旗并未改变。
国旗上没有代表威尔士地区的形象，因为设计时，威尔士早已与英格兰合并了。
英语为英国的通用语。
居民多信奉基督教和天主教。
首都伦敦，人口697万。
全国政治、经济、文化交通中心。
最大海港和重要工业、金融城市。
英美国家文化概况（中英文对照）-英国英国文化概况Chapter 1 Land and People第一章英国的国土与人民Different Names for Britain and its Parts英国的不同名称及其各组成部分1. Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。
2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。
3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.不列颠群岛由两个大岛—大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。
4. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。
(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。
(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。
The United Kingdom, including Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland "and Northern Ireland, is a member of the European Community 12. Its full name is the United Kingdom.Britain is the British Isles by the majority of islands, of which the largest islands are Great Britain, the second largest island Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic. The west coast of Scotland there is a large islands called the Hebrides. Native north-east coast of Scotland Orkney Islands, Shetland Islands, and Samoa. Of these islands with the mainland have administrative relations, but the Irish Sea between Great Britain and the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands between France is largely autonomous and not an integral part of the United Kingdom.The United Kingdom area of approximately 242.5 thousand square kilometers (93600 square miles), from the south coast to Scotland is almost the most northern part of nearly 1,000 kilometers (about 600 miles), nearly horizontal at its widest point about 500 kilometers (about 300 miles)."Britain" the term originated in the Greek and Latin words, which may eventually be traced back to Celtic. Although the use of "Prehistoric" This yardstick to measure, the Celtics went to the British Isles is also a later (and before that had created those civilizations such as the Avebury stone circle Stonehenge construction sites and Such well-known historical monuments), but the history of written records relating to England, after all, about the Celtics from the start. "Celtic" This phrase is very common and regularly used to distinguish the early inhabitants of the British Isles and later the Anglo - Saxon invaders.The Romans ruled from AD 43 onwards lasted 300 years. The Romans in 408 before the final withdrawal of the island were from Northern Europe began to Angles, Saxons and Jutes intrusion, has undergone a period of growing chaos. "England" is the word from the "Angles" came. Over the next two centuries, and gradually became a settler harassment and the establishment of a number of small kingdom. British people in today's Wales and Cornwall Regional Independent survive. These small kingdom there was relatively strong to dominate the country's kingdom, first in the North (Northumbria Kingdom), and then in the central (the Kingdom of Mercia), and finally in the south (Wessex kingdoms). However, from the Scandinavian Vikings then invaded England and settled down, although in the 10th century Wessex dynasty, beat off the invading Danes and for a time to dominate the vast region of England.In 1066 took place on the last successful invasion of England. Duke William of Normandy in the Battle of Hastings defeated the British, the Normans from France and others come here to settle. In the ensuing three centuries, the French became the language of nobility, the legal structure has been the English Channel on the other side of the passage of that set of consequences, and social structure, to some extent been affected.Wales, though often in England within the sphere of influence, but has been a bastion of Boston. However, in the Prince Llewellyn was killed in 1282, after Edward I waged a battle and victory to put England under the rule of Wales. Welsh nationalist sentiment continues to rise, the beginning of the 15th century rebellion led by Owen Gerlind illustrated this point. In 1536 and in 1542 a joint decree to England and Wales in the administrative, political and legal integration into one.Originally lived in Scotland most of Picts. The 6th century, the Scots from Ireland to settle in today's Argyll area. Lothian home to England, while others continue to go north Wales, Britain came to Strathclyde. The 9th century, the various regions of Scotland to unite against Viking. Throughout the Middle Ages, when England's monarchy has always been a powerful threat to Scotland's independence.England and Scotland, the joint that eventually, when the religious differences of the ethnic hatred in the past than the more crucial. In England, Elizabeth I in 1603 by James VI of Scotland (James I of England) to the throne. Even so, England and Scotland in addition to Oliver Cromwell's rule was once forced to bring together, in the 17th century they have been independe nt of each other. To 1707, aware of a closer political and economic union benefits, the two sides agreed to establish a single British Parliament. Scotland retained its own legal system and religious communities. But in George I and George II of Hanover, two Protestants during the reign of the royal family of England and Scotland, the relationship between the nervous and James II, has launched two rebellions revolutionaries to try to restore the Catholic House of Stuart.Ireland before the Christian era there were many of the Kingdom, but Ireland is not immune from a violation of Viking, to the 10th century AD, when, suddenly became a Viking pre-eminence.Henry II of England in 1169 to launch the invasion of Ireland. England Ji Pope Adrian IV, Henry II granted the powers of the supreme ruler, because he was anxious to make Irish church fully compliant Rome. Fell in most parts of Ireland, Anglo - Norman power and privilege in the hands, but in medieval England, almost no direct exercise of jurisdiction in this.Tudor monarchs of several interventions in Ireland tend to be much stronger. In the reign of Elizabeth I, the Irish rebels launched a series of battles. 'Resistance Movement, mainly concentrated in the northern province of Ulster, 1607, due to the failure of the resistance movement as well as leaders of the exodus of Ulster from Scotland and England into areas inhabited by immigrants.As the English Civil War (1642 ~ 1652), Ireland was attacked by a number of uprisings, but have been Cromwell suppressed. 1688 James II was spent dim after the war between England and Ireland is constantly. 18th century, most of them are fragile peace. 18 century, the British Government has made various efforts to seek stability. In 1782, the Irish Parliament (established in the Middle Ages) to obtain legislative autonomy; in the Constitution than withBritain the only major link is to the Royal Government. However, the Parliament represents just a small number of Anglo - Irish privileged class, Catholics were excluded. In 1798 an uprising took place, but without success;in 1801, Ireland and Great Britain combined into one.Although the 1916 uprising in Dublin, the national insurrection was crushed, but in the First World War-stage, a stream known as the Irish Republican Army guerrilla forces began military action against the British authorities. In 1920 the Government of Ireland Act passed to set up two local government councils,one based in Dublin and one in Belfast. The Act was implemented in 1921 in Northern Ireland, Ulster Province, nine counties have six received their own parliament, while still have seats in the British Parliament, and subject to the jurisdiction of the British Parliament the highest. However, the Irish Republican Army continues to fight for the South to win its independence from Britain inthe fight. In June 1921 after the signing of an armistice agreement, accordingto conclude in December the same year, the British - Irish Treaty the Irish Free State was established in 1949, the Free State became the Republic of Ireland.Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, although not belonging to the United Kingdom, but have a special relationship with the United Kingdom. Channel Islands during the 10th century and 11th century part of the Duchy of Normandy. Isle of Man has been nominally in 1266 prior to the exercise of sovereignty by Norway to the 1765 final was governed directly by the Government of the Kingdom. Today, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man have their own legislative bodies and the legal system, where the British Government is responsible for defense and international relations.翻译：英国包括大不列颠(英格兰、威尔士和苏格兰〉和北爱尔兰,是欧洲共同体12个成员国之一。
英美概况：英国人口探析The United Kingdom, often referred to as the UK, is a sovereign state located on the island of Great Britain in Europe. It comprises four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The UK has a rich history and diverse culture, making it a fascinating country to explore. In this essay, we will delve into the demographics of the UK, specifically its population.The population of the UK is estimated to be around 67 million people, with England being the most populous constituent country. The UK's population density is relatively high, with the majority of people residing in urban areas, particularly in and around London, the capital city. London is the largest city in the UK and one of the most populous cities in the world.The UK's population is diverse, with people from various ethnic backgrounds, religions, and cultures. This diversity is reflected in the country's rich tapestry of languages, with English being the official language but many regional dialects and immigrant languages also spoken.The UK's multiculturalism adds to its charm and makes it a vibrant and inclusive society.The UK's population structure is also noteworthy. The median age of the population is relatively high, indicating a maturing society. This is due to several factors,including increasing life expectancy and decreasingfertility rates. The older population segment presents challenges and opportunities for the UK, such as providing adequate healthcare and retirement benefits while fostering economic growth and innovation.The UK's population dynamics are also influenced by migration. The country has a long history of immigration, with people from around the world settling in the UK. Migration has shaped the UK's demographics, economy, and culture, making it a truly global nation. However,migration has also been a contentious issue in recent years, with debates surrounding its economic, social, and cultural impacts.In conclusion, the UK's population is a dynamic and diverse entity that reflects the country's rich history and multiculturalism. The challenges and opportunitiespresented by the UK's population dynamics are numerous, but with careful planning and innovation, the country can continue to thrive as a global leader in culture, economy, and society.**英国人口概况探析**英国，常被称为联合王国，是一个位于欧洲大不列颠岛上的主权国家。
英美概况考前知识点总结一、英国1.概况英国，全称为大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国（The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland），是位于欧洲西部的一个岛屿国家，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰四个地区组成。
首都为伦敦，是英国最大的城市，也是英国的政治、经济和文化中心。
2. 地理英国位于欧洲大陆西北部，主要由大不列颠岛和北爱尔兰岛组成。
英国陆地面积约为24.2万平方公里，辖区范围包括英国本土以及北爱尔兰地区。
英国地势起伏，有平原、丘陵和山地，包括英格兰北部的湖区和苏格兰的高地。
英国气候多变，主要受大西洋气候影响，冬季寒冷，夏季温和多雨。
3. 政治英国是一个君主立宪制国家，国家元首为英国女王，目前由伊丽莎白二世担任。
英国议会由两院组成，包括由选举产生的下议院和由上议院成员组成的上议院。
英国政府由首相领导，议会制度是英国政治的核心。
4. 经济英国是一个发达国家，经济实力雄厚。
英国主要产业包括金融、保险、科技、汽车制造、机械制造、航空航天、医药等。
伦敦作为金融中心，对世界经济有着重要影响。
英国是欧盟成员国，但于2016年公投决定脱离欧盟。
5. 文化英国是文化底蕴深厚的国家，有着悠久的历史和传统。
英国文学、音乐、戏剧等领域拥有世界级的影响力，莎士比亚、狄更斯、爱默生等文学巨匠为世人所熟知。
英国还是摇滚乐的发源地之一，披头士乐队、皇后乐队等乐团享誉世界。
二、美国1.概况美利坚合众国（The United States of America），简称美国，是位于北美洲的一个联邦共和制国家，由50个州组成。
首都为华盛顿哥伦比亚特区，最大的城市是纽约。
美国是世界上最强大的国家之一，拥有世界上最大的经济、最强大的军事力量和最先进的科技。
2. 地理美国地处北美洲中部，东临大西洋，西临太平洋，北界加拿大，南濒墨西哥湾。
美国领土面积约为9.83万万平方公里，是世界第四大国家。
Survey of Great Britain⏹What is the difference between British Isles(不列颠群岛), (Great) Britain,United Kingdom and England? These terms are familiar, but puzzling to us Chinese.⏹The British Isles are made up of two large islands: One is Britain and theother Ireland. Britain, or Great Britain, is the larger of the two islands, and is divided into three parts: England, Scotland and Wales.⏹The United Kingdom (UK) is the short for the United Kingdom of Great Britainand Northern Ireland. UK consists of Scotland, Wales and England (i.e. the whole of Britain), and also about one-sixth of Ireland, i.e., the Northern Ireland. The rest of Ireland is self-governing.Part 1 GeographyChapter 1 Physical Geography⏹Situated in Northwestern Europe⏹Lying to the north of France and west of Belgium, the Netherlands and Denmark⏹Consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland⏹Total area: 242 534 sq. km.I．Topography1．Topography--- Scotland⏹North: Scottish Highland, Mountainous.⏹The Grampian Ranges lies in the highlands;⏹Ben Nevis (1,343 m) is the highest peak in Britain;⏹Middle: Midland Valley, lower hills and rolling country drained by Clyde andForth Rivers⏹South: Uplands--- contains broad, rounded hills⏹Capital City: Edinburgh2．Topography ---England⏹North: Uplands continue --- the Pennines (the backbone of England)⏹Northwest: the Lake District---valleys and lakes⏹Eastern and south central: mainly an open cultivated plain, lowlands⏹South: Peninsula, uplands, scarps, cliffs⏹London (capital), Manchester, Birmingham and Liverpool are the major cities. 3．Topography---Wales⏹ a mountainous area with hills rising steeply from the sea and with flat tops⏹6% of Wales is covered with forest and much of the country is pasture, withonly 12% of the area arable.⏹The capital city is Cardiff.4．Topography---Northern Ireland⏹North: a broad plateau (Antrim Mts, Sperrin Mts.), coast (Giant’sCauseway)⏹South: Mountains (Mourne Mts. )⏹The Lough Neagh here is the largest lake in Britain.⏹Belfast is the capital city.II．Climate⏹Milder: moderated by Atlantic Gulf Stream⏹Rain: in Britain every month➢favorable maritime climatewinters mild, not too cold；summers cool, not too hotsteady reliable rainfall；small range of temperature➢average in winter 4°C – 6°C；average in summer 12°C – 17°C III．Rivers and Lakes⏹Main rivers flowing westward into the Atlantic, eastward into the North sea⏹The longest river is the Severn River which is only 338 km long. (drain intoBristol Channel)⏹The second largest river in Britain is the Thames River, which is 336 km long.It rises in southwest England and flows rather slowly through the Midlands of England to Oxford, London and out into the North Sea.⏹There are many lakes in Britain especially in northern Scotland, the LakeDistrict in north-west England and north Wales.⏹The largest lake in Britain is the Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland whichcovers an area of 396 sq. kmChapter 2 Natural Resource⏹The UK is rich in coal, iron, tin, copper, lead and silver.⏹Water: abundant⏹The free-flowing rivers provides plenty surface water⏹Large reservoirs in Welsh mountains and English Lake Districts⏹ Fuel: Coal, Natural Gas, Oil⏹Coalfields: Midland Valley of Scotland, Lancashire, Durham,Derbyshire, Northumberland, Nottingham in England, and in South Wales⏹Natural gas: UK Continental Shelf(大陆架) of the North Sea⏹Oil: the North Sea along the British-Norwegian boundary⏹Iron ore: Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire⏹Tin ore: Cornwall and Devon⏹Lead ore: Northern and Southern Pennines⏹Copper: North Wales⏹Saline Deposits: Cheshire⏹Clay: Cornwall, DerbyshireChapter 3 EconomyI. Characteristics of British Economy⏹One of the world’s most advanced manufacturing and trading nations⏹The first to have been fully industrialized during1750-1850(Industrial Revolution)⏹Export: manufactured goods, service, oil⏹Import: raw material, foodstuff⏹Industry is operated by small family business, private business andgreat public corporation⏹Boom areas: London and the southeast；“Development areas”: the northand westII. Industry⏹Cotton: Lancashire⏹Wool: Yorkshire⏹Linen: Northern Ireland⏹Shipbuilding: the Clyde, NE coast, N. Ireland⏹Iron, Steel, Chemicals: the north, the Midland, South Wales⏹Machine: North and Western Midlands⏹Auto industry: one of the chief exporting industries, account for 11% of Br.Industrial output⏹Chemicals: grow faster, capital-intensive, high value⏹Iron and Steel: grow rapidly⏹Coal Mining (diversified), Textile (contraction), Wool (craft),Shipbuilding (craft): withered, declinedIII. Agriculture⏹Animal husbandry: predominates in the farming economy⏹Crop production: Wheat 40%, Barley 30%, Oats, Rye, Corn, Potatoes, Sugarbeets, Oilseed rape , Kale, Beans 30%⏹Horticulture: a very important part of Brita in’s farming economy⏹Livestock: cattle, sheep, pig, poultryIV. Trade and Finance⏹Visible trade: Commodity ---deficit⏹Importer: food and raw material⏹Exporter: manufactures⏹Invisible trade: Service ---Surplus⏹Financial Service: banking, insurance⏹Capital investment⏹Finance:⏹The Bank of England: Founded in 1694⏹Role: the center of British financial system，Protect gold andcurrency reserve, maintain the value of PoundChapter 4 The PeopleI. Population: consists of⏹English 80%⏹Scottish 10% Irish 4% Welsh 2% ----(Celts)⏹Other people 4%⏹Densely populated，High degree of urbanization 80%⏹Language:⏹English: Official language⏹Welsh: ¼ speaking in Wales ---Celtic language⏹Gaelic: 80 000 speaking in Scotland---Celtic language⏹National anthem: God Save the Queen (English)II. Formation of British Race⏹Invasions by different races at various time from Europe⏹Iberians: Mediterranean race⏹Celts⏹Gaels: Scottish and Irish race and culture⏹Britons: Welsh race and culture⏹Romans: Latin alphabet and civilization⏹Anglo-Saxons: English race and language⏹Danes: Some peculiarities of dialect⏹Normans (French-speaking): Final unification of England, Greatadministrative progress, Foundation of aristocracyChapter 5 The Main Cities⏹London:the capital, political center, major port, one of the world’sleading banking and financial centers, On the north bank of the Thames.Consists of⏹The city of London: 2.5sq.km.⏹Greater London: a metropolitan county 都市郡⏹12 Inner London boroughs⏹20 Outer London boroughs⏹West End(西区): a shopping district with many large department stores andexpensive hotels.⏹East End(东区): poorest district in London, crowded with unskilled workers⏹House of Parliament, Westminster Abbe y, St. Paul’s Cathedral, BuckinghamPalace, British Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum, National Gallery, Royal Festival Hall(节日音乐厅), Tower of London⏹Whitehall: lined with offices of the most important ministries of the BritishGovernment (Stands for Br. Gov.)⏹Downing Street. No. 10: the official residence of the British prime minister(Stands for Br. PM)⏹Hyde Park: Lake Serpentine, Speakers’ Corner (a haven避难所 for protesters,the epitome(典型) of British freedom of speech)Part 2 HistoryChapter 1 Pre-feudal Society1. Early Settlement (…--55 B.C.)⏹Before the great Ice Age, GB was joined to the continent of Europe. Cave menor stone age men came to Britain.⏹About 3000 B.C., Iberians from the Mediterranean lands came to the west coastof England and around Scotland.⏹About 750 B.C., the Celtic tribes from Europe began to settle in Britain.⏹1st: Gaels, whose language –Gaelic, is still spoken in Scotland⏹2nd: 500B.C. Britons, from whom Welsh are descended⏹3rd: 100B.C. another group from Gaul came.⏹Celtic tribes had their own civilization, practiced a kind of primitivecommunism.⏹The Celts are ancestors of the Scots, the Irish and the Welsh people2. The Roman Occupation (55B.C.-- 410)⏹55-54B.C., Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice.⏹In 43, the real conquest began, Britain became a Roman province.⏹Lowland Britons: accepted and appreciated Roman way of life⏹Highland Scots & Picts: resisted and revolted⏹Contribution: Romanized civilization⏹English upper class: landlords , Native people: slaves⏹Slave society was introduced into England⏹Roman power collapsed in 410 with the downfall of the Roman Empire.3. Anglo-Saxon Times (410 – 871)⏹Germanic tribes: the Angles, Saxons, Jutes were invited by Br. King to defendhis kingdom against Picts and Scots around the middle of 5th century.⏹They spoke Old English or Anglo-Saxon.⏹The Celts were defeated and pushed back into the Mts. of Wales and Scotlandand across to Ireland.⏹King Arthur: a brave Celtic leader⏹By the end of 7th century, the distinction between these 3 tribes lostsignificance. “The nation of English” came into being.⏹They lack unity and England was divided into a number of kingdoms, calledthe “Heptarchy”. They are Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria.⏹In 829, Wessex won the overlordship, whose king Egbert, began to style himselfas “King of English”.⏹In the late 6th century, Christianity was introduced to England. All Englandwas united under one well-organized church.⏹Culture⏹Bede: a great historian⏹Beowulf: the greatest old English epic poem4. The Invasion of Vikings and the Danish Rule⏹8th century, Vikings from Denmark invaded England.⏹King Alfred of Wessex defeated the Danes. He was considered the 1st nationalhero.⏹973, Edgar became the King of England.⏹The class polarization appeared. Clan system was replaced by the villagesystem. The social system advanced towards feudalism.⏹The end of 10th century, under the reign of Ethelred II, fresh waves of Danishfighters attacked the south.⏹1016, Edmund II (Ethelred’s son) made an agreement with Danes, later diedmysteriously.⏹1016, Canute, the son of Danish king, became the ruler of England.⏹1035, his two sons, Harold I and Hardecanute, reigned England successively.⏹1042, the English once again ruled England. Edward the Confessor ruledEngland.Chapter 2 The Growth of Feudalism1. The Norman Conquest⏹1066, Edward died. Harold II became the King of England.⏹William, Duke of Normandy claimed the throne, landed on England and defeatedHarold II in the Battle of Hastings.⏹On Christmas day 1066, William the Conqueror was crowned in WestminsterAbbey.⏹Consequences of Norman Conquest:⏹Feudalism was finally established in England. The manor systemreplaced the village system.⏹William established a strong monarchy in England.⏹French came to England, which was spoken in the court and by upperclasses till 14th century. Many English words come from French.2. The Consolidation of Monarchy⏹1154, Henry II became the king and established the House of Plantagenet.⏹Henry II controlled more land in France than did the king of France himself.⏹The power of the Crown was intensified further.⏹The royal powers of justices were expanded.⏹For administration, the Inquest of Sheriffs was introduced.⏹Skilled trade, commerce, agriculture, arts all made rapid progress.3. The Great Charter⏹1199, John (Lackland) succeeded to the throne of England. French king tookback some territories from his hands in France.⏹After William I, the king’s power grew greater and greater. Therenaturally rose a conflict between the king and his vassals. There hadbeen opposition among the barons to John.⏹Under great pressure, John signed the document in 1215, called the “MagnaCarta” or the “Great Charter”, a list of demands drawn up by the bishops, the barons and the townsmen.⏹The Great Charter contained 3 sets of provisions:⏹ a. the king was not to exact extra payments from feudal vassals withouttheir consent⏹ b. laws were not to be modified by arbitrary action of the king⏹ c. should the king attempt to free himself from the law, the vassalshad the right to force king to obey it, by civil war or by otherwise.⏹ A feudal document in the interest of feudal lords, had a progressivesignificance, granted to the townspeople freedom of trade and self-government.4. The Beginning of Parliament⏹English parliament originated in Great Council ---an advisory assembly ofking’s chief feudal vassals.⏹Main purpose of summoning parliament was to get consent for taxation.⏹1216, Henry III (John’s son) became King. Like his father, he wanted todefeat the lords, barons and their great charter.⏹The baron rose up in opposition. 1264, Montfort defeated the royal army andcalled parliament in 1265.⏹The Parliament of 1265 is known as the ‘All Estates Parliament” (各等级议会) including the usual lords and churchmen, also knights and representatives from each borough, which is generally considered the beginning of parliament.⏹1272, Edward I (Henry’s son) succeeded the throne. His time was a secure,flourishing age.⏹1295, he summoned the “All Est ates Parliament. This came to be looked uponas a model for all succeeding ones. It is known in history as “Model Parliament”⏹The representatives included not only the nobility, clergy, but also themiddle class, representatives from shires and towns, know n as “commons”in Parliament.Chapter 3 The Decline of Feudalism1. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)⏹The Norman and Plantagenet kings of England were also French nobles.⏹Henry II controlled more land in France than did the king of France himself.⏹Such preponderance of power in France naturally led to rivalry with Frenchking and to intermittent wars throughout 12th and 13th centuries.⏹England lost much of her French possessions.⏹The second phase of medieval Anglo-French hostility began in 1337 and endedin 1453, known as Hundred Yrs War.⏹It was a series of wars, a feudal and trade war.⏹Ostensibly, the war was caused by the claim of Edward III to be the King ofFrance.⏹The real causes were deeper, more complex⏹English kings tried to get back land Henry II owned in France⏹While French kings were always on the lookout to weaken and reduceEnglish power⏹The economic interests clashed in Flanders (Belgium)⏹Victory now on one side, now on the other.⏹1340, some indecisive campaigns fought.⏹1359, English led by Edward III and his son Black Prince defeatedFrance.⏹1369, the French were victorious.⏹By 1420, France had enough defeat. Henry V (House of Lancaster) ledhis army to seize all northern France.⏹1435, English power in France crumbled. Joan of Arc fought againstthe English. French won back their lands.⏹1453, only Calais remained under English rule. The Hundred year’swar was over.2. The Wars of Roses (1455-1485)⏹1377, Edward III died. Richard II succeeded to the throne.⏹1399, with Richard’s abdication, Henry IV became king and started a newdynasty, the House of Lancaster.⏹As a result of the Hundred Years’ War, two most influential rivals wereformed in England, the family of Lancaster and York, who were war-like nobles having their own armies.⏹1455, Duke of York tried to displace Lancaster King Henry VI (1422-1461),the civil war “the Wars of Roses” broke out.⏹The War got such a name because Lancastrians wore the badge of red rose andYorkists wore badge of white rose.⏹The wars were for power, wealth, ultimately for the possession of Crown. Itwas a feudal civil war.⏹Henry Tudor of Lancaster –defeated Richard III, married Elizabeth of York,united the two Houses, became Henry VII and established House of Tudor in 1485.⏹The Wars of Roses ended and the House of Tudor began.⏹The Wars of Roses had an important consequence:⏹The weakening of old feudal nobility: old feudal barons slaughteredone another in Wars⏹beginning formation of English nationChapter 4 Growth of Capitalism and the Rule of the Tudors1. Economic Development and the Enclosure Movement⏹By the beginning of Tudor reign, manorialism had already declined and hadbeen replaced gradually by a money economy.⏹The 1st impact of modern industrialism was felt in England in the 2nd halfof 18th century.⏹The cloth industry already shadowed every branch of English trade andindustry.⏹The cloth industry increased the value of wool. Raising sheep became moreprofitable.⏹This in consequence encouraged landlords to convert arable land intopastures.⏹The nobility, merchants started to enclose land. Large areas of land werehedged or fenced without any warning to peasants.⏹This process known as Enclosure Movement.⏹Whole villages disappeared. Thousands of peasants were expelled from the landand became vagabonds, beggars.⏹The two results of Enclosure Movement:⏹ a. the primitive accumulation of capital⏹ b. the continuation of supply of cheap labor paved the way forcapitalism2. Foreign Trade and Colonial Plunder⏹In the reign of the Tudors, the other two forms of primitive accumulation:foreign trade and colonial plunder, including the slave trade, started.⏹The rapid growth of English cloth manufacture in 15th century revolutionizedthe character of the country’s export trade.⏹The primitive accumulation of capital and cheap labor sped up the growth ofcapitalism in England.3. The Strengthening of the Centralized Monarch⏹1485, Henry VII was crowned and established House of Tudor.⏹1486, Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, thus uniting the rival Houses ofYork and Lancaster.⏹Henry VII established good relations with Spain and France through his sonor daughter’s marriage arrangement.⏹In order to retain his crown, Henry took a series of steps:⏹1st: he put down all revolts with a heavy hand, executed theirleaders; put to death those likely to become his rivals to throne;eliminated the private armies of feudal nobility⏹2nd: he strengthened law courts⏹3rd: he increased income of government⏹Henry VII gave England peace, orderly government. He encouraged education、exploration, increased trade.4. The Reformation⏹1509, Henry VIII succeeded to the throne.⏹Henry VIII is remembered as the English king who was responsible for thereligious reform of the Church.⏹The direct cause was Henry VIII’s divorce case with his wif e Catherine ofAragon, who gave birth to a daughter, Mary.⏹This divorce did not get the Pope’s permission. Because Emperor of Spainwas Catherine’s nephew, whose army had seized Rome⏹Other Causes:⏹Church of Middle Ages not only a religious body but a political andlegal power as well.⏹The greed, laziness of the Church hindered social , political progress⏹Henry VIII wanted to exalt his own authority in Church, in State⏹Parliament representing bourgeoisie, supported him, lower classes also tookits side in Reformation because of their hatred to the Church⏹The reform was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope,and to make an independent Church of England.⏹Henry took the title Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1535. Hedissolved all of England’s monasteries because they were much more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings.⏹Henry VIII’s attack on the Pope’s power encouraged people to criticize theabuses of the Catholic Church and gradually England was moving away from Catholicism to Protestantism.⏹Roman Catholic Church was international, English Church was strictlynational.⏹Church services went on as usual, except in English instead of Latin. Theyhad the old faith under a new rule.⏹Those who wanted to change any part of the faith were called Protestants.⏹The Reformation: the struggle between the English Church and Catholicism wasessentially a struggle between the rising bourgeoisie and the remnants of feudalism.5. The English Renaissance⏹Renaissance means rebirth---Europe rediscovering its origin in cultures ofancient Greek, Rome⏹It was a cultural movement with the rise of bourgeoisie.⏹Reformation was a product of it: Men first became critical of unexaminedassumptions of Middle Ages. They turned against Church.⏹The thinkers for freedom, enlightenment were humanists.⏹Greatest English humanist: Sir Thomas More “Utopia”.⏹English Renaissance was largely literary, achieved its finest expression inElizabethan drama⏹Greatest dramatist: Shakespeare 37 Comedies, tragedies, andhistories.⏹Late part of renaissance was also period of English materialism(唯物主义)⏹Progenitor: Francis Bacon, a statesman and an essayist, advised mento study nature ,thus acquire real knowledgeChapter 5 The Bourgeois Revolution1. The Economic and Political Background⏹17th century, capitalism and capitalist handicraft workshop grew rapidly ina still feudalist society.⏹Trough the “Enclosure Movement”, foreign trade and colonial plunder,England achieved its primitive accumulation for capitalism. --- labors, capital, domestic market⏹The early 17th century was a period of the most acute class struggle betweenthe bourgeois and the feudalists with the King as their head.⏹17th century also saw the growth of popular discontent, peasant rose againstenclosures.2. The Absolutist Rule of the Stuarts⏹Elizabeth I died childless in 1603, James I became the king and began theHouse of Stuart. He insisted on the Divine Right of Kings, believing kings were only responsible to God and not to any Parliament.⏹The clashes between King and Parliament became more frequent and fundamental.⏹1625, Charles I (James’ son) ascended the throne, who quarreled constantlywith Parliament, like his father, and ruled for 11 years without calling it.⏹Scottish rebellion made Charles I call Parliament in 1640, which demandedthat: all taxes were declared unlawful without P’s approval; King could not dismiss the P and call it at least every 3 yrs.⏹Charles refused to accept these conditions and took counteraction. The CivilWar began in 1642.3. The Civil Wars⏹Two Parts:⏹The west & north: feudal nobles, Anglican clergy, some peasantrysupported King Charles I; called Cavaliers/Royalists.⏹The seaports & southeast: the bourgeoisie, urban plebeians, mostpeasantry, yeomen stood for Parliament; called Roundheads.⏹In the first, the parliamentary armies suffered several defeats for poororganization.⏹The important and decisive factor was Cromwell’s “New Model Army”, whichdefeated King’s armies in a series of wars.⏹By 1646, the Civil War was fundamentally over. 1647, Charles was made aprisoner.⏹1649, Charles I was deposed and decapitated as “tyrant, traitor, murderer,and a public and implacable enemy of the Commonwealth of England.”⏹1649, England was declared a Commonwealth.4. The Commonwealth and Protectorate⏹Cromwell led his army⏹suppressed the Diggers (peasants digging and ploughing lands);⏹conquered Ireland (rebellion against English colonists);⏹defeated King’s supporters in Scotland.⏹Economic recovery was the most difficult task for the Commonwealth.⏹1651, P passed Navigation Act which provides that no goods should be importedfrom abroad except in English ships or from the ships of the colonies that produced the goods.⏹1653, Cromwell became Protector of England and started his militarydictatorship openly.⏹1658, Cromwell died. His son Richard was declared Protector, who retired in1659.⏹Tired of military despotism and afraid of further development of therevolution, the bourgeoisie restored the monarchy.⏹1660, Charles II (son of Charles I) was proclaimed King of England.5. The Restoration and the Coup D’Etat⏹Under the reign of Charles II, Anglicanism was restored. TheCavaliers/Royalists got back their land and occupied most seats in P. Feudal forces were restored.⏹The Cavaliers and Roundhe ads settled down and became England’s firstpolitical parties--- the Tories and Whigs.⏹1685, James II, Charles II’s brother, a Catholic, ascended the throne, RomanCatholics filled gov. offices, which alarmed all. Most people didn’t likea Catholic king.⏹After 3yrs struggle, the Whig and Tory united against James II and planneda Coup d’Etat.⏹1688, the leaders of P invited William (Charles II’s nephew), the ruler ofHolland, to come to take the throne. William and his army were welcomed and James ran away t o France. William and Mary (James II’s daughter, Protestant) couple were then crowned as joint rulers. This is known as “the Glorious Revolution”.⏹1689, the Bill of Rights was passed, limiting the powers of the crown anddenying the Divine Right of Kings. The Constitutional Monarchy (a monarchy with powers limited by Parliament) began in England.⏹The English Revolution is an epoch-making event in world history. Itconcluded the medieval/feudalism period and marks the beginning of modern/capitalism period. It paved the way for rapid growth of capitalism in England.Chapter 6 The Development for Britain after the Revolution1. Foreign Affairs⏹England first became a sea power in the time of Elizabeth, whose victory overthe Spanish Armada broke down the supremacy of Spain in 1588.⏹During Anne’s reign, England was mainly taken up with the war against Spainand France for 8yrs till 1714.⏹The war strengthened English sea and colonial power, while Spain and Francewere weakened.⏹After the war, the conflict between France and Britain in the coloniescontinued, which resulted in the Seven Yrs’ War lasting from 1756 to 1763.⏹The war was carried on mainly in India and America and ended by the Treatyof Paris in 1973.⏹France ceded Canada and her American possessions east of the Mississippi.France’s power in India was destroyed. Britain became the world’s chief colonial power.2. House of Hanover⏹1701, by Act of Settlement, Parliament chose the German Protestant House ofHanover descending from a grand-daughter of James I, for succession.⏹1714, Anne died. George I acceded the throne and began the House of Hanover.⏹As a foreigner, George could not speak English. The real power passed moreeasily from the crown to Parliament.3. Parliamentary Politics⏹1714, George of Hanover became King, who spoke no English and understoodlittle about English Politics. This led to the cabinet system of government.⏹1721, The 1st real PM was Robert Walpole of Whigs.⏹One of the features of the English political machinery was the control ofParliament by the two political parties: the Whig and the Tory.⏹1688-1783, the Whigs played the leading part in English politics.Chapter 7 The Industrial Revolution, the American & French Revolutions1. The American Revolution⏹By mid 18th c most of Am. colonies were in Br. hands. English capitalistsspared no effort to stifle Am. Colonies’ independent economic, political growth.⏹They set up laws to make colonies become markets for raw materials &industrial goods.⏹Am. exports and imports were taxed. This tax provoked anger and violence.A serious riot occurred in Boston.⏹Colonists refused to buy English goods.⏹1773, the Bostonians boarded an English tea ship and threw the cargo intowater, thus this incident became known as the Boston Tea Party.⏹Colonists rose in arms. War broke out in 1775.⏹July 4, 1776, Declaration of Independence encouraged the American colonistsgreatly.⏹1777, the American Army won Saratoga Battle, a turning point of American Warof Independence.⏹America got support from France. Soon British army was defeated.⏹1783, Britain recognized the independence of the US by the Treaty of Paris.2. The French Revolution⏹The French Revolution broke out in 1789.⏹While English radicals sympathized with French revolutionists, Britishgovernment took reactionary measures.⏹1793, Britain became chief organizer of a military alliance with Austria andPrussia against revolutionary France.⏹The bourgeoisie profited from the struggle with France, but the peoplesuffered misery.⏹1812, Napoleon attacked Russia, but his forces were driven back with heavylosses.⏹Wellington’s army entered France from the south. Napoleon was defeated andtaken to the island of Elba in 1814. He escaped the next year.⏹1815, the allies under Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.3. The Industrial Revolution⏹Prerequisites:⏹The accumulation of capital⏹Development of capitalist farming⏹Appearance of a labor reserve⏹Expansion of domestic and foreign markets⏹Why did IR first start in Britain?⏹Britain had special conditions:⏹Fast-growing population --- increase labor supply and domestic market⏹ A large empire --- create a world-wide market。
